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BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II

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A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292). This special issue belongs to the section "Engineering Remote Sensing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 1 February 2025 | Viewed by 16918

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Prof. Dr. Shuanggen Jin

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Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, China
Interests: GNSS meteorology; remote sensing; space/planetary exploration
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Prof. Dr. Gino Dardanelli

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Department of Engineering, Università degli Studi di Palermo, 90100 Palermo, Italy
Interests: Galileo; GLONASS; GPS; GNSS; CORS; remote sensing; geomatics; dam displacements
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Dr. Mariusz Specht

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Department of Transport and Logistics, Gdynia Maritime University, Morska 81-87, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland
Interests: global navigation satellite systems; civil engineering; geomatics; navigation; hydrography; mapping; earth observation; geospatial science; geoinformation; spatial analysis; geodesy; applied mathematics
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As is well known, due to technological development and continuous scientific improvements and advancements, multi-GNSS could become a milestone in future applications in terms of performance, availability, modernization and hybridization.

After the excellent results of the first edition of the Special Issue “BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation” (with 34 papers submitted, 17 of which were accepted and published, constituting a 50% acceptance), a new version is proposed.

Alongside classic topics of scientific applications such as GNSS, NRTK, PPP, Geodesy, Geohazards, GNSS Meteorology, GNSS Ionosphere and GNSS-reflectometry, it was thought that major emerging applications such as those arising from, for example, GNSS-R Earth Remote Sensing from SmallSats (BuFeng-1, CYGNSS, Fengyun-3, FSSCat, HydroGNSS, PRETTY and Spire CubeSats series) might be of interest in the SI, given that small satellites are changing the Earth’s remote sensing parameters by exploiting innovative payloads. ECOSTRESS and SMAP satellite types, for example, were specifically designed to obtain soil moisture information with dense forest cover, and may be an important improvement in this emerging study. The aim of this Special Issue is to present the latest state-of-the-art findings, which include, but are not limited to, the following:

Troposphere and ionosphere observations, modeling and assimilation from ground and space receivers;
Theories and methods of multi-GNSS NRTK, PPP and PPP-RTK;
Analyzing errors, systematic effects and noise in GNSS solutions;
Surface-loading GNSS observations from atmosphere, hydrology and loading;
GNSS-reflected signals and applications;
Geohazard observation and warning from GNSS.

Prof. Dr. Shuanggen Jin
Prof. Dr. Gino Dardanelli
Dr. Mariusz Specht
Guest Editors

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Keywords

GNSS
NRTK
PPP
geodesy
geohazards
GNSS meteorology
GNSS ionosphere
GNSS-reflectometry
GNSS small satellite
GNSS for autonomous space navigation
GNSS to precision farming (PF)
GNSS interference detection

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Related Special Issue

BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation in Remote Sensing (17 articles)

Published Papers (11 papers)

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18 pages, 6489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Surface Water Level in Coal Mining Subsidence Area with GNSS RTK and GNSS-IR

by Yunwei Li, Tianhe Xu, Hai Guo, Chao Sun, Ying Liu, Guang Gao and Junwei Miao

Remote Sens. 2024, 16(20), 3803; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16203803 - 12 Oct 2024

Viewed by 667

Abstract

Ground subsidence caused by underground coalmining result in the formation of ponding water on the ground surface. Monitoring the surface water level is crucial for studying the hydrologic cycle in mining areas. In this paper, we propose a combined technique using Global Navigation Satellite System Real-Time Kinematic (GNSS RTK) and GNSS Interferometric Reflectometry (GNSS-IR) to estimate the surface water level in areas of ground subsidence caused by underground coal mining. GNSS RTK is used to measure the geodetic height of the GNSS antenna, which is then converted into the normal height using the local height anomaly model. GNSS-IR is employed to estimate the height from the water surface to the GNSS antenna (or, the reflector height). To enhance the accuracy of the reflector height estimation, a weighted average model has been developed. This model is based on the coefficient of determination of the signal fitted by the Lomb-Scargle spectrogram and can be utilized to combine the reflector height estimations derived from multiple GNSS system and band reflection signals. By subtracting the GNSS-IR reflector height from the GNSS RTK-based normal height, the proposed method-based surface water level estimation can be obtained. In an experimental campaign, a low-cost GNSS receiver was utilized for the collection of dual-frequency observations over a period of 60 days. The collected GNSS observations were used to test the method presented in this paper. The experimental campaign demonstrates a good agreement between the surface water level estimations derived from the method presented in this paper and the reference observations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II)

