Sensors

Research

15 pages, 3808 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On-Ground Vineyard Reconstruction Using a LiDAR-Based Automated System

by Hugo Moreno, Constantino Valero, José María Bengochea-Guevara, Ángela Ribeiro, Miguel Garrido-Izard and Dionisio Andújar

Sensors 2020, 20(4), 1102; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20041102 - 18 Feb 2020

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 5110

Abstract

Crop 3D modeling allows site-specific management at different crop stages. In recent years, light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensors have been widely used for gathering information about plant architecture to extract biophysical parameters for decision-making programs. The study reconstructed vineyard crops using light [...] Read more.

Crop 3D modeling allows site-specific management at different crop stages. In recent years, light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensors have been widely used for gathering information about plant architecture to extract biophysical parameters for decision-making programs. The study reconstructed vineyard crops using light detection and ranging (LiDAR) technology. Its accuracy and performance were assessed for vineyard crop characterization using distance measurements, aiming to obtain a 3D reconstruction. A LiDAR sensor was installed on-board a mobile platform equipped with an RTK-GNSS receiver for crop 2D scanning. The LiDAR system consisted of a 2D time-of-flight sensor, a gimbal connecting the device to the structure, and an RTK-GPS to record the sensor data position. The LiDAR sensor was facing downwards installed on-board an electric platform. It scans in planes perpendicular to the travel direction. Measurements of distance between the LiDAR and the vineyards had a high spatial resolution, providing high-density 3D point clouds. The 3D point cloud was obtained containing all the points where the laser beam impacted. The fusion of LiDAR impacts and the positions of each associated to the RTK-GPS allowed the creation of the 3D structure. Although point clouds were already filtered, discarding points out of the study area, the branch volume cannot be directly calculated, since it turns into a 3D solid cluster that encloses a volume. To obtain the 3D object surface, and therefore to be able to calculate the volume enclosed by this surface, a suitable alpha shape was generated as an outline that envelops the outer points of the point cloud. The 3D scenes were obtained during the winter season when only branches were present and defoliated. The models were used to extract information related to height and branch volume. These models might be used for automatic pruning or relating this parameter to evaluate the future yield at each location. The 3D map was correlated with ground truth, which was manually determined, pruning the remaining weight. The number of scans by LiDAR influenced the relationship with the actual biomass measurements and had a significant effect on the treatments. A positive linear fit was obtained for the comparison between actual dry biomass and LiDAR volume. The influence of individual treatments was of low significance. The results showed strong correlations with actual values of biomass and volume with R2 = 0.75, and when comparing LiDAR scans with weight, the R2 rose up to 0.85. The obtained values show that this LiDAR technique is also valid for branch reconstruction with great advantages over other types of non-contact ranging sensors, regarding a high sampling resolution and high sampling rates. Even narrow branches were properly detected, which demonstrates the accuracy of the system working on difficult scenarios such as defoliated crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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15 pages, 3740 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Crop Canopy Localization Method Based on Ultrasonic Ranging and Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technique Algorithm

by Fang Li, Xiaohu Bai and Yongkui Li

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030818 - 3 Feb 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2693

Abstract

To protect crops from diseases and increase yields, chemical agents are applied by boom sprayers. To achieve the optimal effect, the boom and the crop canopy should be kept at an appropriate distance. So, it is crucial to be able to distinguish the [...] Read more.

To protect crops from diseases and increase yields, chemical agents are applied by boom sprayers. To achieve the optimal effect, the boom and the crop canopy should be kept at an appropriate distance. So, it is crucial to be able to distinguish the crop canopy from other plant leaves. Based on ultrasonic ranging, this paper adopts the fuzzy iterative self-organizing data analysis technique algorithm to identify the canopy location. According to the structural characteristics of the crop canopy, based on fuzzy clustering, the algorithm can dynamically adjust the number and center of clusters so as to get the optimal results. Therefore, the distances from the sensor to the canopy or the ground can be accurately acquired, and the influence of lower leaves on the measurement results can be alleviated. Potted corn plants from the 3-leaf stage to the 6-leaf stage were tested on an experiment bench. The results showed that the calculated distances from the sensor to the canopy using this method had good correlation with the manually measured distances. The maximum error of calculated values appeared at the 3-leaf stage. With the growth of plants, the error of calculated values decreased. The increased sensor moving speeds led to increased error due to the reduced data points. From the 3-leaf stage to the 5-leaf stage, the distances from the sensor to the ground can also be obtained at the same time. The method proposed in this paper provides a practical resolution to localize the canopy for adjusting the height of sprayer boom. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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17 pages, 1112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Artificial Neural Networks for Forecasting of Air Temperature inside a Heated Foil Tunnel

