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Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites
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Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Physics and Theory".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 September 2022) | Viewed by 69726

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Ivan Chodák

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Polymer Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská Cesta 9, 845 41 Bratislava, Slovakia
Interests: multiphase systems with polymeric matrices; electrically conductive composites; nanocomposites; biodegradable polymer blends; compatibilization by crosslinking
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Recently I was invited and accepted to act as a Guest Editor for a Special Issue with title "Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites" of acknowledged scientific Open Access journal Polymers. Therefore, I would like to invite you and I would be pleased very much if you submit your  scientific paper, either as your original research paper, communication, or a  review article.

Any topic related to the title of the Special Issue will be considered for publication, examples of the scope of the papers are listed below:

  • Polymer composites and blends aimed to achieving special unique properties
  • Polymer nanocomposites
  • Advanced technologies for processing of multiphase systems, including reactive processing or procedures creating special morphologies
  • Chemical or physical modification of components and additives of multiphase systems
  • New achievements in characterization of polymer composites and blends
  • Interactions on the phase boundaries in multicomponent systems, advances in compatibility control
  • Theory, simulation, and modelling multiphase systems
  • Special properties of multiphase systems, e.g. electrical and thermal conductivity, biodegradability, optically unique materials, high-temperature-resistant materials, etc.
  • Medical applications of multiphase polymeric systems
  • Environmental aspects of application of multiphase systems, including recycling, composting, etc.
  • Advanced applications of multiphase polymeric systems, e.g. in automotive, aviatics, food industry, packagings, etc.

The Open access journal Polymers has a current Impact Factor 4.329 and 5-Year Impact Factor 4.493 (2020), ranking in Q1 in the category of Polymer Science. It is indexed by WoS, Scopus, citations available in PubMed, full-text archived in PubMed Central, and other databases.

Prof. Dr. Ivan Chodák
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

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Published Papers (22 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 4893 KiB  
Article
Morphological, Mechanical and Gas Penetration Properties of Elastomer Composites with Hybrid Fillers
by Tuba Evgin, Matej Mičušík, Peter Machata, Hamed Peidayesh, Jozef Preťo and Mária Omastová
Polymers 2022, 14(19), 4043; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14194043 - 27 Sep 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2031
Abstract
Ethylene–propylene–diene monomer (EPDM)-based composites including four different types of graphene nanoplatelets (GnPs) were prepared to evaluate the size effects of GnPs in terms of both specific surface area and lateral size on the morphological, mechanical, and viscoelastic properties, swelling ratio, crosslink density, and [...] Read more.
Ethylene–propylene–diene monomer (EPDM)-based composites including four different types of graphene nanoplatelets (GnPs) were prepared to evaluate the size effects of GnPs in terms of both specific surface area and lateral size on the morphological, mechanical, and viscoelastic properties, swelling ratio, crosslink density, and oxygen permeability. EPDM-based hybrid composites with GnPs and carbon black (CB) fillers were prepared, with the concentrations of 20 and 50 phr of CB and GnPs up to 7 phr. All samples were prepared using the melt mixing method, followed by compression molding. The specific surface area of GnPs is a more important key factor for mechanical and viscoelastic properties than its lateral size. The presence of GnPs leads to a decrease in the swelling ratio and oxygen permeability of the matrix while an increase in the crosslinking density. For a given specific surface area of GnPs (170 m2/g) and the same thickness (5 nm), the optimum lateral size for mechanical properties, swelling ratio, and crosslinking density is about 30 µm. There is a distinct synergic effect on the mentioned properties when hybrid fillers are used. For hybrid composites, the optimum total and each filler concentration are found to be important for achieving the best performance in terms of mechanical properties, swelling ratio, and crosslink density. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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18 pages, 4212 KiB  
Article
Comparative Structure–Property Relationship between Nanoclay and Cellulose Nanofiber Reinforced Natural Rubber Nanocomposites
by Bunsita Wongvasana, Bencha Thongnuanchan, Abdulhakim Masa, Hiromu Saito, Tadamoto Sakai and Natinee Lopattananon
Polymers 2022, 14(18), 3747; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14183747 - 7 Sep 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2129
Abstract
Natural rubber (NR) nanocomposites reinforced with five parts per hundred rubber (phr) of two different nano-fillers, i.e., nanoclay (abbrev. NC) and cellulose nanofiber (abbrev. CNF), were prepared by using latex mixing approach, followed by mill-compounding and molding. The morphology, stress–strain behavior, strain-induced crystallization, [...] Read more.