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22 pages, 19354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Commercial GNSS Radio Occultation Performance from PlanetiQ Mission

by Mohamed Zhran, Ashraf Mousa, Yu Wang, Fahdah Falah Ben Hasher and Shuanggen Jin

Remote Sens. 2024, 16(17), 3339; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16173339 - 8 Sep 2024

Viewed by 997

Abstract

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) radio occultation (RO) provides valuable 3-D atmospheric profiles with all-weather, all the time and high accuracy. However, GNSS RO mission data are still limited for global coverage. Currently, more commercial GNSS radio occultation missions are being launched, e.g., PlanetiQ. In this study, we examine the commercial GNSS RO PlanetiQ mission performance in comparison to KOMPSAT-5 and PAZ, including the coverage, SNR, and penetration depth. Additionally, the quality of PlanetiQ RO refractivity profiles is assessed by comparing with the fifth-generation European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) atmospheric reanalysis (ERA5) data in October 2023. Our results ensure that the capability of PlanetiQ to track signals from any GNSS satellite is larger than the ability of KOMPSAT-5 and PAZ. The mean L1 SNR for PlanetiQ is significantly larger than that of KOMPSAT-5 and PAZ. Thus, PlanetiQ performs better in sounding the deeper troposphere. Furthermore, PlanetiQ’s average penetration height ranges from 0.16 to 0.49 km in all latitudinal bands over water. Generally, the refractivity profiles from all three missions exhibit a small bias when compared to ERA5-derived refractivity and typically remain below 1% above 800 hPa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II)

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19 pages, 3836 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal–Longitudinal Variability of Equatorial Plasma Bubbles Observed by FormoSat-7/Constellation Observing System for Meteorology Ionosphere and Climate II and Relevant to the Rayleigh–Taylor Instability

by Lung-Chih Tsai, Shin-Yi Su, Harald Schuh, Mohamad Mahdi Alizadeh and Jens Wickert

Remote Sens. 2024, 16(13), 2310; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16132310 - 25 Jun 2024

Viewed by 756

Abstract

The FormoSat-7/Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate II (FS7/COSMIC2) program has acquired over three hundred thousand equatorial plasma bubble (EPB) observations from 2019 to 2023 in the equatorial and near low-latitude regions. The huge FS7/COSMIC2 database offers an opportunity to perform statistical inspections of the proposed hypothesis on seasonal versus longitudinal variability of EPB occurrence rates relevant to the Rayleigh–Taylor (R-T) instability. The detected EPBs are distributed along the magnetic equator with a half width of ~20° in geomagnetic latitude. The obtained EPB occurrence rates in local time (LT) rose rapidly after sunsets, and could be deconstructed into two overlapped Gaussian distributions resembling a major peak around 23:00 LT and a minor peak around 20:20 LT. The two groups of Gaussian-distributed EPBs in LT were classified as first- and second-type EPBs, which could be caused by different mechanisms such as sporadic E (Es) instabilities and pre-reversal enhancement (PRE) fields. The obtained seasonal–longitudinal distributions of both types of EPBs presented two diffused traces of high occurrence rates, which happened near the days and longitudes when and where the angle between the two lines of magnetic declination and solar terminator at the magnetic equator was equal to zero. Finally, we analyzed the climatological and seasonal–longitudinal variability of EPB occurrences and compared the results with the physical R-T instability model controlled by Es instabilities and/or PRE fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II)

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20 pages, 4067 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Atmospheric Monitoring Capabilities: A Comparison of Low- and High-Cost GNSS Networks for Tropospheric Estimations

by Paolo Dabove and Milad Bagheri

Remote Sens. 2024, 16(12), 2223; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16122223 - 19 Jun 2024