by Sławomir Francik and Sławomir Kurpaska

Sensors 2020, 20(3), 652; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030652 - 24 Jan 2020

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 3689

Abstract

It is important to correctly predict the microclimate of a greenhouse for control and crop management purposes. Accurately forecasting temperatures in greenhouses has been a focus of research because internal temperature is one of the most important factors influencing crop growth. Artificial Neural [...] Read more.

It is important to correctly predict the microclimate of a greenhouse for control and crop management purposes. Accurately forecasting temperatures in greenhouses has been a focus of research because internal temperature is one of the most important factors influencing crop growth. Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are a powerful tool for making forecasts. The purpose of our research was elaboration of a model that would allow to forecast changes in temperatures inside the heated foil tunnel using ANNs. Experimental research has been carried out in a heated foil tunnel situated on the property of the Agricultural University of Krakow. Obtained results have served as data for ANNs. Conducted research confirmed the usefulness of ANNs as tools for making internal temperature forecasts. From all tested networks, the best is the three-layer Perceptron type network with 10 neurons in the hidden layer. This network has 40 inputs and one output (the forecasted internal temperature). As the networks input previous historical internal temperature, external temperature, sun radiation intensity, wind speed and the hour of making a forecast were used. These ANNs had the lowest Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) value for the testing data set (RMSE value = 3.7 °C). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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14 pages, 3130 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Laying Hens’ Thermal Comfort Using Sound Technology

by Xiaodong Du, Lenn Carpentier, Guanghui Teng, Mulin Liu, Chaoyuan Wang and Tomas Norton

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020473 - 14 Jan 2020

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5855

Abstract

Heat stress is one of the most important environmental stressors facing poultry production and welfare worldwide. The detrimental effects of heat stress on poultry range from reduced growth and egg production to impaired health. Animal vocalisations are associated with different animal responses and [...] Read more.

Heat stress is one of the most important environmental stressors facing poultry production and welfare worldwide. The detrimental effects of heat stress on poultry range from reduced growth and egg production to impaired health. Animal vocalisations are associated with different animal responses and can be used as useful indicators of the state of animal welfare. It is already known that specific chicken vocalisations such as alarm, squawk, and gakel calls are correlated with stressful events, and therefore, could be used as stress indicators in poultry monitoring systems. In this study, we focused on developing a hen vocalisation detection method based on machine learning to assess their thermal comfort condition. For extraction of the vocalisations, nine source-filter theory related temporal and spectral features were chosen, and a support vector machine (SVM) based classifier was developed. As a result, the classification performance of the optimal SVM model was 95.1 ± 4.3% (the sensitivity parameter) and 97.6 ± 1.9% (the precision parameter). Based on the developed algorithm, the study illustrated that a significant correlation existed between specific vocalisations (alarm and squawk call) and thermal comfort indices (temperature-humidity index, THI) (alarm-THI, R = −0.414, P = 0.01; squawk-THI, R = 0.594, P = 0.01). This work represents the first step towards the further development of technology to monitor flock vocalisations with the intent of providing producers an additional tool to help them actively manage the welfare of their flock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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17 pages, 5675 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of an Open-Source Thermal Image Processing Software for Improving Irrigation Management in Potato Crops (Solanum tuberosum L.)

by Gonzalo Cucho-Padin, Javier Rinza, Johan Ninanya, Hildo Loayza, Roberto Quiroz and David A. Ramírez

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020472 - 14 Jan 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 8924

Abstract

Accurate determination of plant water status is mandatory to optimize irrigation scheduling and thus maximize yield. Infrared thermography (IRT) can be used as a proxy for detecting stomatal closure as a measure of plant water stress. In this study, an open-source software (Thermal [...] Read more.