Natural rubber (NR) nanocomposites reinforced with five parts per hundred rubber (phr) of two different nano-fillers, i.e., nanoclay (abbrev. NC) and cellulose nanofiber (abbrev. CNF), were prepared by using latex mixing approach, followed by mill-compounding and molding. The morphology, stress–strain behavior, strain-induced crystallization, and bound rubber of the NR nanocomposites were systematically compared through TEM, tensile test, WAXS, DMA, and bound rubber measurement. The aggregated CNFs were observed in the NR matrix, while the dispersed nanosized clay tactoids were detected across the NR phase. The reinforcement effects of NC and CNF were clearly distinct in the NR nanocomposites. At the same nano-filler content, the addition of NC and CNF effectively accelerated strain-induced crystallization of NR. The high tensile strength obtained in the NC-filled NR nanocomposite was attributed to strain-induced crystallization of NR accelerated by well-dispersed NC. However, the larger tensile modulus and low strain for the CNF-filled NR were related to the formation of immobilized NR at the interface between CNF aggregate and NR. The immobilization effect of NR at the CNF surface offered by a mutual entanglement of CNF aggregate and NR chain led to local stress concentration and accelerated strain-induced crystallization of CNF/NR nanocomposite. From the present study, the NR nanocomposites combined with 5 phr CNF shows high-tensile modulus and acceptable breaking tensile stress and strain, suggesting the application of CNF/NR based nanocomposite in automotive and stretchable sensors for next-generation electronic devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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14 pages, 4797 KiB  
Article
Electrical Conductivity of Rubber Composites with Varying Crosslink Density under Cyclic Deformation
by Hamed Peidayesh, Zdenko Špitalský and Ivan Chodák
Polymers 2022, 14(17), 3640; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14173640 - 2 Sep 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2779
Abstract
Studies addressing electroconductive composites based on rubber have attracted great interest for many engineering applications. To contribute to obtaining useful materials with reproducible behavior, this study focused on understanding the mechanism of conductivity changes during mechanical deformation for rubber composites based on styrene-butadiene [...] Read more.
Studies addressing electroconductive composites based on rubber have attracted great interest for many engineering applications. To contribute to obtaining useful materials with reproducible behavior, this study focused on understanding the mechanism of conductivity changes during mechanical deformation for rubber composites based on styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) or ethylene-propylene-diene terpolymer (EPDM) vulcanized for various times. The composites were characterized by static electrical conductivity, tensile testing, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), and crosslink density measurements. The tensile strength and Young’s modulus were found to increase significantly with rising vulcanization time. Higher static conductivity values of the composites were observed with the increase in vulcanization time. The most important aspect of this investigation consisted in the electrical current measurement online with recording the stress-strain curves, revealing the details of the uniaxial cyclic deformation effect on changes in the structure of conductive pathways indirectly. The electrical conductivity during five runs of repeated cyclic mechanical deformations for SBR composites increased permanently, although not linearly, whereas EPDM composites showed a slight increase or at least a nearly constant current, indicating healing of minor defects in the conductive pathways or the formation of new conductive pathways. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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8 pages, 1382 KiB  
Article
The Anionic Polymerization of a tert-Butyl-Carboxylate-Activated Aziridine
by Chandan Giri, Jen-Yu Chang, Pierre Canisius Mbarushimana and Paul A. Rupar
Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3253; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14163253 - 10 Aug 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2619
Abstract
N-Sulfonyl-activated aziridines are known to undergo anionic-ring-opening polymerizations (AROP) to form polysulfonyllaziridines. However, the post-polymerization deprotection of the sulfonyl groups from polysulfonyllaziridines remains challenging. In this report, the polymerization of tert-butyl aziridine-1-carboxylate (BocAz) is reported. BocAz has an electron-withdrawing [...] Read more.
N-Sulfonyl-activated aziridines are known to undergo anionic-ring-opening polymerizations (AROP) to form polysulfonyllaziridines. However, the post-polymerization deprotection of the sulfonyl groups from polysulfonyllaziridines remains challenging. In this report, the polymerization of tert-butyl aziridine-1-carboxylate (BocAz) is reported. BocAz has an electron-withdrawing tert-butyloxycarbonyl (BOC) group on the aziridine nitrogen. The BOC group activates the aziridine for AROP and allows the synthesis of low-molecular-weight poly(BocAz) chains. A 13C NMR spectroscopic analysis of poly(BocAz) suggested that the polymer is linear. The attainable molecular weight of poly(BocAz) is limited by the poor solubility of poly(BocAz) in AROP-compatible solvents. The deprotection of poly(BocAz) using trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) cleanly produces linear polyethyleneimine. Overall, these results suggest that carbonyl groups, such as BOC, can play a larger role in the in the activation of aziridines in anionic polymerization and in the synthesis of polyimines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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14 pages, 2524 KiB  
Article
Sodium Silicate from Rice Husk Ash and Their Effects as Geopolymer Cement
by Lia Handayani, Sri Aprilia, Abdullah, Cut Rahmawati, Teuku Budi Aulia, Péter Ludvig and Jawad Ahmad
Polymers 2022, 14(14), 2920; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14142920 - 19 Jul 2022
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5129
Abstract
Sodium silicate is a commonly used activator in geopolymer that is produced commercially. In this study, rice husk ash (RHA) from agricultural waste was used to synthesize sodium silicate as an activator for geopolymer cement. This white ash was applied for producing sodium [...] Read more.
Sodium silicate is a commonly used activator in geopolymer that is produced commercially. In this study, rice husk ash (RHA) from agricultural waste was used to synthesize sodium silicate as an activator for geopolymer cement. This white ash was applied for producing sodium silicate with different molarities (8, 10, and 12) and then used to synthesize fly ash-based geopolymer cement. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) were applied to investigate the micro-characteristics of the geopolymerization products. Bulk density, water absorption, compressive strength, flexural strength, and fracture toughness were carried out to measure and evaluate the geopolymers with sodium silicate. The combination of 10 M NaOH with sodium silicate increased the compressive strength by 16.21% and the flexural strength and fracture toughness by 81.6%. However, sodium silicate combined with 12 M NaOH decreased compressive strengths by 13.23% and flexural strength and fracture toughness by 61.94%. The lowest water absorption value of 12.3% was obtained in a geopolymer paste using sodium silicate combined with 10 M NaOH, and the largest was 13.3% for sodium silicate combined with 8 M NaOH. The microstructure analysis showed the hydrated calcium alumina silicate gel (C–A–S–H) and the SEM image also revealed a compact geopolymer matrix. Thus, it can be concluded that sodium silicate from rice husk ash can be utilized as an activator or reactive material to produce geopolymer cement with a good geopolymer network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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16 pages, 3449 KiB  
Article
Development and Characterization of Natural-Fiber-Based Composite Panels
by Swaroop Narayanan Nair and Aravind Dasari
Polymers 2022, 14(10), 2079; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14102079 - 19 May 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2459
Abstract
The emphasis on sustainability in materials related to the construction and transportation sectors has renewed interest in the usage of natural fibers. In this manuscript, a different perspective is taken in adopting oil palm fibers (OPF) to develop composite panels and understand their [...] Read more.