Viewed by 906

Abstract

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signals experience delays when passing through the atmosphere due to the presence of free electrons in the ionosphere and air density in the non-ionized part of the atmosphere, known as the troposphere. The Precise Point Positioning (PPP) technique demonstrates highly accurate positioning along with Zenith Tropospheric Delay (ZTD) estimation. ZTD estimation is valuable for various applications including climate modelling and determining atmospheric water vapor. Current GNSS network resolutions are not completely sufficient for the scale of a few kilometres that regional climate and weather models are increasingly adopting. The Centipede-RTK network is a low-cost option for increasing the spatial resolution of tropospheric monitoring. This study is motivated by the question of whether low-cost GNSS networks can provide a viable alternative without compromising data quality or precision. This study compares the performance of the low-cost Centipede-RTK network in calculating the Zenith Tropospheric Delay (ZTD) to that of the existing EUREF Permanent Network (EPN), using two alternative software packages, RTKLIB demo5 version and CSRS-PPP version 3, to ensure robustness and software independence in the findings. This investigation indicated that the ZTD estimations from both networks are almost identical when processed by the CSRS-PPP software, with the highest mean difference being less than 3.5 cm, confirming that networks such as Centipede-RTK could be a reliable option for dense precise atmospheric monitoring. Furthermore, this study revealed that the Centipede-RTK network, when processed using CSRS-PPP, provides ZTD estimations that are very similar and consistent with the EUREF ZTD product values. These findings suggest that low-cost GNSS networks like Centipede-RTK are viable for enhancing network density, thus improving the spatial resolution of tropospheric monitoring and potentially enriching climate modelling and weather prediction capabilities, paving the way for broader application and research in GNSS meteorology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II)

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19 pages, 2869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Practical Limitations of Using the Tilt Compensation Function of the GNSS/IMU Receiver

by Jelena Gučević, Siniša Delčev and Olivera Vasović Šimšić

Remote Sens. 2024, 16(8), 1327; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16081327 - 10 Apr 2024

Viewed by 4256

Abstract

The research in this paper is related to the accuracy of the tilt compensation function of the GNSS/IMU receivers, which were examined in an open sky environment. The purpose of the paper is to point out to geodesists the conditions and limitations of using GNSS/IMU technology in precise measurements to not jeopardize the coordinate’s accuracy. The environment in which the measurement is made affects the quality of the GNSS signal and can limit the visibility of the satellite, leading to larger errors in the measurement. In this experiment, the current performance of the GNSS/IMU receivers was checked. Seven GNSS/IMU receivers were used for the realization of the experiment. For six receivers the compensation angle was α = 30°, while for one receiver, the compensation angle was α = 45°. The standard uncertainty of GNSS coordinates of the antenna phase center has values less than 9 mm. The standard uncertainty of the IMU component has values less than 31 mm. The measurement uncertainty of the position of the used GNSS receivers is in the range of 18.1 mm to 31.7 mm. The limit values for the differences along the coordinate axes x and y were determined, and their values are from 26 mm to 44 mm. In the conducted experiment, it was confirmed that three GNSS/IMU receivers have a “Satisfactory” result. The results show that GNSS/IMU measurements with a slope greater than 30° significantly affect the accuracy and reliability of GNSS/IMU technology. A slope greater than 45° has a deviation along the coordinate axes of 121.3 mm. The conducted research is particularly important for geodetic works that require high positioning performance. The testing method of the GNSS/IMU receiver presented in this paper can help its users to make correct conclusions regarding the coordinate accuracy of the measured point of interest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II)

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28 pages, 3557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Instrument Error Correlation Model for Global Navigation Satellite System Reflectometry

by C. E. Powell, Christopher S. Ruf, Darren S. McKague, Tianlin Wang and Anthony Russel

Remote Sens. 2024, 16(5), 742; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16050742 - 20 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1043

Abstract

All sensing systems have some inherent error. Often, these errors are systematic, and observations taken within a similar region of space and time can have correlated error structure. However, the data from these systems are frequently assumed to have completely independent and uncorrelated error. This work introduces a correlated error model for GNSS reflectometry (GNSS-R) using observations from NASA’s Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System (CYGNSS). We validate our model against near-simultaneous observations between two CYGNSS satellites and double-difference our results with modeled observables to extract the correlated error structure due to the observing system itself. Our results are useful to catalog for future GNSS-R missions and can be applied to construct an error covariance matrix for weather data assimilation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II)