Accurate determination of plant water status is mandatory to optimize irrigation scheduling and thus maximize yield. Infrared thermography (IRT) can be used as a proxy for detecting stomatal closure as a measure of plant water stress. In this study, an open-source software (Thermal Image Processor (TIPCIP)) that includes image processing techniques such as thermal-visible image segmentation and morphological operations was developed to estimate the crop water stress index (CWSI) in potato crops. Results were compared to the CWSI derived from thermocouples where a high correlation was found (

r_{P e a r s o n}

= 0.84). To evaluate the effectiveness of the software, two experiments were implemented. TIPCIP-based canopy temperature was used to estimate CWSI throughout the growing season, in a humid environment. Two treatments with different irrigation timings were established based on CWSI thresholds: 0.4 (T2) and 0.7 (T3), and compared against a control (T1, irrigated when soil moisture achieved 70% of field capacity). As a result, T2 showed no significant reduction in fresh tuber yield (34.5 ± 3.72 and 44.3 ± 2.66 t ha

^{- 1}

), allowing a total water saving of 341.6 ± 63.65 and 515.7 ± 37.73 m

^{3}

ha

^{- 1}

in the first and second experiment, respectively. The findings have encouraged the initiation of experiments to automate the use of the CWSI for precision irrigation using either UAVs in large settings or by adapting TIPCIP to process data from smartphone-based IRT sensors for applications in smallholder settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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27 pages, 10003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laboratory Calibration and Performance Evaluation of Low-Cost Capacitive and Very Low-Cost Resistive Soil Moisture Sensors

by Soham Adla, Neeraj Kumar Rai, Sri Harsha Karumanchi, Shivam Tripathi, Markus Disse and Saket Pande

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020363 - 8 Jan 2020

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 10905

Abstract

Soil volumetric water content (

V W C

) is a vital parameter to understand several ecohydrological and environmental processes. Its cost-effective measurement can potentially drive various technological tools to promote data-driven sustainable agriculture through supplemental irrigation solutions, the lack of which has [...] Read more.

Soil volumetric water content (

V W C

) is a vital parameter to understand several ecohydrological and environmental processes. Its cost-effective measurement can potentially drive various technological tools to promote data-driven sustainable agriculture through supplemental irrigation solutions, the lack of which has contributed to severe agricultural distress, particularly for smallholder farmers. The cost of commercially available

V W C

sensors varies over four orders of magnitude. A laboratory study characterizing and testing sensors from this wide range of cost categories, which is a prerequisite to explore their applicability for irrigation management, has not been conducted. Within this context, two low-cost capacitive sensors—SMEC300 and SM100—manufactured by Spectrum Technologies Inc. (Aurora, IL, USA), and two very low-cost resistive sensors—the Soil Hygrometer Detection Module Soil Moisture Sensor (YL100) by Electronicfans and the Generic Soil Moisture Sensor Module (YL69) by KitsGuru—were tested for performance in laboratory conditions. Each sensor was calibrated in different repacked soils, and tested to evaluate accuracy, precision and sensitivity to variations in temperature and salinity. The capacitive sensors were additionally tested for their performance in liquids of known dielectric constants, and a comparative analysis of the calibration equations developed in-house and provided by the manufacturer was carried out. The value for money of the sensors is reflected in their precision performance, i.e., the precision performance largely follows sensor costs. The other aspects of sensor performance do not necessarily follow sensor costs. The low-cost capacitive sensors were more accurate than manufacturer specifications, and could match the performance of the secondary standard sensor, after soil specific calibration. SMEC300 is accurate (

M A E

,

R M S E

, and

R A E

of 2.12%, 2.88% and 0.28 respectively), precise, and performed well considering its price as well as multi-purpose sensing capabilities. The less-expensive SM100 sensor had a better accuracy (

M A E

,

R M S E

, and

R A E

of 1.67%, 2.36% and 0.21 respectively) but poorer precision than the SMEC300. However, it was established as a robust, field ready, low-cost sensor due to its more consistent performance in soils (particularly the field soil) and superior performance in fluids. Both the capacitive sensors responded reasonably to variations in temperature and salinity conditions. Though the resistive sensors were less accurate and precise compared to the capacitive sensors, they performed well considering their cost category. The YL100 was more accurate (