The emphasis on sustainability in materials related to the construction and transportation sectors has renewed interest in the usage of natural fibers. In this manuscript, a different perspective is taken in adopting oil palm fibers (OPF) to develop composite panels and understand their acoustic, mechanical, and water susceptibility (including warm water analysis) properties to provide an insight into the potential of these panels for further exploration. The binder for these composite panels is a water-based acrylic resin, and for reinforcement purposes, fly ash and other metal oxides are used. It is shown that the presence of fibers positively influences the acoustic absorption coefficient in the critical mid-frequency range of 1000–3000 Hz. Even the noise reduction coefficient values highlighting the octave band are higher by more than 50% in the presence of fibers as compared to traditional refractory boards. Quasistatic indentation and drop-weight tests have also highlighted the excellent performance of the composite panels developed in this work. Though the water immersion tests on composite panels and subsequent analysis showed relatively minor changes in their performance, the immersion of the panels in caustic warm water for 56 days has resulted in their severe degradation with a loss of more than 65% in flexural strength. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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20 pages, 9274 KiB  
Article
Effects of a Biocomplex Formed by Two Scaffold Biomaterials, Hydroxyapatite/Tricalcium Phosphate Ceramic and Fibrin Biopolymer, with Photobiomodulation, on Bone Repair
by Carlos Henrique Bertoni Reis, Rogerio Leone Buchaim, Karina Torres Pomini, Abdul Latif Hamzé, Isabella Vasconcelos Zattiti, Marco Antonio Hungaro Duarte, Murilo Priori Alcalde, Benedito Barraviera, Rui Seabra Ferreira Júnior, Fenelon Martinho Lima Pontes, Carlos Roberto Grandini, Adriana de Cássia Ortiz, Simone Ortiz Moura Fideles, Renata Maria de Camargo Eugênio, Geraldo Marco Rosa Junior, Daniel de Bortoli Teixeira, Eliana de Souza Bastos Mazuqueli Pereira, João Paulo Galletti Pilon, Maria Angelica Miglino and Daniela Vieira Buchaim
Polymers 2022, 14(10), 2075; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14102075 - 19 May 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2814
Abstract
There are several treatment methods available for bone repair, although the effectiveness becomes limited in cases of large defects. The objective of this pre-clinical protocol was to evaluate the grafting of hydroxyapatite/tricalcium phosphate (BCP) ceramic biomaterial (B; QualyBone BCP®, QualyLive, Amadora, [...] Read more.
There are several treatment methods available for bone repair, although the effectiveness becomes limited in cases of large defects. The objective of this pre-clinical protocol was to evaluate the grafting of hydroxyapatite/tricalcium phosphate (BCP) ceramic biomaterial (B; QualyBone BCP®, QualyLive, Amadora, Portugal) together with the heterologous fibrin biopolymer (FB; CEVAP/UNESP Botucatu, Brazil) and with photobiomodulation (PBM; Laserpulse®, Ibramed, Amparo, Brazil) in the repair process of bone defects. Fifty-six rats were randomly divided into four groups of seven animals each: the biomaterial group (G1/B), the biomaterial plus FB group (G2/BFB); the biomaterial plus PBM group (G3/B + PBM), and the biomaterial plus FB plus PBM group (G4/BFB + PBM). After anesthesia, a critical defect was performed in the center of the rats’ parietal bones, then filled and treated according to their respective groups. The rats were euthanized at 14 and 42 postoperative days. Histomorphologically, at 42 days, the G4/BFB + PBM group showed a more advanced maturation transition, with more organized and mature bone areas forming concentric lamellae. A birefringence analysis of collagen fibers also showed a more advanced degree of maturation for the G4/BFB + PBM group. In the comparison between the groups, in the two experimental periods (14 and 42 days), in relation to the percentage of formation of new bone tissue, a significant difference was found between all groups (G1/B (5.42 ± 1.12; 21.49 ± 4.74), G2/BFB (5.00 ± 0.94; 21.77 ± 2.83), G3/B + PBM (12.65 ± 1.78; 29.29 ± 2.93), and G4/BFB + PBM (12.65 ± 2.32; 31.38 ± 2.89)). It was concluded that the use of PBM with low-level laser therapy (LLLT) positively interfered in the repair process of bone defects previously filled with the biocomplex formed by the heterologous fibrin biopolymer associated with the synthetic ceramic of hydroxyapatite and tricalcium phosphate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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18 pages, 39677 KiB  
Article
Hybrid Materials Based on Nanoparticles Functionalized with Alkylsilanes Covalently Anchored to Epoxy Matrices
by Alexis Salas, Andrés Felipe Jaramillo, Daniel Andrés Palacio, Andrés Díaz-Gómez, David Rojas, Carlos Medina, Eduardo Pérez-Tijerina, Francisco Solís-Pomar and Manuel Francisco Meléndrez
Polymers 2022, 14(8), 1579; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14081579 - 13 Apr 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2061
Abstract
In this work, the surface modification of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) with 3-glycidyloxy-propyl-trimethoxysilane (GPTMS) was investigated. The ZnO-NPs were synthesized using the physical method of continuous arc discharge in controlled atmosphere (DARC-AC). The surface modification was carried out using a chemical method with [...] Read more.