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23 pages, 2990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Approach to Evaluate GNSS-RO Signal Receiver Performance in Terms of Ground-Based Atmospheric Occultation Simulation System

by Wei Li, Yueqiang Sun, Weihua Bai, Qifei Du, Xianyi Wang, Dongwei Wang, Congliang Liu, Fu Li, Shengyu Kang and Hongqing Song

Remote Sens. 2024, 16(1), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16010087 - 25 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1099

Abstract

The global navigation satellite system radio occultation (GNSS-RO) is an important means of space-based meteorological observation. It is necessary to test the Global Navigation Satellite System Occultation signal receiver on the ground before the deployment of space-based occultation detection systems. The current approach of testing the GNSS signal receiver on the ground is mainly the mountaintop-based testing approach, which has problems such as high cost and large simulation error. In order to overcome the limitations of the mountaintop-based test approach, this paper proposes an accurate, repeatable, and controllable GNSS atmospheric occultation simulation system and builds a load performance evaluation approach based on the ground-based GNSS atmospheric occultation simulation system on the basis of it. The GNSS atmospheric occultation simulation system consists of the visualization and interaction module, the GNSS-RO simulation signal generation module, the GNSS-RO simulator module, the GNSS-RO signal receiver module, and the GNSS-RO inversion and evaluation module, combined with the preset atmospheric model to generate GNSS-RO simulation signals with a high degree of simulation, and comparing the atmospheric parameters of the inversion performance of the GNSS-RO signal receiver with the parameters of the preset atmospheric model to obtain the error data. The overall performance of the GNSS-RO signal receiver can be evaluated based on the error information. The novel approach to evaluate the GNSS-RO signal receiver performance proposed in this paper is validated by using the FY-3E (FengYun-3E) receiver qualification parts that have been verified in orbit, and the results confirm that the approach can meet the requirements of the GNSS-RO receiver performance test. This study shows that the novel approach to evaluate the GNSS-RO signal receiver performance in terms of the ground-based atmospheric occultation simulation system can efficiently and accurately be used to carry out the receiver test and provides an effective solution for the ground-based test of GNSS-RO signal receivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II)

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19 pages, 3243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation and Evaluation of Zenith Tropospheric Delay from Single and Multiple GNSS Observations

by Sai Xia, Shuanggen Jin and Xuzhan Jin

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(23), 5457; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15235457 - 22 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1515

Abstract

Multi-Global Navigation Satellite Systems (multi-GNSS) (including GPS, BDS, Galileo, and GLONASS) provide a significant opportunity for high-quality zenith tropospheric delay estimation and its applications in meteorology. However, the performance of zenith total delay (ZTD) retrieval from single- or multi-GNSS observations is not clear, particularly from the new, fully operating BDS-3. In this paper, zenith tropospheric delay is estimated using the single-, dual-, triple-, or four-GNSS Precise Point Positioning (PPP) technique from 55 Multi-GNSS Experiment (MGEX) stations over one year. The performance of GNSS ZTD estimation is evaluated using the International GNSS Service (IGS) standard tropospheric products, radiosonde, and the fifth-generation European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) reanalysis (ERA5). The results show that the GPS-derived ZTD time series is more consistent and reliable than those derived from BDS-only, Galileo-only, and GLONASS-only solutions. The performance of the single-GNSS ZTD solution can be enhanced with better accuracy and stability by combining multi-GNSS observations. The accuracy of the ZTD from multi-GNSS observations is improved by 13.8%, 43.8%, 27.6%, and 22.9% with respect to IGS products for the single-system solution (GPS, BDS, Galileo, and GLONASS), respectively. The ZTD from multi-GNSS observations presents higher accuracy and a significant improvement with respect to radiosonde and ERA5 data when compared to the single-system solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II)

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23 pages, 17870 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatio-Temporal Validation of GNSS-Derived Global Ionosphere Maps Using 16 Years of Jason Satellites Observations

by Mateusz Poniatowski, Grzegorz Nykiel, Claudia Borries and Jędrzej Szmytkowski

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(20), 5053; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15205053 - 21 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1827