M A E

,

R M S E

, and

R A E

of 3.51%, 5.21% and 0.37 respectively) than YL69 (

M A E

,

R M S E

, and

R A E

of 4.13%, 5.54%, and 0.41, respectively). However, YL69 outperformed YL100 in terms of precision, and response to temperature and salinity variations, to emerge as a more robust resistive sensor. These very low-cost sensors may be used in combination with more accurate sensors to better characterize the spatiotemporal variability of field scale soil moisture. The laboratory characterization conducted in this study is a prerequisite to estimate the effect of low- and very low-cost sensor measurements on the efficiency of soil moisture based irrigation scheduling systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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Graphical abstract

17 pages, 4085 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Convolutional Neural Networks for Cage-Free Floor Egg Detection

by Guoming Li, Yan Xu, Yang Zhao, Qian Du and Yanbo Huang

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020332 - 7 Jan 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5675

Abstract

The manual collection of eggs laid on the floor (or ‘floor eggs’) in cage-free (CF) laying hen housing is strenuous and time-consuming. Using robots for automatic floor egg collection offers a novel solution to reduce labor yet relies on robust egg detection systems. [...] Read more.

The manual collection of eggs laid on the floor (or ‘floor eggs’) in cage-free (CF) laying hen housing is strenuous and time-consuming. Using robots for automatic floor egg collection offers a novel solution to reduce labor yet relies on robust egg detection systems. This study sought to develop vision-based floor-egg detectors using three Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), i.e., single shot detector (SSD), faster region-based CNN (faster R-CNN), and region-based fully convolutional network (R-FCN), and evaluate their performance on floor egg detection under simulated CF environments. The results show that the SSD detector had the highest precision (99.9 ± 0.1%) and fastest processing speed (125.1 ± 2.7 ms·image⁻¹) but the lowest recall (72.1 ± 7.2%) and accuracy (72.0 ± 7.2%) among the three floor-egg detectors. The R-FCN detector had the slowest processing speed (243.2 ± 1.0 ms·image⁻¹) and the lowest precision (93.3 ± 2.4%). The faster R-CNN detector had the best performance in floor egg detection with the highest recall (98.4 ± 0.4%) and accuracy (98.1 ± 0.3%), and a medium prevision (99.7 ± 0.2%) and image processing speed (201.5 ± 2.3 ms·image⁻¹); thus, the faster R-CNN detector was selected as the optimal model. The faster R-CNN detector performed almost perfectly for floor egg detection under a wide range of simulated CF environments and system settings, except for brown egg detection at 1 lux light intensity. When tested under random settings, the faster R-CNN detector had 91.9–94.7% precision, 99.8–100.0% recall, and 91.9–94.5% accuracy for floor egg detection. It is concluded that a properly-trained CNN floor-egg detector may accurately detect floor eggs under CF housing environments and has the potential to serve as a crucial vision-based component for robotic floor egg collection systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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14 pages, 6905 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fruit Battery with Charging Concept for Oil Palm Maturity Sensor

by Norhisam Misron, Nisa Syakirah Kamal Azhar, Mohd Nizar Hamidon, Ishak Aris, Kunihisa Tashiro and Hirokazu Nagata

Sensors 2020, 20(1), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20010226 - 31 Dec 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4640

Abstract

There are many factors affecting oil extraction rate (OER) but a large contributor to high national OER is by processing good-quality fresh fruit bunches (FFB) at the mills. The current practice for grading oil palm fruit bunches in mills is using human graders [...] Read more.

There are many factors affecting oil extraction rate (OER) but a large contributor to high national OER is by processing good-quality fresh fruit bunches (FFB) at the mills. The current practice for grading oil palm fruit bunches in mills is using human graders for visual inspection, which can lead to repeated mistakes, inconsistent evaluation results, and many other related losses. This study aims to develop a fruit maturity sensor that can detect oil palm fruit maturity grade and send indication to the user whether to accept or reject the bunches. This study focuses on fruit battery principle and applying the charging concept to the fruit battery in order to generate significant load voltage readings of oil palm fruit battery. The charging process resulted in amplified load voltage readings, which were 4 times more sensitive to changes as compared to normal fruit battery without charging process. From the load voltage readings, the fruits can be characterized into their maturity grade based on moisture content. It was determined that fruits with moisture content less than 44% and average load voltage, V_avg, between 20 to 30 mV are considered ripe fruits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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18 pages, 3658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Solar Radiation for Tomato Water Requirement Calculation in Chinese-Style Solar Greenhouses Based on Least Mean Squares Filter

by Dapeng Zhang, Tieyan Zhang, Jianwei Ji, Zhouping Sun, Yonggang Wang, Yitong Sun and Qingji Li

