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A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Biological Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 April 2024) | Viewed by 51003

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Prof. Dr. Juan Luis Gomez Pinchetti

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Guest Editor

Spanish Bank of Algae (BEA), Institute of Oceanography and Global Change (IOCAG), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Muelle de Taliarte s/n, 35214 Telde, Canary Islands, Spain
Interests: physiology; biochemistry; transformation and potential applications of algal biomass produced under different cultivation approaches; including the development of biofiltration systems using algae; he has got a wide experience in cultivation; under controlled conditions; of marine macro-; microalgae; and cyanobacteria at different laboratory- and pilot-scale systems

Prof. Dr. Francisco Gabriel Acién Fernández

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Guest Editor

Department of Chemical Engineering-CIESOL, University of Almeria, Almería, Spain
Interests: bioprocesses; algae biotechnology; waste recycling
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the last 25 years, the highest percentages of algal biomass produced and processed by the industry were mostly generated through cultivation activities. Previous overexploitation and, nowadays, control mechanisms in a scenario of climate change make natural populations difficult to exploit in a sustainable way. This fact drives to the necessity to develop algae culture techniques, at an industrial scale, mainly based on the use of sunlight, seawater and non-arable land.

New production efforts and developments are focused on techniques and systems that allow increasing biomass yields for both macro- and microalgae (including cyanobacteria) at the same time than improving biomass quality with industrial interest and potential. Under controlled conditions, activities related to species and strain selection based on growth performance, sustainable yields, biomass quality, downstream possibilities, including the concept of a biorefinery, security and/or traceability, together with the possibilities for wastewater nutrients and CO₂ gases recycling, are being strongly considered to become key factors for the future success of industrial algae production.

This special issue on “Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass” seeks high quality works focusing on the latest novel advances related to algae production, biomass processed and industrial developments. Topics include, but are not limited to:

- Algae species and strains selection, characterization and potential applications;

- Cultivation improvements: biological and technical approaches;

- Bioremediation processes and circular economy by using algae;

- Algae as climate change mitigation tools;

- Developments on downstream processes and biorefinery;

- Applications and future possibilities

- The Nagoya protocol and the access and use of algae genetic resources

Prof. Dr. Juan Luis Gomez Pinchetti
Prof. Dr. Francisco Gabriel Acién Fernández
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

Alga
applications, biomass
biotechnology
bioremediation
cultivation
downstream processes
macroalgae
microalgae
production

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 1737 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Bioprocess Design and Evaluation of Hydrothermal Hydrolysates from Sargassum sp. for Enhancing Arthrospira platensis Growth and Protein Content

by Alejandra Cabello-Galindo, Rosa M. Rodríguez-Jasso, Gabriela Cid-Ibarra, K. D. González-Gloria, Ruth Belmares, Mayela Govea-Salas, Luciane Maria Colla and Héctor A. Ruiz

Processes 2024, 12(6), 1122; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061122 - 29 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1175

Abstract

The proliferation of Sargassum biomass in various coastal areas has led to environmental and socio-economic problems. However, due to their unique composition, these biomasses offer versatile applications, prompting research into their potential in third-generation biorefineries. In this study, the hydrothermal processing of Sargassum sp. was evaluated under specific conditions at 190 °C/50 min and 150 °C/30 min. The resulting hydrolysates (liquid phase) were used as alternative culture media for cultivation. Nine treatments for the cultivation of Arthrospira platensis were assessed, varying the concentration of hydrothermal hydrolysates (HH) at 190 °C/50 min: T1 (5% v/v), T2 (10% v/v), and T3 (15% v/v). T4 (5% v/v), T5 (10% v/v), and T6 (15% v/v), maintaining the same HH conditions, and with the addition of 0.7 g/L NaNO₃; and treatments T7, T8, and T9 had concentrations of 5%, 10%, and 15% of HH, respectively, at 150 °C/30 min with the addition of 0.7 g/L NaNO₃, respectively. Each treatment was inoculated with 15% (v/v) of A. platensis. Growth kinetics were performed by sampling every three days for 24 days. Quantification of soluble proteins was performed for the best conditions of biomass production. The microalgae demonstrated the ability to grow under mixotrophic medium conditions and to utilize the available carbon sources in the culture medium. Treatment 4 has the highest biomass, with an Xmax (g/L) of 1.94 ± 0.06 and a protein production of 24.17 ± 0.86% (w/w). Therefore, this microalgal biomass can be used in the food matrix according to the biorefinery concept. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass)