In this work, the surface modification of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) with 3-glycidyloxy-propyl-trimethoxysilane (GPTMS) was investigated. The ZnO-NPs were synthesized using the physical method of continuous arc discharge in controlled atmosphere (DARC-AC). The surface modification was carried out using a chemical method with constant agitation for 24 h at room temperature. This surface functionalization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs-GPTMS) was experimentally confirmed by infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), TGA, and XRD, and its morphological characterization was performed with SEM. The increase in mechanical bending properties in the two final hybrid materials compared to the base polymers was verified. An average increase of 67% was achieved with a moderate decrease in ductility. In the case of compressive strength, they showed mixed results, maintaining the properties. With respect to thermal properties, it was observed that inorganic reinforcement conferred resistance to degradation on the base material, giving a greater resistance to high temperatures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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11 pages, 1814 KiB  
Article
Modification of Hot-Melt Adhesives Based on Metallocene Poly(ethylene-propylene) Copolymer for High Adhesion to Polar Surfaces
by Igor Novák, Jozef Preto, Vladimír Vanko, Jozef Rychlý, Juraj Pavlinec and Ivan Chodák
Polymers 2022, 14(6), 1253; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14061253 - 20 Mar 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3043
Abstract
A procedure is described of grafting the acrylic acid onto an oxygen/ozone-activated metallocene poly(ethylene-co-propylene). Consequently, the grafted copolymer is applied as a component in a metallocene polyolefin-based hot-melt adhesive composition with increased adhesion. The surface properties and adhesion strength of the prepared hot-melt [...] Read more.
A procedure is described of grafting the acrylic acid onto an oxygen/ozone-activated metallocene poly(ethylene-co-propylene). Consequently, the grafted copolymer is applied as a component in a metallocene polyolefin-based hot-melt adhesive composition with increased adhesion. The surface properties and adhesion strength of the prepared hot-melt adhesive (HMA) were determined and used to account for the effect of grafting. The application of grafted polyolefin as one of the components of the HMA mixture provides significant increase in adhesive strength, and it also results in increased compatibility and negligible effects on the technological parameters of the final composition. The obtained results may have significant impact for the practical application of prepared HMA for book bonding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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15 pages, 3934 KiB  
Article
Study of the Nanofibers Fabrication Conditions from the Mixture of Poly(vinyl alcohol) and Chitosan by Electrospinning Method
by Thi Hong Nhung Vu, Svetlana N. Morozkina and Mayya V. Uspenskaya
Polymers 2022, 14(4), 811; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040811 - 19 Feb 2022
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3385
Abstract
Nanofiber fabrication is attracting great attention from scientists and technologists due to its applications in many fields of life. In order to design a nanosized polymer-based drug delivery system, we studied the conditions for the fabrication of electrospun nanofibers from poly (vinyl alcohol) [...] Read more.
Nanofiber fabrication is attracting great attention from scientists and technologists due to its applications in many fields of life. In order to design a nanosized polymer-based drug delivery system, we studied the conditions for the fabrication of electrospun nanofibers from poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and chitosan (CS), which are well-known as biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic polymers that are widely used in the medical field. Aiming to develop nanofibers that can directly target diseased cells for treatment, such as cancerous cells, the ideal choice would be a system that contains the highest CS content as well as high quality fibers. In the present manuscript, it is expected to become the basis for improving the low bioavailability of medicinal drugs limited by poor solubility and low permeability. PVA–CS nanofibers were obtained by electrospinning at a PVA:CS ratio of 5:5 in a 60% (w/w) acetic acid solution under the following parameters: voltage 30 kV, feed rate 0.2 mL/h, needle-collector distance 14 cm. The obtained fibers were relatively uniform, with a diameter range of 77–292 nm and average diameter of 153 nm. The nanofiber system holds promise as a potential material for the integration of therapeutic drugs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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23 pages, 25768 KiB  
Article
ABS/Silicon Dioxide Micro Particulate Composite from 3D Printing Polymeric Waste
by Noura Al-Mazrouei, Ahmed Ismail, Waleed Ahmed and Ali H. Al-Marzouqi
Polymers 2022, 14(3), 509; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14030509 - 27 Jan 2022
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3549
Abstract
In this paper, Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene matrix composites reinforced with Nano-silica dioxide particles were examined and prepared to study their mechanical properties. The composite sheets were pre-prepared using the hot extrusion process. Due to its wide characteristics, silica dioxide additions can strengthen the usability and [...] Read more.