Sensors 2020, 20(1), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20010155 - 25 Dec 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3509

Abstract

The area covered by Chinese-style solar greenhouses (CSGs) has been increasing rapidly. However, only a few pyranometers, which are fundamental for solar radiation sensing, have been installed inside CSGs. The lack of solar radiation sensing will bring negative effects in greenhouse cultivation such [...] Read more.

The area covered by Chinese-style solar greenhouses (CSGs) has been increasing rapidly. However, only a few pyranometers, which are fundamental for solar radiation sensing, have been installed inside CSGs. The lack of solar radiation sensing will bring negative effects in greenhouse cultivation such as over irrigation or under irrigation, and unnecessary power consumption. We aim to provide accurate and low-cost solar radiation estimation methods that are urgently needed. In this paper, a method of estimation of solar radiation inside CSGs based on a least mean squares (LMS) filter is proposed. The water required for tomato growth was also calculated based on the estimated solar radiation. Then, we compared the accuracy of this method to methods based on knowledge of astronomy and geometry for both solar radiation estimation and tomato water requirement. The results showed that the fitting function of estimation data based on the LMS filter and data collected from sensors inside the greenhouse was y = 0.7634x + 50.58, with the evaluation parameters of R² = 0.8384, rRMSE = 23.1%, RMSE = 37.6 Wm⁻², and MAE = 25.4 Wm⁻². The fitting function of the water requirement calculated according to the proposed method and data collected from sensors inside the greenhouse was y = 0.8550x + 99.10 with the evaluation parameters of R² = 0.9123, rRMSE = 8.8%, RMSE = 40.4 mL plant⁻¹, and MAE = 31.5 mL plant⁻¹. The results also indicate that this method is more effective. Additionally, its accuracy decreases as cloud cover increases. The performance is due to the LMS filter’s low pass characteristic that smooth the fluctuations. Furthermore, the LMS filter can be easily implemented on low cost processors. Therefore, the adoption of the proposed method is useful to improve the solar radiation sensing in CSGs with more accuracy and less expense. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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20 pages, 3789 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nondestructive Determination of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium Contents in Greenhouse Tomato Plants Based on Multispectral Three-Dimensional Imaging

by Guoxiang Sun, Yongqian Ding, Xiaochan Wang, Wei Lu, Ye Sun and Hongfeng Yu

Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5295; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235295 - 1 Dec 2019

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 7067

Abstract

Measurement of plant nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) levels are important for determining precise fertilization management approaches for crops cultivated in greenhouses. To accurately, rapidly, stably, and nondestructively measure the NPK levels in tomato plants, a nondestructive determination method based on [...] Read more.