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11 pages, 1243 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Clarification of Most Relevant Concepts Related to the Microalgae Production Sector

by Vítor Verdelho Vieira, Jean-Paul Cadoret, F. Gabriel Acien and John Benemann

Processes 2022, 10(1), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10010175 - 17 Jan 2022

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4425

Abstract

Microalgae (including cyanobacteria) are the basis for an emerging worldwide industry but still face significant bottlenecks in contributing to the global economy. It is an enormous challenge to translate experiences from established industries such as aquaculture and agriculture to the microalgae sector. In particular, this includes the challenge of adapting regulations that apply to such macroscopic production and mindsets, to the microscopic world of microalgae and to the scale-up to a million times smaller. Current European and country-based regulations do not always, indeed rarely, consider relevant specific issues that limit the path for innovation and growth applicable to the microalgae sector. In this work, the boundaries for the main issues impacting this sector are presented and discussed. Examples and possible analytical frameworks are presented in a question and answer format. Relevant key topics and related boundaries are discussed: What are algae and how do microalgae differ from macroalgae? Why are algae and specifically microalgae relevant? Is algae cultivation an aquaculture process? Can algae and specifically microalgae be classified as vegetables and their production be classified as agriculture or are they an industrial process? How is algaculture compared with other agricultural sectors? What are organic algae? Can microalgae be grown in wastewater and how can they be used? What are toxic algae? What are the bottlenecks for microalgae culture scale-up? How does the microalgae biodiversity contribute to their development? We conclude that microalgae are developing as a novel agricultural enterprise that can provide major benefits to a sustainable circular economy and environment but require appropriate regulations and support from governments and businesses, recognising its unique attributes and potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass)

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11 pages, 1745 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Polyphasic Characterisation of Tetradesmus almeriensis sp. nov. (Chlorophyta: Scenedesmaceae)

by Sara Turiel, Jose Antonio Garrido-Cardenas, Cintia Gómez-Serrano, Francisco Gabriel Acién, Lorenzo Carretero-Paulet and Saúl Blanco

Processes 2021, 9(11), 2006; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112006 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2985

Abstract

The microalga Tetradesmus almeriensis, previously known as Scenedesmus almeriensis, has been isolated and cultivated as a highly productive, fast-growing strain known as a natural source of different products of commercial interest, including bioactive compounds such as lutein. This strain produces up to 40 g·m⁻²·day⁻¹ of lutein under optimal conditions and is highly recommendable for outdoor production in temperate and warm climates, showing maximal performance at temperatures up to 35 °C with no photo-inhibition taking place with irradiances greater than 1000 μE·m⁻²·s⁻¹. Morphological and molecular data allow its assignment to the Chlorophycean genus Tetradesmus. The new species can be distinguished from similar Tetradesmus taxa due to its unique combination of features that are seen under light microscopy. We present herein a robust and comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of T. almeriensis, together with several additional Scenedesmaceae species, using a combination of maximum likelihood and Bayesian approaches. Our results confirm T. almeriensis as a distinct species consistently clustering with other Scenedesmaceae. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass)

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15 pages, 2977 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Study of Biocrudes Obtained via Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) of Wild Alga Consortium under Different Conditions

by Caroline Barrère-Mangote, Anne Roubaud, Brice Bouyssiere, Julien Maillard, Jasmine Hertzog, Johann Le Maître, Marie Hubert-Roux, Jean-Francois Sassi, Carlos Afonso and Pierre Giusti