In this paper, Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene matrix composites reinforced with Nano-silica dioxide particles were examined and prepared to study their mechanical properties. The composite sheets were pre-prepared using the hot extrusion process. Due to its wide characteristics, silica dioxide additions can strengthen the usability and mechanical features of composite thermoplastics and polymers. Furthermore, introducing silica dioxide as a filler in various attributes can help to maintain the smooth flow of sufficient powders, reduce caking, and manage viscoelasticity. Despite its advantages, 3D printing generates a significant amount of waste due to limited prints or destroyed support structures. ABS is an ideal material to use because it is a thermoplastic and amorphous polymer with outstanding thermal properties that is also applicable with the FFF (Fused Filament Fabrication) technique. The findings showed that increasing the silica dioxide content reduces the tensile strength to 22.4 MPa at 10 wt%. Toughness, ductility, and yield stress values of ABS/silica dioxide composites at 15 wt% increased, indicating that the composite material reinforced by the silica dioxide particles improved material characteristics. It is essential to consider the impact of recycling in polymer reinforcement with fillers. Furthermore, the improved mechanical qualities of the composite material encourages successful ABS recycling from 3D printing, as well as the possibility of reusing it in a similar application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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18 pages, 5012 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of the Waste Wood Biomass and Its Effect on the Properties of Wood Sanding Dust/Recycled PP Composite
by Sanita Vitolina, Galia Shulga, Brigita Neiberte, Jevgenijs Jaunslavietis, Anrijs Verovkins and Talrits Betkers
Polymers 2022, 14(3), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14030468 - 24 Jan 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4617
Abstract
To decrease climate changes, more research focuses on decreasing waste wood biomass (WWB) burning and increasing its conversion into value-added products. The WWB was isolated from model wood processing wastewater with a new hybrid coagulant by the coagulation/flocculation method. This study is aimed [...] Read more.
To decrease climate changes, more research focuses on decreasing waste wood biomass (WWB) burning and increasing its conversion into value-added products. The WWB was isolated from model wood processing wastewater with a new hybrid coagulant by the coagulation/flocculation method. This study is aimed to characterize the WWB and to investigate its effect in the composition of a hybrid lignocellulosic filler on the properties of recycled polypropylene (rPP)-based wood–plastic composites (WPCs). The waste biomass contained high-molecular lignin and hemicelluloses substances and represented a finely dispersed powder. It was hydrophobic and was characterized by enhanced thermal stability. To minimize the negative effect of polymer wastes on the environment, recycled polypropylene as a polymer matrix was used with the hybrid filler in fabricating WPC samples. The presence of the coagulated WWB in the hybrid filler composition positively affects the mechanical properties, water uptake and dimensional stability of the composite samples. Such a behavior of the waste biomass showed its function as a compatibilizer, which promoted the interfacial adhesion in the composite system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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28 pages, 12665 KiB  
Article
Transparent PC/PMMA Blends with Enhanced Mechanical Properties via Reactive Compounding of Functionalized Polymers
by Tobias Bubmann, Andreas Seidel, Holger Ruckdäschel and Volker Altstädt
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14010073 - 25 Dec 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5652
Abstract
Reactive compounding of terminally phenolic OH-functionalized polycarbonate (PC) with epoxy-functionalized polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) prepared by copolymerization with glycidyl methacrylate was investigated. It was spectroscopically demonstrated that a PC/PMMA copolymer was formed during the melt reaction of the functional groups. Zirconium acetylacetonate could catalytically accelerate [...] Read more.
Reactive compounding of terminally phenolic OH-functionalized polycarbonate (PC) with epoxy-functionalized polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) prepared by copolymerization with glycidyl methacrylate was investigated. It was spectroscopically demonstrated that a PC/PMMA copolymer was formed during the melt reaction of the functional groups. Zirconium acetylacetonate could catalytically accelerate this reaction. Correlations of the phenomenological (optical and mechanical) properties with the molecular level and mesoscopic (morphological) structure were discussed. By the investigated reactive compounding process, transparent PC/PMMA blends with two-phase morphologies were obtained in a continuous twin-screw extruder, which, for the first time, combined the high transmission of visible light with excellent mechanical performance (e.g., synergistically improved tensile and flexural strength and high scratch resistance). The transparency strongly depended on (a) the degree of functionalization in both PC and PMMA, (b) the presence of the catalyst, and (c) the residence time of the compounding process. The in-situ-formed PC/PMMA copolymer influenced the observed macroscopic properties by (a) a decrease in the interphase tension, leading to improved and stabilized phase dispersion, (b) the formation of a continuous gradient of the polymer composition and thus of the optical refractive indices in a diffuse mesoscopic interphase layer separating the PC and PMMA phases, and (c) an increase in the phase adhesion between PC and PMMA due to mechanical polymer chain entanglement in this interphase. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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19 pages, 6232 KiB  
Article
Alginate/Banana Waste Beads Supported Metal Nanoparticles for Efficient Water Remediation
by Taghreed M. Fagieh, Esraa M. Bakhsh, Sher Bahadar Khan, Kalsoom Akhtar and Abdullah M. Asiri
Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4054; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13234054 - 23 Nov 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2623
Abstract
Water pollution is considered a perilous issue that requires an immediate solution. This is largely because of the strong correlation between the global population increase and the amount of waste produced (most notably food waste). This project prompts the conversion of food waste [...] Read more.