Measurement of plant nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) levels are important for determining precise fertilization management approaches for crops cultivated in greenhouses. To accurately, rapidly, stably, and nondestructively measure the NPK levels in tomato plants, a nondestructive determination method based on multispectral three-dimensional (3D) imaging was proposed. Multiview RGB-D images and multispectral images were synchronously collected, and the plant multispectral reflectance was registered to the depth coordinates according to Fourier transform principles. Based on the Kinect sensor pose estimation and self-calibration, the unified transformation of the multiview point cloud coordinate system was realized. Finally, the iterative closest point (ICP) algorithm was used for the precise registration of multiview point clouds and the reconstruction of plant multispectral 3D point cloud models. Using the normalized grayscale similarity coefficient, the degree of spectral overlap, and the Hausdorff distance set, the accuracy of the reconstructed multispectral 3D point clouds was quantitatively evaluated, the average value was 0.9116, 0.9343 and 0.41 cm, respectively. The results indicated that the multispectral reflectance could be registered to the Kinect depth coordinates accurately based on the Fourier transform principles, the reconstruction accuracy of the multispectral 3D point cloud model met the model reconstruction needs of tomato plants. Using back-propagation artificial neural network (BPANN), support vector machine regression (SVMR), and gaussian process regression (GPR) methods, determination models for the NPK contents in tomato plants based on the reflectance characteristics of plant multispectral 3D point cloud models were separately constructed. The relative error (RE) of the N content by BPANN, SVMR and GPR prediction models were 2.27%, 7.46% and 4.03%, respectively. The RE of the P content by BPANN, SVMR and GPR prediction models were 3.32%, 8.92% and 8.41%, respectively. The RE of the K content by BPANN, SVMR and GPR prediction models were 3.27%, 5.73% and 3.32%, respectively. These models provided highly efficient and accurate measurements of the NPK contents in tomato plants. The NPK contents determination performance of these models were more stable than those of single-view models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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16 pages, 3489 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Low-Input Estimation of Site-Specific Lime Demand Based on Apparent Soil Electrical Conductivity and In Situ Determined Topsoil pH

by Moritz von Cossel, Harm Druecker and Eberhard Hartung

Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5280; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235280 - 30 Nov 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3718

Abstract

Site-specific liming helps increase efficiency in agricultural production. For adequate determination of the lime demand, a combination of apparent soil electrical conductivity (EC_a) and topsoil pH can be used. Here, it was hypothesized that this can also be done at low-input [...] Read more.

Site-specific liming helps increase efficiency in agricultural production. For adequate determination of the lime demand, a combination of apparent soil electrical conductivity (EC_a) and topsoil pH can be used. Here, it was hypothesized that this can also be done at low-input level. Field measurements using the EM38 MK I (Geonics, Canada) were conducted on three experimental sites in north Germany in 2011. The topsoil pH was measured based on two approaches: on the field using a handheld pH meter (Spectrum-Technologies Ltd., Bridgend, UK) with a flat electrode (in situ), and in the lab using standard equipment (ex situ). Both soil EC_a (0.4–35.9 mS m⁻¹) and pH (5.13–7.41) were heterogeneously distributed across the sites. The same was true of the lime demand (−1.35–4.18 Mg ha⁻¹). There was a significant correlation between in situ and ex situ determined topsoil pH (r = 0.89; p < 0.0001). This correlation was further improved through non-linear regression (r = 0.92; p < 0.0001). Thus, in situ topsoil pH was found suitable for map-overlay with EC_a to determine the site-specific lime demand. Consequently, the hypothesis could be confirmed: The combined use of data from EM38 and handheld pH meters is a promising low-input approach that may help implement site-specific liming in developing countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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26 pages, 2877 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theory and Guidelines for the Application of the Geophysical Sensor EM38

by Kurt Heil and Urs Schmidhalter

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4293; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194293 - 3 Oct 2019

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5102

Abstract

Characterization of spatial soil variability is key for a better understanding of soils. To arrive at such information geophysical techniques have been used in the last two decades. Due to its easy handling, the geophysical sensor EM38 has widely been used to characterize [...] Read more.

Characterization of spatial soil variability is key for a better understanding of soils. To arrive at such information geophysical techniques have been used in the last two decades. Due to its easy handling, the geophysical sensor EM38 has widely been used to characterize agricultural areas. The theoretical background and usage of the EM38 is described, and based on multifaceted applications, the interpretation of the results as well as optimized steps for using it are outlined. Common principles and models of the apparent electrical conductivity (EC_a) and strengths and limitations of this technique (calibration and temperature effects) are described as well as additional applications, such as the magnetic susceptibility, a comparison of measurements in vertical and horizontal modes, the use of weighted depth information and the influence of measurement conditions are addressed. Further a comparison of EM38 with other proximal soil sensors and fusion with other devices is described. The study reveals that EM38 is useful because the readings can reflect many different soil parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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16 pages, 1619 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensors Driven AI-Based Agriculture Recommendation Model for Assessing Land Suitability

by Durai Raj Vincent, N Deepa, Dhivya Elavarasan, Kathiravan Srinivasan, Sajjad Hussain Chauhdary and Celestine Iwendi

Sensors 2019, 19(17), 3667; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19173667 - 23 Aug 2019

Cited by 157 | Viewed by 14967

Abstract

The world population is expected to grow by another two billion in 2050, according to the survey taken by the Food and Agriculture Organization, while the arable area is likely to grow only by 5%. Therefore, smart and efficient farming techniques are necessary [...] Read more.

