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Microalgae for the Food Industry: From Biomass Production to the...
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Microalgae for the Food Industry: From Biomass Production to the Development of Functional Foods

A special issue of Foods (ISSN 2304-8158). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 35844

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Tomas Lafarga

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
Interests: microalgae biotechnology; bioactive compounds; proteins; functional foods; sustainability; waste valorization
Prof. Dr. Francisco Gabriel Acién Fernández

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemical Engineering-CIESOL, University of Almeria, Almería, Spain
Interests: bioprocesses; algae biotechnology; waste recycling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The increasing global demand for natural resources has drawn special attention to the need to develop new supply pathways based on inexhaustive sources with a reduced environmental impact. The exploitation of photosynthesis is particularly appealing because light, an inexhaustible source of energy, together with carbon dioxide, a chemical component we need to get rid of, are the major ingredients to build up a climate-action-compliant biochemical production chain with unlimited possibilities. Microalgae are one of nature’s finest examples of solar energy conversion systems and are key for a sustainable food supply. These microorganisms are naturally rich in proteins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and biologically active molecules including valuable pigments. However, although the number of food products containing microalgae has increased during the last decade, microalgae are not yet a common food ingredient. Their production is confined to niche markets where the product high value compensates for high production costs and low yields. Other aspects such as low production capacity, strong organoleptic attributes, strict regulations, and lack of consumer knowledge about their health benefits are limiting their incorporation into foods. Further studies on these aspects are needed and will surely promote the production and consumption of this valuable resource.

Dr. Tomas Lafarga
Prof. Dr. Francisco Gabriel Acién Fernández
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • microalgae production
  • novel culture media
  • agricultural co-products
  • downstream processing
  • cyanobacteria
  • carotenoids
  • proteins
  • polyunsaturated fatty acids
  • pigments
  • functional foods

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 197 KiB  
Editorial
Microalgae for the Food Industry: From Biomass Production to the Development of Functional Foods
by Tomás Lafarga and Gabriel Acién
Foods 2022, 11(5), 765; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11050765 - 7 Mar 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3081
Abstract
The human population is expected to reach 9 [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microalgae for the Food Industry: From Biomass Production to the Development of Functional Foods)

