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Soil Systems
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Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management
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Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management

A special issue of Soil Systems (ISSN 2571-8789).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2022) | Viewed by 38526

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Klaus Von Wilpert

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Guest Editor
Department of Soil and Environment, Forest Research Institute of Baden-Württemberg, D-79100 Freiburg, Germany
Interests: forest soils; nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems; forest and water; soil physics; soil compation; techniques of soil recovery

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The specific characteristic of forest soils is their long-term development under a more or less continuous vegetation cover. Trees as long-living organisms and through their magnitude, shape soils in a specific way. A, compared to other land-use types, deeper-reaching rooting zone and high activity of microbes, soil fauna and plant roots result in high humus contents as well as over-proportionally high porosity and continuity of the soil pore system. Forest soils are the habitat of a high diversity of plants, macro-fauna and microbes. Biological networks like the manifold symbioses between trees and mycorrhiza fungi optimize the supply of trees with nutrients and water. Contamination with pesticides is comparably low in forest soils, since forests are nature-near ecosystems. Moreover the high demand of trees and soil biota for essential nutrients like phosphorous and nitrogen leads to low leaching rates of those elements in most forest soils. Both, the low load with pesticides and low leaching of phosphorous and nitrogen make forests to sources of predominantly pure drinking water.

However, some of these functions of forest soils are endangered under the influence of environmental - and climate change or even because of inadequate forest management measures under some circumstances. E.g. the high crown surface of forest combs out acids and nitrogen from air pollution which lead to severe soil acidification in wide parts of Central Europe and other industrialized regions. Also the use of heavy forest machinery can cause soil compaction leading to deficits in soil aeration which can restrict the rooting space for forest trees to the uppermost soil layers. Moreover the optimization of the C-sequestration and greenhouse gas balances of forest soils through specific forest management practices is a topic of high actuality.

The scope of the special issue is to address the specific functions of forest soils, processes which endanger the integrity of these functions and management approaches to counteract the threats of soil functions and to preserve or recover them.

Dr. Klaus von Wilpert
Guest Editor

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 186 KiB  
Editorial
Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management
by Klaus von Wilpert
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(3), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6030060 - 11 Jul 2022
Viewed by 2057
Abstract
The specific characteristic of forest soils is their long-term development under a more-or-less continuous vegetation cover [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