Processes 2021, 9(9), 1494; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091494 - 25 Aug 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3766

Abstract

Microalga-based fuels are promising solutions for replacing fossil fuels. This feedstock presents several advantages such as fast growth in a harsh environment and an ability to trap gases emitted from industries, thus reducing global warming effects. An efficient way to convert harvested microalgae into biofuels is hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), which yields an intermediate product called biocrude. In this study, the elemental and molecular compositions of 15 different HTL biocrudes were determined by means of different techniques. Wild algae were cultivated in an industrial environment with plant emissions as a carbon source in fresh or seawater. It was notably observed that the culture medium had an influence on the biochemical composition and mineral matter content of algae. Thus, seawater algae were characterized by larger amounts of carbohydrates and mineral matter than freshwater ones, which also affected the oil yields and the light and heavy fractions of biocrudes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass)

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27 pages, 2327 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Long-Term Cultivation of a Native Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina) Strain in Pozo Izquierdo (Gran Canaria, Spain): Technical Evidence for a Viable Production of Food-Grade Biomass

by Flavio Guidi, Zivan Gojkovic, Marianna Venuleo, Patrícia Alexandra Clemente Janeiro Assunçao and Eduardo Portillo

Processes 2021, 9(8), 1333; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9081333 - 30 Jul 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5208

Abstract

Microalgae cultivation is a promising alternative to traditional agriculture in arid—semi-arid areas. The aim of this study is to assess the viability of long-term cultivation of native Arthrospira platensis in Gran Canaria. Maximum culture productivity (0.08 g/L/day) and optimal concentration range (0.6–0.9 g/L) were firstly determined in 8000 L raceway under a greenhouse. Afterwards, a stable productivity of 0.06 g/L/day (6.0 g/m²/day) was obtained by reusing the culture medium during 26 days of cultivation, with consistent biomass biochemical composition. Outdoor temperature and daily solar irradiation ranged between 17.9–30.7 °C and 79.2–274.8 W/m², while culture pH and salinity were in the range 9.42–10.77 and 11.2–14.9 g/L, respectively. Protein (>60%), potassium (1.8 g/100 g) and C-phycocyanin (7.2%) content is in the high-range of commercial Spirulina, which makes BEA 1257B promising for food and extraction of natural pigments/antioxidants. The dried biomass complies with international standards for human consumption, because of low heavy metal content and no pathogens presence. Product quality can be improved by reducing ash (≃12%) and sodium (1.5%) content through biomass washing optimization and/or further dewatering step. Other microorganisms can be prevented by high alkaline conditions and mild chemical treatments. These results pave the way for a sustainable microalgae-based blue bioeconomy in the Canary Islands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass)

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19 pages, 1513 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Scaling-Up and Semi-Continuous Cultivation of Locally Isolated Marine Microalgae Tetraselmis striata in the Subtropical Island of Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain)

by Zivan Gojkovic, Flavio Guidi, Begoña Bustamante, Marianna Venuleo, Patrícia Alexandra Clemente Janeiro de Assunçao and Eduardo Portillo

Processes 2021, 9(8), 1326; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9081326 - 29 Jul 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3626

Abstract

The goal of this study was to determine the feasibility of the large-scale cultivation of locally isolated Tetraselmis striata in different open ponds in Gran Canaria. The biomass productivities were 24.66 ± 0.53 kg_DW in 32 days (28.9 t/ha/year) for 8000 L indoors, 42.32 ± 0.81 kg_DW in 43 days (38.8 t/ha/year) for an 8000 L pond outdoors, and 54.9 ± 0.58 kg_DW in 28 days (19.6 t/ha/year) for a 45,000 L pond outdoors. The photosynthetic efficiencies were 1.45 ± 0.03% for an 8000 L pond indoors, 1.95 ± 0.04% for 8000 L outdoors. and 1.10 ± 0.01% for a 45,000 L pond outdoors. The selected strain was fast-growing (µ = 0.21 day⁻¹) and could be rapidly scaled up to 45,000 L; it formed healthy cultures that maintained high photosynthetic activity during long-term cultivation and provided stable biomass productivities, able to grow on urea, which acted as a cheap and effective grazer control. The obtained biomass is a good source of proteins and has an FA profile with a high content of some nutritionally important fatty acids: oleic, α-linolenic (ALA) and EPA. The high ash content in the biomass (>35%) can be reduced by the implementation of additional washing steps after the centrifugation of the culture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass)