Research

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17 pages, 2607 KiB  
Article
Improving the Nutritional, Structural, and Sensory Properties of Gluten-Free Bread with Different Species of Microalgae
by Muhammad Waqas Qazi, Inês Gonçalves de Sousa, Maria Cristiana Nunes and Anabela Raymundo
Foods 2022, 11(3), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030397 - 29 Jan 2022
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5282
Abstract
Microalgae are an enormous source of nutrients that can be utilized to enrich common food of inherently low nutritional value, such as gluten-free (GF) bread. Addition of the algae species: Tetraselmis chuii (Tc), Chlorella vulgaris (Cv), and Nannochloropsis gaditana (Ng) biomass led to [...] Read more.
Microalgae are an enormous source of nutrients that can be utilized to enrich common food of inherently low nutritional value, such as gluten-free (GF) bread. Addition of the algae species: Tetraselmis chuii (Tc), Chlorella vulgaris (Cv), and Nannochloropsis gaditana (Ng) biomass led to a significant increase in proteins, lipids, minerals (Ca, Mg, K, P, S, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn), and antioxidant activity. Although, a compromise on dough rheology and consequential sensory properties was observed. To address this, ethanol treatment of the biomass was necessary to eliminate pigments and odor compounds, which resulted in the bread receiving a similar score as the control during sensory trials. Ethanol treatment also resulted in increased dough strength depicted by creep/recovery tests. Due to the stronger dough structure, more air bubbles were trapped in the dough resulting in softer breads (23–65%) of high volume (12–27%) vs. the native algae biomass bread. Breads baked with Ng and Cv resulted in higher protein-enrichment than the Tc, while Tc enrichment led to an elevated mineral content, especially the Ca, which was six times higher than the other algae species. Overall, Ng, in combination with ethanol treatment, yielded a highly nutritious bread of improved technological and sensory properties, indicating that this species might be a candidate for functional GF bread development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microalgae for the Food Industry: From Biomass Production to the Development of Functional Foods)
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12 pages, 1588 KiB  
Article
Tocochromanol Profiles in Chlorella sorokiniana, Nannochloropsis limnetica and Tetraselmis suecica Confirm the Presence of 11′-α-Tocomonoenol in Cultured Microalgae Independently of Species and Origin
by Alexander Montoya-Arroyo, Katja Lehnert, Alejandra Muñoz-González, Ulrike Schmid-Staiger, Walter Vetter and Jan Frank
Foods 2022, 11(3), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030396 - 29 Jan 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3039
Abstract
11′-α-Tocomonoenol (11′-αT1) is structurally related to vitamin E and has been quantified in the microalgae Tetraselmis sp. and Nannochloropsis oceanica. However, it is not known whether 11′-αT1 is present in other microalgae independent of species and origin. The aim of this study [...] Read more.
11′-α-Tocomonoenol (11′-αT1) is structurally related to vitamin E and has been quantified in the microalgae Tetraselmis sp. and Nannochloropsis oceanica. However, it is not known whether 11′-αT1 is present in other microalgae independent of species and origin. The aim of this study was to analyze the tocochromanol profiles of Chlorella sorokiniana, Nannochloropsis limnetica, and Tetraselmis suecica and to determine if 11′-αT1 is present in these microalgae. Cultured microalgae were freeze-dried and the presence and identity of α-tocomonoenols were confirmed by LC-MSn (liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectroscopy) and GC-MS (gas chromatography coupled to mass spectroscopy). Tocochromanol profiles were determined by HPLC-FLD (liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection) and fatty acid profiles (as fatty acid methyl esters; FAME) by GC-MS. As confirmed by LC-MSn and GC-MS, 11′-αT1 was the dominant αT1 isomer in cultured microalgae instead of 12′-αT1, the isomer also known as marine-derived tocopherol. αT1 represented less than 1% of total tocochromanols in all analyzed samples and tended to be more abundant in microalgae with higher proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids. In conclusion, our findings confirm that αT1 is not restricted to terrestrial photosynthetic organisms, but can also accumulate in microalgae of different species, with 11′-αT1—and not the marine-derived tocopherol (12′-αT1)—as the predominant αT1 isomer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microalgae for the Food Industry: From Biomass Production to the Development of Functional Foods)
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14 pages, 2844 KiB  
Article
Combination of Synergic Enzymes and Ultrasounds as an Effective Pretreatment Process to Break Microalgal Cell Wall and Enhance Algal Oil Extraction
by Cristina Blanco-Llamero, Paz García-García and Francisco Javier Señoráns
Foods 2021, 10(8), 1928; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081928 - 19 Aug 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3590
Abstract
Microalgal biomass is a sustainable source of bioactive lipids with omega-3 fatty acids. The efficient extraction of neutral and polar lipids from microalgae requires alternative extraction methods, frequently combined with biomass pretreatment. In this work, a combined ultrasound and enzymatic process using commercial [...] Read more.
Microalgal biomass is a sustainable source of bioactive lipids with omega-3 fatty acids. The efficient extraction of neutral and polar lipids from microalgae requires alternative extraction methods, frequently combined with biomass pretreatment. In this work, a combined ultrasound and enzymatic process using commercial enzymes Viscozyme, Celluclast, and Alcalase was optimized as a pretreatment method for Nannochloropsis gaditana, where the Folch method was used for lipid extraction. Significant differences were observed among the used enzymatic pretreatments, combined with ultrasound bath or probe-type sonication. To further optimize this method, ranges of temperatures (35, 45, and 55 °C) and pH (4, 5, and 8) were tested, and enzymes were combined at the best conditions. Subsequently, simultaneous use of three hydrolytic enzymes rendered oil yields of nearly 29%, showing a synergic effect. To compare enzymatic pretreatments, neutral and polar lipids distribution of Nannochloropsis was determined by HPLC–ELSD. The highest polar lipids content was achieved employing ultrasound-assisted enzymatic pretreatment (55 °C and 6 h), whereas the highest glycolipid (44.54%) and PE (2.91%) contents were achieved using Viscozyme versus other enzymes. The method was applied to other microalgae showing the potential of the optimized process as a practical alternative to produce valuable lipids for nutraceutical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microalgae for the Food Industry: From Biomass Production to the Development of Functional Foods)
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Review