Water pollution is considered a perilous issue that requires an immediate solution. This is largely because of the strong correlation between the global population increase and the amount of waste produced (most notably food waste). This project prompts the conversion of food waste into useful materials that can be used with sodium alginate as a catalytic support for metal nanoparticles. Sodium alginate/banana peel (Alg/BP) beads were prepared simply using an eco-friendly method. The prepared materials were modified using nanostructured materials to enhance their characteristics. Alg/BP beads were employed as adsorbents for metals that were then treated with sodium borohydride to produce MNPs@Alg/BP. Different MNPs@Alg/BP (MNPs = Ag, Ni, Co, Fe, and Cu) were used as catalysts for reducing 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) by NaBH4 to evaluate each catalyst performance in a model reaction. The results exhibited that Cu@Alg/BP was most efficient toward complete transformation of 4-NP. Therefore, Cu@Alg/BP was also used as a catalyst for the reduction of potassium ferricyanide, congo red, methyl orange (MO), and methylene blue. It was found that Cu@Alg/BP beads catalytically reduced up to 95–99% of above pollutants within a few minutes. Cu@Alg/BP beads were more selective in reducing MO among the pollutants. The catalytic activity of Cu@Alg/BP was examined by evaluating the impact of numerous parameters on MO reduction. The results are expected to provide a new strategy for the removal of inorganic and organic water contaminants based on efficient and low-cost catalysts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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17 pages, 5429 KiB  
Article
Deformation and Failure Mechanism of Particulate Filled and Short Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics: Detection and Analysis by Acoustic Emission Testing
by Milán Ferdinánd, Róbert Várdai, János Móczó and Béla Pukánszky
Polymers 2021, 13(22), 3931; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13223931 - 14 Nov 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2418
Abstract
Acoustic emission, the detection of signals during deformation, is a frequently used method for the study of local deformation processes occurring in heterogeneous polymer systems. Most of these processes result in the evolution of elastic waves which can be detected by appropriate sensors. [...] Read more.
Acoustic emission, the detection of signals during deformation, is a frequently used method for the study of local deformation processes occurring in heterogeneous polymer systems. Most of these processes result in the evolution of elastic waves which can be detected by appropriate sensors. The analysis of several parameters characterizing the waves offers valuable information about the possible deformation mechanism. The acoustic emission testing of composites may yield very different number of signals from a few hundred to more than 100,000. This latter was proved to be affected mainly by particle size, interfacial adhesion and composition, but other factors, such as matrix modulus and specimen size, also influence it. Local deformation processes are claimed to have a strong effect on macroscopic properties. Indeed, a close correlation was found between the initiation stress of the dominating particle related process derived from acoustic emission testing and the tensile strength in both polypropylene (PP) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) composites. However, in polyamide (PA)-based heterogeneous polymer systems, deformations related to the matrix dominated composite properties. Besides forecasting failure, the method makes possible the determination of the inherent strength of lignocellulosic fibers being around 40 MPa as well as the quantitative estimation of adhesion strength for composites in which interactions are created by mechanisms other than secondary forces. The proposed approach based on acoustic emission testing proved that in PP/CaCO3 composites, the strength of adhesion can be increased by ten times from about 100 mJ/m2 to almost 1000 mJ/m2 in the presence of a functionalized polymer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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16 pages, 6191 KiB  
Article
Thermoplastic Starch–Based Composite Reinforced by Conductive Filler Networks: Physical Properties and Electrical Conductivity Changes during Cyclic Deformation
by Hamed Peidayesh, Katarína Mosnáčková, Zdenko Špitalský, Abolfazl Heydari, Alena Opálková Šišková and Ivan Chodák
Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3819; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213819 - 4 Nov 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3551
Abstract
Conductive polymer composites (CPC) from renewable resources exhibit many interesting characteristics due to their biodegradability and conductivity changes under mechanical, thermal, chemical, or electrical stress. This study is focused on investigating the physical properties of electroconductive thermoplastic starch (TPS)–based composites and changes in [...] Read more.
Conductive polymer composites (CPC) from renewable resources exhibit many interesting characteristics due to their biodegradability and conductivity changes under mechanical, thermal, chemical, or electrical stress. This study is focused on investigating the physical properties of electroconductive thermoplastic starch (TPS)–based composites and changes in electroconductive paths during cyclic deformation. TPS–based composites filled with various carbon black (CB) contents were prepared through melt processing. The electrical conductivity and physicochemical properties of TPS–CB composites, including mechanical properties and rheological behavior, were evaluated. With increasing CB content, the tensile strength and Young’s modulus were found to increase substantially. We found a percolation threshold for the CB loading of approximately 5.5 wt% based on the rheology and electrical conductivity. To observe the changing structure of the conductive CB paths during cyclic deformation, both the electrical conductivity and mechanical properties were recorded in parallel using online measurements. Moreover, the instant electrical conductivity measured online during mechanical deformation of the materials was taken as the parameter indirectly describing the structure of the conductive CB network. The electrical conductivity was found to increase during five runs of repeated cyclic mechanical deformations to constant deformation below strain at break, indicating good recovery of conductive paths and their new formation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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17 pages, 6543 KiB  
Article
Influence of Carbon Nanotubes Concentration on Mechanical and Electrical Properties of Poly(styrene-co-acrylonitrile) Composite Yarns Electrospun
by Rubén Caro-Briones, Blanca Estela García-Pérez, Eduardo San Martín-Martínez, Héctor Báez-Medina, Irlanda Grisel Cruz-Reyes, José Manuel del Río, Hugo Martínez-Gutiérrez and Mónica Corea
Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3655; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213655 - 23 Oct 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2196
Abstract
In this work, the influence of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) content on the mechanical and electrical properties of four series of polymeric matrix were made and their cytotoxicity on cells was evaluated to consider their use as a possible artificial muscle. For that, polymer [...] Read more.