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11 pages, 1563 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Role of Microalgae in the Recovery of Nutrients from Pig Manure

by Ana Sánchez-Zurano, Martina Ciardi, Tomás Lafarga, José María Fernández-Sevilla, Ruperto Bermejo and Emilio Molina-Grima

Processes 2021, 9(2), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9020203 - 21 Jan 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4696

Abstract

Animal production inevitably causes the emission of greenhouse gases and the generation of large amounts of slurry, both representing a serious environmental problem. Photosynthetic microorganisms such as microalgae and cyanobacteria have been proposed as alternative strategies to bioremediate agricultural waste while consuming carbon dioxide and producing valuable biomass. The current study assessed the potential of the microalga Scenedesmus sp. to remove nutrients from piggery wastewater (PWW) and the influence of the microalga on the microbial consortia. Maximum N-NH₄⁺ consumption was 55.3 ± 3.7 mg·L⁻¹·day⁻¹ while P-PO₄³⁻ removal rates were in the range 0.1–1.9 mg·L⁻¹·day⁻¹. N-NH₄⁺ removal was partially caused by the action of nitrifying bacteria, which led to the production of N-NO₃⁻. N-NO₃⁻ production values where lower when microalgae were more active. This work demonstrated that the photosynthetic activity of microalgae allows us to increase nutrient removal rates from PWW and to reduce the coliform bacterial load of the effluent, minimising both their environmental impact and health risks. Microalgae assimilated part of the N-NH₄⁺ present in the media to produce biomass and did not to convert it into N-NO₃⁻ as in traditional processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass)

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9 pages, 15688 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Green Synthesis of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles Using Protein Fractions from an Aqueous Extract of Brown Algae Macrocystis pyrifera

by Karla Araya-Castro, Tzu-Chiao Chao, Benjamín Durán-Vinet, Carla Cisternas, Gustavo Ciudad and Olga Rubilar

Processes 2021, 9(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9010078 - 31 Dec 2020

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 6084

Abstract

Amongst different living organisms studied as potential candidates for the green synthesis of copper nanoparticles, algal biomass is presented as a novel and easy-to-handle method. However, the role of specific biomolecules and their contribution as reductant and capping agents has not yet been described. This contribution reports a green synthesis method to obtain copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO-NPs) using separated protein fractions from an aqueous extract of brown algae Macrocystis pyrifera through size exclusion chromatography (HPLC-SEC). Proteins were detected by a UV/VIS diode array, time-based fraction collection was carried out, and each collected fraction was used to evaluate the synthesis of CuO-NPs. The characterization of CuO-NPs was evaluated by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Z-potential, Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) equipped with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) detector. Low Molecular Weight (LMW) and High Molecular Weight (HMW) protein fractions were able to synthesize spherical CuO-NPs. TEM images showed that the metallic core present in the observed samples ranged from 2 to 50 nm in diameter, with spherical nanostructures present in all containing protein samples. FTIR measurements showed functional groups from proteins having a pivotal role in the reduction and stabilization of the nanoparticles. The highly negative zeta potential average values from obtained nanoparticles suggest high stability, expanding the range of possible applications. This facile and novel protein-assisted method for the green synthesis of CuO-NPs may also provide a suitable tool to synthesize other nanoparticles that have different application areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass)

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16 pages, 2914 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential Impact of Biodegradable Surfactants on Foam-Based Microalgal Cultures

by María Vázquez, José Carlos Castilla-Alcántara, Inés Garbayo, Carlos Vílchez and María Cuaresma