The world population is expected to grow by another two billion in 2050, according to the survey taken by the Food and Agriculture Organization, while the arable area is likely to grow only by 5%. Therefore, smart and efficient farming techniques are necessary to improve agriculture productivity. Agriculture land suitability assessment is one of the essential tools for agriculture development. Several new technologies and innovations are being implemented in agriculture as an alternative to collect and process farm information. The rapid development of wireless sensor networks has triggered the design of low-cost and small sensor devices with the Internet of Things (IoT) empowered as a feasible tool for automating and decision-making in the domain of agriculture. This research proposes an expert system by integrating sensor networks with Artificial Intelligence systems such as neural networks and Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) for the assessment of agriculture land suitability. This proposed system will help the farmers to assess the agriculture land for cultivation in terms of four decision classes, namely more suitable, suitable, moderately suitable, and unsuitable. This assessment is determined based on the input collected from the various sensor devices, which are used for training the system. The results obtained using MLP with four hidden layers is found to be effective for the multiclass classification system when compared to the other existing model. This trained model will be used for evaluating future assessments and classifying the land after every cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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14 pages, 2147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Cost Three-Dimensional Modeling of Crop Plants

by Jorge Martinez-Guanter, Ángela Ribeiro, Gerassimos G. Peteinatos, Manuel Pérez-Ruiz, Roland Gerhards, José María Bengochea-Guevara, Jannis Machleb and Dionisio Andújar

Sensors 2019, 19(13), 2883; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19132883 - 28 Jun 2019

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4951

Abstract

Plant modeling can provide a more detailed overview regarding the basis of plant development throughout the life cycle. Three-dimensional processing algorithms are rapidly expanding in plant phenotyping programmes and in decision-making for agronomic management. Several methods have already been tested, but for practical [...] Read more.

Plant modeling can provide a more detailed overview regarding the basis of plant development throughout the life cycle. Three-dimensional processing algorithms are rapidly expanding in plant phenotyping programmes and in decision-making for agronomic management. Several methods have already been tested, but for practical implementations the trade-off between equipment cost, computational resources needed and the fidelity and accuracy in the reconstruction of the end-details needs to be assessed and quantified. This study examined the suitability of two low-cost systems for plant reconstruction. A low-cost Structure from Motion (SfM) technique was used to create 3D models for plant crop reconstruction. In the second method, an acquisition and reconstruction algorithm using an RGB-Depth Kinect v2 sensor was tested following a similar image acquisition procedure. The information was processed to create a dense point cloud, which allowed the creation of a 3D-polygon mesh representing every scanned plant. The selected crop plants corresponded to three different crops (maize, sugar beet and sunflower) that have structural and biological differences. The parameters measured from the model were validated with ground truth data of plant height, leaf area index and plant dry biomass using regression methods. The results showed strong consistency with good correlations between the calculated values in the models and the ground truth information. Although, the values obtained were always accurately estimated, differences between the methods and among the crops were found. The SfM method showed a slightly better result with regard to the reconstruction the end-details and the accuracy of the height estimation. Although the use of the processing algorithm is relatively fast, the use of RGB-D information is faster during the creation of the 3D models. Thus, both methods demonstrated robust results and provided great potential for use in both for indoor and outdoor scenarios. Consequently, these low-cost systems for 3D modeling are suitable for several situations where there is a need for model generation and also provide a favourable time-cost relationship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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10 pages, 2730 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Frequency Domain Impedance Sensor with a Perforated Cylinder Coaxial Design for In-Situ Measuring Soil Matric Potential

by Chao Chen, Xiaofei Yan, Qiang Xu, Song Yu, Yihan Ma, Xianglin Cheng, Zhongyi Wang and Qiang Cheng

Sensors 2019, 19(11), 2626; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19112626 - 10 Jun 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3708

Abstract

Soil matric potential is an important parameter for agricultural and environmental research and applications. In this study, we developed a novel sensor to determine fast and in-situ the soil matric potential. The probe of the soil matric potential sensor comprises a perforated coaxial [...] Read more.