In this work, the influence of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) content on the mechanical and electrical properties of four series of polymeric matrix were made and their cytotoxicity on cells was evaluated to consider their use as a possible artificial muscle. For that, polymer composite yarns were electrospun using polymeric solutions at 10 wt.%. of poly(styrene-co-acrylonitrile) P(S:AN) and P(S:AN-acrylic acid) P(S:AN-AA) at several monomeric concentrations, namely 0:100, 20:80, 40:60, 50:50 (wt.%:wt.%), and 1 wt.% of AA. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were added to the polymeric solutions at two concentrations, 0.5 and 1.0 wt.%. PMCs yarns were collected using a blade collector. Mechanical and electrical properties of polymeric yarns indicated a dependence of CNTs content into yarns. Three areas could be found in fibers: CNTs bundles zones, distributed and aligned CNTs zones, and polymer-only zones. PMCs yarns with 0.5 wt.% CNTs concentration were found with a homogenous nanotube dispersion and axial alignment in polymeric yarn, ensuring load transfer on the polymeric matrix to CNTs, increasing the elastic modulus up to 27 MPa, and a maximum electrical current of 1.8 mA due to a good polymer–nanotube interaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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17 pages, 5450 KiB  
Article
Impact Response of Aramid Fabric-Reinforced Polybenzoxazine/Urethane Composites Containing Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Used as Support Panel in Hard Armor
by Phattarin Mora, Chanchira Jubsilp, Christopher W. Bielawski and Sarawut Rimdusit
Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2779; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162779 - 18 Aug 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2363
Abstract
The aim of this research project is to analyze support panels that are based on aramid fabrics which are reinforced with polybenzoxazine/urethane (poly(BA-a/PU)) composites and contain multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Through the measurement of mechanical properties and a series of ballistic-impact tests that [...] Read more.
The aim of this research project is to analyze support panels that are based on aramid fabrics which are reinforced with polybenzoxazine/urethane (poly(BA-a/PU)) composites and contain multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Through the measurement of mechanical properties and a series of ballistic-impact tests that used 7.62 × 51 mm2 projectiles (National Institute of Justice (NIJ), level III), the incorporated MWCNTs were found to enhance the energy-absorption (EAbs) property of the composites, improve ballistic performance, and reduce damage. The perforation process and the ballistic limit (V50) of the composite were also studied via numerical simulation, and the calculated damage patterns were correlated with the experimental results. The result indicated hard armor based on polybenzoxazine nanocomposites could completely protect the perforation of a 7.62 × 51 mm2 projectile at impact velocity range of 847 ± 9.1 m/s. The results revealed the potential for using the poly(BA-a/PU) nanocomposites as energy-absorption panels for hard armor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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25 pages, 5674 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive Characterization of Polymeric Composites Reinforced with Silica Microparticles Using Leftover Materials of Fused Filament Fabrication 3D Printing
by Waleed Ahmed, Sidra Siraj and Ali H. Al-Marzouqi
Polymers 2021, 13(15), 2423; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13152423 - 23 Jul 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3401
Abstract
Silica exhibits properties such that its addition into polymeric materials can result in an enhanced overall quality and improved characteristics and as a result silica has been widely used as a filler material for improving the rheological properties of polymeric materials. The usage [...] Read more.
Silica exhibits properties such that its addition into polymeric materials can result in an enhanced overall quality and improved characteristics and as a result silica has been widely used as a filler material for improving the rheological properties of polymeric materials. The usage of polymers in three-dimensional printing technology has grown exponentially, which has increased the amount of waste produced during this process. Several polymers, such as polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polylactic acid (PLA), and nylon, are applied in this emerging technology. In this study, the effect of the addition of silica as a filler on the mechanical, thermal, and bulk density properties of the composites prepared from the aforementioned polymeric waste was studied. In addition, the morphology of the composite materials was characterized via scanning electron microscopy. The composite samples were prepared with various silica concentrations using a twin extruder followed by hot compression. Generally, the addition of silica increased the tensile strength of the polymers. For instance, the tensile strength of PVA with 5 wt% filler increased by 76 MPa, whereas those of PP and PLA with 10 wt% filler increased by 7.15 and 121.03 MPa, respectively. The crystallinity of the prepared composite samples ranged from 14% to 35%, which is expected in a composite system. Morphological analysis revealed the random dispersion of silica particles and agglomerate formation at high silica concentrations. The bulk density of the samples decreased with increased amount of filler addition. The addition of silica influenced the changes in the characteristics of the polymeric materials. Furthermore, the properties presented in this study can be used to further study the engineering design, transportation, and production processes, promoting the recycling and reuse of such waste in the same technology with the desired properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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14 pages, 20065 KiB  
Article
Polyether Single and Double Crystalline Blends and the Effect of Lithium Salt on Their Crystallinity and Ionic Conductivity
by Jorge L. Olmedo-Martínez, Michele Pastorio, Elena Gabirondo, Alessandra Lorenzetti, Haritz Sardon, David Mecerreyes and Alejandro J. Müller
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2097; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13132097 - 25 Jun 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2892
Abstract
In this work, blends of Poly(ethylene oxide), PEO, and poly(1,6-hexanediol), PHD, were prepared in a wide composition range. They were examined by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Polarized Light Optical Microscopy (PLOM) and Wide Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS). Based on the results obtained, the [...] Read more.