17 pages, 3452 KiB  
Article
Recovery of Soil Structure and Fine Root Distribution in Compacted Forest Soils
by Jürgen Schäffer
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(2), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6020049 - 24 May 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2570
Abstract
Soil compaction is a major concern in the context of ensuring sustainable forest and agricultural management practices. Productivity gains during the last decades were also achieved by increasing mechanization. This change was associated with growing machine weights and impacts on trafficked soils. Up [...] Read more.
Soil compaction is a major concern in the context of ensuring sustainable forest and agricultural management practices. Productivity gains during the last decades were also achieved by increasing mechanization. This change was associated with growing machine weights and impacts on trafficked soils. Up to now, knowledge about the resilience of compaction phenomena is still poor. At 11 forest sites on compaction-sensitive silt and loam substrates in the federal state of Baden-Wuerttemberg (Germany), fine root distribution, macroporosity, and apparent gas diffusion coefficients were used to characterize the status of recovery from former soil compaction by machine impact. The time span of recovery at the investigated sites ranged from 6 to 37 years. The investigated soil physical parameters indicate the beginning of soil structure recovery in the wheel tracks, comprising the first 10 cm of soil depth at most sites that were trafficked 10 years or more before the investigation. Synchronously with this restructuring, fine root propagation has started to recover in the topsoils. However, a high persistence of damage was observed below that depth. A synoptic interpretation of the data led to the conclusion that time spans up to almost four decades are not sufficient for the restoration of soil functionality in formerly compacted soils characterized by silt loam texture and low activity of soil biota. In view of the long-lasting persistence of the negative compaction effects, soil protection strategies combined with monitoring of their strict compliance must be implemented into forest practice. In case of an insufficient natural recovery potential, active measures to accelerate the regaining of soil functionality in compacted soils at irregular wheel tracks should be considered in order to shorten the time spans of disturbed soil conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management)
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12 pages, 2020 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of Soil Structure and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes on Ten-Year Old Skid Trails with and without Black Alders (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.)
by Hannes Warlo, Stephan Zimmermann, Friederike Lang and Helmer Schack-Kirchner
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6020043 - 25 Apr 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2495
Abstract
Forest soil compaction caused by heavy machines can cause ecosystem degradation, reduced site productivity and increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Recent studies investigating the plant-mediated alleviation of soil compaction with black alder showed promising results (Alnus glutinosa). This study aimed to [...] Read more.
Forest soil compaction caused by heavy machines can cause ecosystem degradation, reduced site productivity and increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Recent studies investigating the plant-mediated alleviation of soil compaction with black alder showed promising results (Alnus glutinosa). This study aimed to measure soil recovery and GHG fluxes on machine tracks with and without black alders in North-East Switzerland. In 2008, two machine tracks were created under controlled conditions in a European beech (Fagus sylvatica) stand with a sandy loam texture. Directly after compaction, soil physical parameters were measured on one track while the other track was planted with alders. Initial topsoil bulk density and porosity on the track without alders were 1.52 g cm−3 and 43%, respectively. Ten years later, a decrease in bulk density to 1.23 g cm−3 and an increase in porosity to 57% indicated partial structure recovery. Compared with the untreated machine track, alder had no beneficial impact on soil physical parameters. Elevated cumulative N2O emission (+30%) under alder compared with the untreated track could result from symbiotic nitrogen fixation by alder. Overall, CH4 fluxes were sensitive to the effects of soil trafficking. We conclude that black alder did not promote the recovery of a compacted sandy loam while it had the potential to deteriorate the GHG balance of the investigated forest stand. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management)
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34 pages, 11799 KiB  
Article
Merits and Limitations of Element Balances as a Forest Planning Tool for Harvest Intensities and Sustainable Nutrient Management—A Case Study from Germany
by Bernd Ahrends, Klaus von Wilpert, Wendelin Weis, Christian Vonderach, Gerald Kändler, Dietmar Zirlewagen, Carina Sucker and Heike Puhlmann
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6020041 - 20 Apr 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3181
Abstract
Climate change and rising energy costs have led to increasing interest in the use of tree harvest residues as feedstock for bioenergy in recent years. With an increasing use of wood biomass and harvest residues, essential nutrient elements are removed from the forest [...] Read more.
Climate change and rising energy costs have led to increasing interest in the use of tree harvest residues as feedstock for bioenergy in recent years. With an increasing use of wood biomass and harvest residues, essential nutrient elements are removed from the forest ecosystems. Hence, nutrient sustainable management is mandatory for planning of intensive forest use. We used soil nutrient balances to identify regions in Germany where the output of base cations by leaching and biomass utilization was not balanced by the input via weathering and atmospheric deposition. The effects of conventional stem harvesting, stem harvesting without bark, and whole-tree harvesting on Ca, Mg and K balances were studied. The nutrient balances were calculated using regular forest monitoring data supplemented by additional data from scientific projects. Effective mitigation management strategies and options are discussed and calculations for the compensation of the potential depletion of nutrients in the soil are presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management)
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25 pages, 7345 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Tree Species on the Recovery of Forest Soils from Acidification in Lower Saxony, Germany
by Bernd Ahrends, Heike Fortmann and Henning Meesenburg
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6020040 - 20 Apr 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3089
Abstract
Atmospheric acid deposition has increased sharply since the beginning of industrialization but has decreased considerably since the 1980s owing to clean-air policies. Soil acidification induced by an input of acidity has been demonstrated in numerous studies using repeated forest-soil inventories. So far, relatively [...] Read more.
Atmospheric acid deposition has increased sharply since the beginning of industrialization but has decreased considerably since the 1980s owing to clean-air policies. Soil acidification induced by an input of acidity has been demonstrated in numerous studies using repeated forest-soil inventories. So far, relatively few data have been sampled to analyze long-term soil trends and only a few studies show the recovery of forest soils from acidification, whereas the recovery of surface waters following declining acid deposition is a widespread phenomenon. To assess a possible recovery from acid deposition, soil resampling data from 21 forested permanent soil-monitoring sites in Lower Saxony (Germany) were evaluated. For most sites, at least three repetitions of inventories from a period of 30 to 50 years were available. Trend analyses of indicators for the acid-base status of unlimed forest soils using generalized additive mixed models (GAMM) show either a trend reversal or a stagnation of the acid-base status at a strong acidification level. The recovery, if indicated by an increase of soil pH and base saturation, of soils from plots with deciduous trees appears to have occurred faster than in coniferous forest stands. This observation may be attributed to a larger amount of temporarily stored sulfur in the soil because of the higher atmospheric input into coniferous forests. As indicators for the acid-base status still show considerable soil acidification, mitigation measures such as forest liming still appear to be necessary for accelerating the regeneration process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management)
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14 pages, 741 KiB  
Article
Decadal Changes of Organic Carbon, Nitrogen, and Acidity of Austrian Forest Soils
by Robert Jandl, Ernst Leitgeb and Michael Englisch
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6010028 - 17 Mar 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3040
Abstract
Repeated soil surveys provide opportunities to quantify the effect of long-term environmental change. In recent decades, the topics of forest soil acidification as a consequence of acidic deposition, the enrichment of forest ecosystems with nitrogen, and the loss of carbon due to climate [...] Read more.