Soil matric potential is an important parameter for agricultural and environmental research and applications. In this study, we developed a novel sensor to determine fast and in-situ the soil matric potential. The probe of the soil matric potential sensor comprises a perforated coaxial stainless steel cylinder filled with a porous material (gypsum). With a pre-determined gypsum water retention curve, the probe can determine the gypsum matric potential through measuring its water content. The matric potential of soil surrounding the probe is inferred by the reading of the sensor after the soil reaches a hydraulic equilibrium with the gypsum. The sensor was calibrated by determining the gypsum water retention curve using a pressure plate method and tested in three soil samples with different textures. The results showed that the novel sensor can determine the water retention curves of the three soil samples from saturated to dry when combined with a soil water content sensor. The novel sensor can respond fast to the changes of the soil matric potential due to its small volume. Future research could explore the application for agriculture field crop irrigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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17 pages, 2935 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Invasive Sensing of Nitrogen in Plant Using Digital Images and Machine Learning for Brassica Campestris ssp. Chinensis L.

by Xin Xiong, Jingjin Zhang, Doudou Guo, Liying Chang and Danfeng Huang

Sensors 2019, 19(11), 2448; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19112448 - 29 May 2019

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4232

Abstract

Monitoring plant nitrogen (N) in a timely way and accurately is critical for precision fertilization. The imaging technology based on visible light is relatively inexpensive and ubiquitous, and open-source analysis tools have proliferated. In this study, texture- and geometry-related phenotyping combined with color [...] Read more.

Monitoring plant nitrogen (N) in a timely way and accurately is critical for precision fertilization. The imaging technology based on visible light is relatively inexpensive and ubiquitous, and open-source analysis tools have proliferated. In this study, texture- and geometry-related phenotyping combined with color properties were investigated for their potential use in evaluating N in pakchoi (Brassica campestris ssp. chinensis L.). Potted pakchoi treated with four levels of N were cultivated in a greenhouse. Their top-view images were acquired using a camera at six growth stages. The corresponding plant N concentration was determined destructively. The quantitative relationships between the nitrogen nutrition index (NNI) and the image-based phenotyping features were established using the following algorithms: random forest (RF), support vector regression (SVR), and neural network (NN). The results showed the full model based on the color, texture, and geometry-related features outperforms the model based on only the color-related feature in predicting the NNI. The RF full model exhibited the most robust performance in both the seedling and harvest stages, reaching prediction accuracies of 0.823 and 0.943, respectively. The high prediction accuracy of the model allows for a low-cost, non-destructive monitoring of N in the field of precision crop management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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15 pages, 9874 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping Tobacco Fields Using UAV RGB Images

by Xiufang Zhu, Guofeng Xiao, Ping Wen, Jinshui Zhang and Chenyao Hou

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1791; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081791 - 15 Apr 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4023

Abstract

Tobacco planting information is an important part of tobacco production management. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote sensing systems have become a popular topic worldwide because they are mobile, rapid and economic. In this paper, an automatic identification method for tobacco fields based on [...] Read more.

Tobacco planting information is an important part of tobacco production management. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote sensing systems have become a popular topic worldwide because they are mobile, rapid and economic. In this paper, an automatic identification method for tobacco fields based on UAV images is developed by combining supervised classifications with image morphological operations, and this method was used in the Yunnan Province, which is the top province for tobacco planting in China. The results show that the produce accuracy, user accuracy, and overall accuracy of tobacco field identification using the method proposed in this paper are 92.59%, 96.61% and 95.93%, respectively. The method proposed in this paper has the advantages of automation, flow process, high accuracy and easy operation, but the ground sampling distance (GSD) of the UAV image has an effect on the accuracy of the proposed method. When the image GSD was reduced to 1 m, the overall accuracy decreased by approximately 10%. To solve this problem, we further introduced the convolution method into the proposed method, which can ensure the recognition accuracy of tobacco field is above 90% when GSD is less than or equal to 1 m. Some other potential improvements of methods for mapping tobacco fields were also discussed in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture 2019)

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