Processes 2020, 8(12), 1640; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121640 - 12 Dec 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2598

Abstract

Microalgae cultivation in liquid foams is a promising concept which requires the use of a surfactant as a foam stabilizing agent. The biodegradable character of a surfactant is a key aspect regarding its applicability in a liquid foam-bed photobioreactor (LF-PBR), since it might influence microalgal growth and the stability of the foam-based cultivation. In this work, the effects of the biodegradable surfactants bovine serum albumin (BSA), Saponin and Tween 20 on the whole microbial community of microalgal cultures (i.e., microalgal and bacterial populations) were studied. The three surfactants enhanced bacterial and microalgal growth in non-axenic microalgal cultures, but they differed in their efficiency to sustain bacterial growth. In this sense, Saponin was proven to enhance the growth of S. obliquus-associated bacteria in microalgae-free cultures, and to sustain it even when other nutrients were lacking, suggesting that Saponin can be used as an energy and nutrients source by these bacteria. The degradation and consumption of Saponin by S. obliquus-associated bacteria was also confirmed by the foaming capacity decrease in Saponin-added bacterial cultures. The biodegradable character of BSA, Saponin and Tween 20 reduces their suitability to be used in a LF-PBR since they would not be able to maintain stable foaming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass)

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13 pages, 2835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimisation of Protein Recovery from Arthrospira platensis by Ultrasound-Assisted Isoelectric Solubilisation/Precipitation

by Ana Sánchez-Zurano, Ainoa Morillas-España, Cynthia Victoria González-López and Tomás Lafarga

Processes 2020, 8(12), 1586; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121586 - 1 Dec 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2911

Abstract

A response surface methodology was used to optimise the solubilisation and precipitation of proteins from the cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis. Two separate experiments were designed and conducted in a sequential manner. Protein solubilisation was affected by pH, extraction time, and biomass to solvent ratio (p < 0.001). Although spray-drying and the osmotic shock suffered when resuspending the dried biomass into distilled water led to a certain degree of cell wall disruption, the amount of protein that could be solubilised without an additional disruption step was in the range 30–60%. Sequential extractions improved protein solubilisation by less than 5%. For this reason, a pre-treatment based on sonication (400 W, 24 kHz, 2 min) had to be used, allowing the solubilisation of 96.2% of total proteins. Protein precipitation was affected by both pH and extraction time (p < 0.001). The optimised precipitation conditions, which were pH 3.89 over 45 min, led to a protein recovery of 75.2%. The protein content of the extract was close to 80%, which could be further increased by using different purification steps. The proteins extracted could be used in the food industry as technofunctional ingredients or as a source of bioactive hydrolysates and peptides for functional foods and nutraceuticals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass)

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Review

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34 pages, 20956 KiB

Open AccessReview

Variables Governing Photosynthesis and Growth in Microalgae Mass Cultures

by Jiří Masojídek, Karolína Ranglová, Gergely Ernö Lakatos, Ana Margarita Silva Benavides and Giuseppe Torzillo

Processes 2021, 9(5), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9050820 - 8 May 2021

Cited by 64 | Viewed by 10926

Abstract

Since the 1950s, microalgae have been grown commercially in man-made cultivation units and used for biomass production as a source of food and feed supplements, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and lately biofuels, as well as a means for wastewater treatment and mitigation of atmospheric CO₂ build-up. In this work, photosynthesis and growth affecting variables—light intensity, pH, CO₂/O₂ exchange, nutrient supply, culture turbulence, light/dark cell cycling, biomass density and culture depth (light path)—are reviewed as concerns in microalgae mass cultures. Various photosynthesis monitoring techniques were employed to study photosynthetic performance to optimize the growth of microalgae strains in outdoor cultivation units. The most operative and reliable techniques appeared to be fast-response ones based on chlorophyll fluorescence and oxygen production monitoring, which provide analogous results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction, Exploitation and Application of Algae Biomass)

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