Repeated soil surveys provide opportunities to quantify the effect of long-term environmental change. In recent decades, the topics of forest soil acidification as a consequence of acidic deposition, the enrichment of forest ecosystems with nitrogen, and the loss of carbon due to climate change have been discussed. We used two forest soil surveys that were 20 years apart, in order to establish the direction and magnitude of changes in soil carbon, nitrogen, and soil acidity. Soils have been initially sampled in the late 1980s. The plots were revisited twenty years later. Archived soil samples from the first survey were reanalyzed with the same protocol as the new samples. We found changes in the stocks of soil organic carbon, soil nitrogen, and soil pH. However, the changes were inconsistent. In general, as many sites have gained soil organic carbon, as sites have lost carbon. Most soils have been slightly enriched with nitrogen. The soil pH has not changed significantly. We conclude that changes in the evaluated soil chemical properties are mainly driven by forest management activities and ensuing forest stand dynamics, and atmospheric deposition. We have no convincing evidence that climate change effects have already changed the soil organic carbon stock, irrespective of bedrock type. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management)
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14 pages, 1396 KiB  
Article
Home-Field Advantage of Litter Decomposition Faded 8 Years after Spruce Forest Clearcutting in Western Germany
by Liyan Zhuang, Andrea Schnepf, Kirsten Unger, Ziyi Liang and Roland Bol
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6010026 - 15 Mar 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2657
Abstract
Home-field advantage (HFA) encompasses all the processes leading to faster litter decomposition in the ‘home’ environment compared to that of ‘away’ environments. To determine the occurrence of HFA in a forest and adjacent clear-cut, we set up a reciprocal litter decomposition experiment within [...] Read more.
Home-field advantage (HFA) encompasses all the processes leading to faster litter decomposition in the ‘home’ environment compared to that of ‘away’ environments. To determine the occurrence of HFA in a forest and adjacent clear-cut, we set up a reciprocal litter decomposition experiment within the forest and clear-cut for two soil types (Cambisols and Gleysols) in temperate Germany. The forest was dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies), whereas forest regeneration of European Beech (Fagus sylvatica) after clearcutting was encouraged. Our observation that Norway spruce decomposed faster than European beech in 70-yr-old spruce forest was most likely related to specialized litter-soil interaction under existing spruce, leading to an HFA. Elevated soil moisture and temperature, and promoted litter N release, indicated the rapid change of soil-litter affinity of the original spruce forest even after a short-term regeneration following clearcutting, resulting in faster beech decomposition, particularly in moisture- and nutrient-deficient Cambisols. The divergence between forest and clear-cut in the Cambisol of their litter δ15N values beyond nine months implied litter N decomposition was only initially independent of soil and residual C status. We conclude that clearcutting modifies the litter-field affinity and helps promote the establishment or regeneration of European beech in this and similar forest mountain upland areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management)
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15 pages, 2788 KiB  
Article
Do the Invasive Earthworms Amynthas agrestis (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae) and Lumbricus rubellus (Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae) Stimulate Oxalate-Based Browser Defenses in Jack-in-the-Pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum) by Their Presence or Their Soil Biogeochemical Activity?
by Ryan D. S. Melnichuk, Hüseyin Barış Tecimen and Josef H. Görres
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6010011 - 18 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3021
Abstract
The introduction of invasive earthworms initiates physical and chemical alterations in previously earthworm-free forest soils, which triggers an ecological cascade. The most apparent step is the shift in the herbaceous plant community composition. However, some species, such as Arisaema triphyllum (jack-in-the-pulpit), persist where [...] Read more.
The introduction of invasive earthworms initiates physical and chemical alterations in previously earthworm-free forest soils, which triggers an ecological cascade. The most apparent step is the shift in the herbaceous plant community composition. However, some species, such as Arisaema triphyllum (jack-in-the-pulpit), persist where earthworms are present. It has been hypothesized that A. triphyllum produces insoluble oxalate, an herbivory deterrent, in the presence of earthworms. This study aimed to distinguish between the effects of earthworm-induced changes in soils and the physical presence of earthworms on oxalate production. As such, a two-way factorial greenhouse trial was conducted using uninvaded soils to test this hypothesis for two invasive earthworm species (Amynthas agrestis and Lumbricus rubellus). The sequential extraction of oxalates in A. triphyllum corms was performed with absolute ethanol, deionized water, acetic acid and HCl, representing fractions of decreasing solubility. Earthworm presence increased water-soluble (p = 0.002) and total oxalate (p = 0.022) significantly, but only marginally significantly for HCl-soluble oxalate (p = 0.065). The corms of plants grown in soils previously exposed to the two species did not differ in oxalate production when earthworms were not present. However, the data suggest that earthworms affect corm oxalate concentrations and that the sequence of invasion matters for oxalate production by A. triphyllum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management)
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25 pages, 2797 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Effects of Forest Plantation Species on Chemical Soil Properties in Southern Rwanda
by Peter Rwibasira, Francois Xavier Naramabuye, Donat Nsabimana and Monique Carnol
Soil Syst. 2021, 5(4), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems5040059 - 26 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3862
Abstract
Understanding the long-term effects of tree species on soil properties is crucial for the development of forest restoration policies in relation to the choice of species that meet both environmental and local livelihood needs. This study was performed in the Arboretum of Ruhande, [...] Read more.
Understanding the long-term effects of tree species on soil properties is crucial for the development of forest restoration policies in relation to the choice of species that meet both environmental and local livelihood needs. This study was performed in the Arboretum of Ruhande, Southern Rwanda, where monocultures of 148 deciduous and 56 conifer species have been established in 0.25 ha replicated plots from 1933 onwards. We investigated the effects of six exotic and two native tree species planted in monoculture plots and native species mixed within one self-regenerated plot on soil properties in two layers (0–5 cm and 5–10 cm depth). We measured general soil properties (pH, SOM, exchangeable base cations) and water-soluble C and N as a proxy for soil functioning. Changes in soil properties were observed in the upper soil layer for all tree species. Planting Eucalyptus species caused soil acidification, whereas soil exchangeable cations and pH were higher under native species (Entandrophragma excelsum and Polyschias fulva) and mixed native species. The effects of tree species were more pronounced for hot water-extractable C and N than for other soil properties. Their analyses could be used for detecting changes in soil functioning linked to vegetation types. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management)
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15 pages, 19005 KiB  
Article
Nutrient Storage and Stoichiometry of the Forest Floor Organic Matter in Japanese Forests
by Masamichi Takahashi
Soil Syst. 2021, 5(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems5030051 - 29 Aug 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3854
Abstract
Nutrient storage in the forest floor is regulated through litter decomposition and nutrient cycling. Stoichiometry of nutrients can provide characterization of the forest floor. To quantify nutrient storage in the forest floor and to determine stoichiometry among different forest types, available data on [...] Read more.
Nutrient storage in the forest floor is regulated through litter decomposition and nutrient cycling. Stoichiometry of nutrients can provide characterization of the forest floor. To quantify nutrient storage in the forest floor and to determine stoichiometry among different forest types, available data on nutrients were meta-analyzed. The data on nutrients—nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium—were collected from published reports and original data on Japanese forests. The relationship between nutrient storage and forest floor mass was also examined. Japanese cypress and cedar plantations had small N and P storage in the forest floor with high C:N and C:P ratios, whereas subalpine conifers had large N and P storage in the forest floor with low C:N and C:P ratios; cedar plantations showed large Ca-specific storage in the forest floor. The stoichiometry of the forest floor varied between different forest types, namely C:N:P ratios were 942:19:1 for cedar and cypress plantations, 625:19:1 for broad-leaved forests, and 412:13:1 for subalpine conifers and fir plantations. N storage was closely correlated; however, P and other mineral storages were weakly correlated with the forest floor mass. Nutrient storage and stoichiometry can provide a better perspective for the management of forest ecosystem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management)
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Review