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17 pages, 3389 KiB  
Review
Microalgae Derived Astaxanthin: Research and Consumer Trends and Industrial Use as Food
by Silvia Villaró, Martina Ciardi, Ainoa Morillas-España, Ana Sánchez-Zurano, Gabriel Acién-Fernández and Tomas Lafarga
Foods 2021, 10(10), 2303; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10102303 - 28 Sep 2021
Cited by 67 | Viewed by 7615
Abstract
Astaxanthin is a high-value carotenoid currently being produced by chemical synthesis and by extraction from the biomass of the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis. Other microalgae, such as Chlorella zofingiensis, have the potential for being used as sources of astaxanthin. The differences between [...] Read more.
Astaxanthin is a high-value carotenoid currently being produced by chemical synthesis and by extraction from the biomass of the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis. Other microalgae, such as Chlorella zofingiensis, have the potential for being used as sources of astaxanthin. The differences between the synthetic and the microalgae derived astaxanthin are notorious: not only their production and price but also their uses and bioactivity. Microalgae derived astaxanthin is being used as a pigment in food and feed or aquafeed production and also in cosmetic and pharmaceutical products. Several health-promoting properties have been attributed to astaxanthin, and these were summarized in the current review paper. Most of these properties are attributed to the high antioxidant capacity of this molecule, much higher than that of other known natural compounds. The aim of this review is to consider the main challenges and opportunities of microalgae derived products, such as astaxanthin as food. Moreover, the current study includes a bibliometric analysis that summarizes the current research trends related to astaxanthin. Moreover, the potential utilization of microalgae other than H. pluvialis as sources of astaxanthin as well as the health-promoting properties of this valuable compound will be discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microalgae for the Food Industry: From Biomass Production to the Development of Functional Foods)
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13 pages, 1098 KiB  
Review
Microbes: Food for the Future
by Matilde Ciani, Antonio Lippolis, Federico Fava, Liliana Rodolfi, Alberto Niccolai and Mario R. Tredici
Foods 2021, 10(5), 971; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10050971 - 28 Apr 2021
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 11060
Abstract
Current projections estimate that in 2050 about 10 billion people will inhabit the earth and food production will need to increase by more than 60%. Food security will therefore represent a matter of global concern not easily tackled with current agriculture practices and [...] Read more.
Current projections estimate that in 2050 about 10 billion people will inhabit the earth and food production will need to increase by more than 60%. Food security will therefore represent a matter of global concern not easily tackled with current agriculture practices and curbed by the increasing scarcity of natural resources and climate change. Disrupting technologies are urgently needed to improve the efficiency of the food production system and to reduce the negative externalities of agriculture (soil erosion, desertification, air pollution, water and soil contamination, biodiversity loss, etc.). Among the most innovative technologies, the production of microbial protein (MP) in controlled and intensive systems called “bioreactors” is receiving increasing attention from research and industry. MP has low arable land requirements, does not directly compete with crop-based food commodities, and uses fertilizers with an almost 100% efficiency. This review considers the potential and limitations of four MP sources currently tested at pilot level or sold as food or feed ingredients: hydrogen oxidizing bacteria (HOB), methanotrophs, fungi, and microalgae (cyanobacteria). The environmental impacts (energy, land, water use, and GHG emissions) of these MP sources are compared with those of plant, animal, insect, and cultured meat-based proteins. Prices are reported to address whether MP may compete with traditional protein sources. Microalgae cultivation under artificial light is discussed as a strategy to ensure independence from weather conditions, continuous operation over the year, as well as high-quality biomass. The main challenges to the spreading of MP use are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microalgae for the Food Industry: From Biomass Production to the Development of Functional Foods)
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