Abstract

Existing ionospheric models perform very well in mapping the calm state of the ionosphere. However, the problem is accurately determining the total electron content (TEC) for disturbed days. Knowledge of the exact electron density is essential for single−frequency receivers, which cannot eliminate the ionospheric delay. This study aims to investigate temporal and spatial variability in the distribution of TEC based on differences between maps of individual Ionospheric Associated Analysis Centers (IAACs) of the International GNSS Service (IGS) and aligned altimetry−TEC from 2005–2021. Based on the temporal distribution, we have observed a significant effect of solar activity on the mean and standard deviation behavior of the differences between global ionospheric maps (GIMs) and Jason−derived TEC. We determined the biases for the entire calculation period, through which it can be concluded that the upcg-Jason and igsg-Jason differences have the lowest standard deviation (±1.81 TECU). In addition, the temporal analysis made it possible to detect annual, semi−annual, and 117-day oscillations occurring in the Jason−TEC data, as well as 121-day oscillations in the GIMs. It also allowed us to analyze the potential sources of these cyclicities, solar and geomagnetic activity, in the case of the annual and semi−annual periodicities. When considering spatial variations, we have observed that the most significant average differences are in the intertropical areas. In contrast, the smallest differences were recorded in the southern hemisphere, below the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S). However, the slightest variations were noted for the northern hemisphere above the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N). Our research presented in this paper allows a better understanding of how different methods of GNSS TEC approximation affect the model’s accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II)

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18 pages, 4203 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Selection of Basic Functions for a Time-Varying Model of Unmodeled Errors in Medium and Long GNSS Baselines

by Jiafu Wang, Xianwen Yu, Angela Aragon-Angel, Adria Rovira-Garcia and Hao Wang

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(20), 5022; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15205022 - 19 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 976

Abstract

Unmodeled errors play a critical role in improving the positioning accuracy of Global Navigation Satellite Systems. Few studies have addressed unmodeled errors in medium and long baselines using their time correlation, which is highly beneficial for achieving a precise and real-time solution. However, before tackling unmodeled errors, it is first necessary to determine reasonable basic functions to fit such unmodeled errors. Therefore, we study the selection of basic functions for time-varying unmodeled errors in two positioning modes: estimating atmospheric delays and using an IF combination. We choose three basic functions: polynomials, sinusoidal functions, and combinatorial functions. Fitting experiments and positioning experiments are conducted using the unmodeled error data provided by four baselines ranging from 30 to 220 km. The Root Mean Square Errors fitted by the second order are approximately 2 mm. The corresponding residuals generally converge to 3 mm in about 30 s. After correcting the observations using the fitted unmodeled errors of the second-order polynomial, the positioning results show improvements of about 40% to 80% in all directions. We conclude that the second-order polynomial is the optimal basic function in all two positioning modes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II)

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12 pages, 5666 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Ionosphere Total Electron Content Modeling and Multi-Type Differential Code Bias Estimation Using Multi-Mode and Multi-Frequency Global Navigation Satellite System Observations

by Qisheng Wang, Jiaru Zhu and Feng Hu

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(18), 4607; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15184607 - 19 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1256

Abstract

With the rapid development of multi-mode and multi-frequency GNSSs (including GPS, GLONASS, BDS, Galileo, and QZSS), more observations for research on ionosphere can be provided. The Global Ionospheric Map (GIM) products are generated based on the observation of multi-mode and multi-frequency GNSSs, and comparisons with other GIMs provided by the ionosphere analysis centers are provided in this paper. Taking the CODE (Center of Orbit Determination in Europe) GIM as a reference during 30 days in January 2019, for the GIMs from JPL (Jet Puls Laboratory), UPC (Technical University of Catalonia), ESA (European Space Agency), WHU (Wuhan University), CAS (Chinese Academy of Sciences), and MMG (The multi-mode and multi-frequency GNSS observations used in this paper), the mean bias with respect to CODE products is 1.87, 1.30, −0.10, 0.01, −0.02, and −0.71 TECu, and the RMS is 2.12, 2.00, 1.33, 0.88, 0.88, and 1.30 TECu, respectively. The estimated multi-type DCB is also in good agreement with the DCB products provided by the MGEX. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BDS/GNSS for Earth Observation: Part II)

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