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25 pages, 2250 KiB  
Review
Forest Soils—What’s Their Peculiarity?
by Klaus von Wilpert
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6010005 - 6 Jan 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6229
Abstract
Mankind expects from forests and forest soils benefits like pure drinking water, space for recreation, habitats for nature-near biocenoses and the production of timber as unrivaled climate-friendly raw material. An overview over 208 recent articles revealed that ecosystem services are actually the main [...] Read more.
Mankind expects from forests and forest soils benefits like pure drinking water, space for recreation, habitats for nature-near biocenoses and the production of timber as unrivaled climate-friendly raw material. An overview over 208 recent articles revealed that ecosystem services are actually the main focus in the perception of forest soil functions. Studies on structures and processes that are the basis of forest soil functions and ecosystem services are widely lacking. Therefore, additional literature was included dealing with the distinct soil structure and high porosity and pore continuity of forest soils, as well as with their high biological activity and chemical soil reaction. Thus, the highly differentiated, hierarchical soil structure in combination with the ion exchange capacity and the acid buffering capacity could be described as the main characteristics of forest soils confounding the desired ecosystem services. However, some of these functions of forest soils are endangered under the influence of environmental change or even because of forest management, like mono-cultures or soil compaction through forest machines. In the face of the high vulnerability of forest soils and increased threads, e.g., through soil acidification, it is evident that active soil management strategies must be implemented with the aim to counteract the loss of soil functions or to recover them. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soils: Functions, Threats, Management)
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