In this work, blends of Poly(ethylene oxide), PEO, and poly(1,6-hexanediol), PHD, were prepared in a wide composition range. They were examined by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Polarized Light Optical Microscopy (PLOM) and Wide Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS). Based on the results obtained, the blends were partially miscible in the melt and their crystallization was a function of miscibility and composition. Crystallization triggered phase separation. In blends with higher PEO contents both phases were able to crystallize due to the limited miscibility in this composition range. On the other hand, the blends with higher PHD contents display higher miscibility and therefore, only the PHD phase could crystallize in them. A nucleation effect of the PHD phase on the PEO phase was detected, probably caused by a transference of impurities mechanism. Since PEO is widely used as electrolyte in lithium batteries, the PEO/PHD blends were studied with lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (LiTFSI), and the effect of Li-salt concentration was studied. We found that the lithium salt preferentially dissolves in the PEO phase without significantly affecting the PHD component. While the Li-salt reduced the spherulite growth rate of the PEO phase within the blends, the overall crystallization rate was enhanced because of the strong nucleating effect of the PHD component. The ionic conductivity was also determined for the blends with Li-salt. At high temperatures (>70 °C), the conductivity is in the order of ~10−3 S cm−1, and as the temperature decreases, the crystallization of PHD was detected. This improved the self-standing character of the blend films at high temperatures as compared to the one of neat PEO. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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14 pages, 18250 KiB  
Article
Foamed Phase Change Materials Based on Recycled Polyethylene/Paraffin Wax Blends
by Patrik Sobolčiak, Miroslav Mrlik, Anton Popelka, Antonín Minařík, Marketa Ilcikova, Peter Srnec, Zuzana Nogellova, Mabrouk Ouederni and Igor Krupa
Polymers 2021, 13(12), 1987; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13121987 - 17 Jun 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3426
Abstract
Foamed phase-change materials (FPCMs) were prepared using recycled linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) blended with 30 wt.% of paraffin wax (PW) and foamed by 1,1′-azobiscarbamide. The protection of pores’ collapse during foaming process was insured through chemical cross-linking by organic peroxide prior foaming. This [...] Read more.
Foamed phase-change materials (FPCMs) were prepared using recycled linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) blended with 30 wt.% of paraffin wax (PW) and foamed by 1,1′-azobiscarbamide. The protection of pores’ collapse during foaming process was insured through chemical cross-linking by organic peroxide prior foaming. This work represents one of very few attempts for a preparation of polymeric phase change foams without a use of micro-encapsulated phase change component leading to the enhancement of the real PCM component (PW) within a final product. The porous structure of fabricated foams was analyzed using micro-computed tomography, and direct observation, and reconstruction of the internal structure was investigated. The porosity of FPCMs was about 85–87 vol.% and resulting thermal conductivity 0.054–0.086 W/m·K. Differential Scanning Calorimetry was used to determine the specific enthalpies of melting (22.4–25.1 J/g) what is the latent heat of materials utilized during a heat absorption. A stability of samples during 10 heating/cooling cycles was demonstrated. The phase change changes were also investigated using the dynamic mechanical analysis from 0° to 65 °C during the 10 cycles, and the mechanical stability of the system and phase-change transition were clearly confirmed, as proved by DSC. Leaching test revealed a long-term release of PW (around 7% of its original content) from samples which were long term stored at temperatures over PW melting point. This is the usual problem concerning polymer/wax blends. The most common, industrially feasible solution is a lamination of products, for instance by aluminum foils. Finally, the measurement of the heat flow simulating the real conditions shows that samples containing PW decrease the energy passing through the sample from 68.56 to 34.88 kJ·m−2. In this respect, FPCMs provide very effective double functionality, firstly common thermal insulators, and second, as the heat absorbers acting through melting of the PW and absorbing the excessive thermal energy during melting. This improves the heat protection of buildings and reduces temperature fluctuations within indoor spaces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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21 pages, 6177 KiB  
Article
Rare-Earth Oxides as Alternative High-Energy Photon Protective Fillers in HDPE Composites: Theoretical Aspects
by Kiadtisak Saenboonruang, Worawat Poltabtim, Arkarapol Thumwong, Theerasarn Pianpanit and Chanis Rattanapongs
Polymers 2021, 13(12), 1930; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13121930 - 10 Jun 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 2594
Abstract
This work theoretically determined the high-energy photon shielding properties of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) composites containing rare-earth oxides, namely samarium oxide (Sm2O3), europium oxide (Eu2O3), and gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3), for potential use [...] Read more.
This work theoretically determined the high-energy photon shielding properties of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) composites containing rare-earth oxides, namely samarium oxide (Sm2O3), europium oxide (Eu2O3), and gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3), for potential use as lead-free X-ray-shielding and gamma-shielding materials using the XCOM software package. The considered properties were the mass attenuation coefficient (µm), linear attenuation coefficient (µ), half value layer (HVL), and lead equivalence (Pbeq) that were investigated at varying photon energies (0.001–5 MeV) and filler contents (0–60 wt.%). The results were in good agreement (less than 2% differences) with other available programs (Phy-X/PSD) and Monte Carlo particle transport simulation code, namely PHITS, which showed that the overall high-energy photon shielding abilities of the composites considerably increased with increasing rare-earth oxide contents but reduced with increasing photon energies. In particular, the Gd2O3/HDPE composites had the highest µm values at photon energies of 0.1, 0.5, and 5 MeV, due to having the highest atomic number (Z). Furthermore, the Pbeq determination of the composites within the X-ray energy ranges indicated that the 10 mm thick samples with filler contents of 40 wt.% and 50 wt.% had Pbeq values greater than the minimum requirements for shielding materials used in general diagnostic X-ray rooms and computerized tomography rooms, which required Pbeq values of at least 1.0 and 1.5 mmPb, respectively. In addition, the comparisons of µm, µ, and HVL among the rare-earth oxide/HDPE composites investigated in this work and other lead-free X-ray shielding composites revealed that the materials developed in this work exhibited comparable X-ray shielding properties in comparison with that of the latter, implying great potential to be used as effective X-ray shielding materials in actual applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiphase Systems with Polymeric Matrices: Polymer Blends and Composites)
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