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16 pages, 2626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human Activity as a Growing Threat to Marine Ecosystems: Plastic and Temperature Effects on the Sponge Sarcotragus spinosulus

by Jessica Lombardo, Maria del Mar Ribas-Taberner, Maria Magdalena Quetglas-Llabrés, Samuel Pinya, Llorenç Gil, Silvia Tejada, Antoni Sureda and Montserrat Compa

Toxics 2025, 13(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13010066 - 20 Jan 2025

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Abstract

Human activities increasingly threaten marine ecosystems through rising waste and temperatures. This study investigated the role of plastics as vectors for Vibrio bacteria and the effects of temperature on the marine sponge Sarcotragus spinosulus. Samples of plastics and sponges were collected during [...] Read more.

Human activities increasingly threaten marine ecosystems through rising waste and temperatures. This study investigated the role of plastics as vectors for Vibrio bacteria and the effects of temperature on the marine sponge Sarcotragus spinosulus. Samples of plastics and sponges were collected during July, August (high-temperature period), and November (lower-temperature period). Bacterial growth and sponge responses were analysed using biochemical biomarkers. The results revealed a peak in colony-forming units (CFU), particularly of Vibrio alginolyticus, on plastics and sponges in August, followed by a decrease in November. In August, CFU counts of Vibrio spp. were significantly higher in sponges with poor external appearance (characterized by dull coloration and heavy epiphytic growth) but returned to levels observed in healthy sponges by November. Microplastics were detected in the tissues of both sponge groups, with higher concentrations found in affected specimens. Biomarker analyses revealed increased lysozyme, glutathione S-transferase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase activities in healthy sponges during August, while malondialdehyde levels, indicating oxidative damage, were higher in affected sponges. In conclusion, affected sponges exhibited elevated CFU counts of Vibrio spp. and reduced antioxidant and detoxification responses under elevated temperatures. These findings suggest that combined impacts of plastics and warming may pose significant risks to S. spinosulus in the context of global climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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13 pages, 2021 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Plastitar Record for the Mediterranean Sea: Characterization of Plastics and Tar from the Salento Peninsula (Ionian Sea)

by Silvia Fraissinet, Emanuele Mancini, Chiara Funiati, Caterina Martino, Giuseppe Egidio De Benedetto, Chiara Roberta Girelli, Francesco Paolo Fanizzi, Genuario Belmonte and Stefano Piraino

Toxics 2025, 13(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13010013 - 26 Dec 2024

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Abstract

The various forms of anthropogenic pollution are regarded as a serious threat to marine coastal areas. The overproduction and mismanagement of petroleum derivatives, such as tar and plastics, have resulted in a significant correlation between these two pollutants. The aggregation of tar, microplastics [...] Read more.

The various forms of anthropogenic pollution are regarded as a serious threat to marine coastal areas. The overproduction and mismanagement of petroleum derivatives, such as tar and plastics, have resulted in a significant correlation between these two pollutants. The aggregation of tar, microplastics (MPs), and natural materials can create plastitar blocks, which are common in coastal areas. These raise concern about the undeniable negative impact on the marine ecosystem and the associated biota, and serve as a recognizable and understandable indication of environmental decline. Here, the composition of the 11 plastitar blocks collected on the Ionian side of the Apulia region (Italy) was characterized both in tar and plastics using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, respectively. Of the 250 particles extracted from the tar, 208 were identified as plastics, predominantly Polyethylene. The majority of these were in the form of pellets (90%), with fragments accounting for 5% and films and filaments representing the remaining 5%. This study provides new data that can be used to enhance the understanding of the distribution and baseline information about this novel form of pollution in Italian waters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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16 pages, 3248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Adsorption Process and Mechanism of Benzo[a]pyrene in Agricultural Soil Mediated by Microplastics

by Zhengyi Zhu, Lijuan Sun, Qin Qin, Yafei Sun, Shiyan Yang, Jun Wang, Yang Yang, Guangkuo Gao and Yong Xue

Toxics 2024, 12(12), 922; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12120922 - 19 Dec 2024

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Abstract

The coexistence of microplastics and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in the environment, and their interactions within agricultural soils in particular, have garnered widespread attention. This study focused on the early-stage interactions between microplastics and BaP, aiming to uncover their initial adsorption mechanisms. Despite the significant [...] Read more.

The coexistence of microplastics and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in the environment, and their interactions within agricultural soils in particular, have garnered widespread attention. This study focused on the early-stage interactions between microplastics and BaP, aiming to uncover their initial adsorption mechanisms. Despite the significant environmental toxicity of both pollutants, research on their mutual interactions in soil is still limited. This study conducted adsorption thermodynamics and kinetics experiments to explore the effects and mechanisms of various microplastics (polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)) on the adsorption of BaP. Using advanced techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, this study explored the surface characteristics of microplastics and their interactions with BaP. The results demonstrated that PVC microplastics exhibited the highest adsorption capacity for BaP, which was primarily due to π–π interactions and increased hydrophobicity. In the soil–microplastic blend systems, BaP was predominantly found on microplastics, enhancing the soil’s adsorption capacity for BaP, particularly PVC, which showed an adsorption capacity 3.69 times greater than that of soil alone. Density functional theory (DFT) simulation calculations indicated that the binding energy of BaP for PVC pretreated with soil was −59.16 kJ/mol, whereas it was −53.02 kJ/mol for untreated PVC, −39.35 kJ/mol for PE, and −48.84 kJ/mol for PS. These findings suggest that soil pretreatment enhances the adsorption stability of PVC for BaP, further elucidating the potential mechanisms behind the increased adsorption capacity in the soil–microplastic system. These findings confirm that microplastics serve as effective vectors for organic pollutants such as BaP, significantly influencing their environmental behavior in soils, and provide essential theoretical support for assessing the environmental toxicity and migration behaviors of microplastics and associated organic contaminants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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16 pages, 5182 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metagenomic Analysis Reveals the Effects of Microplastics on Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Sludge Anaerobic Digestion

by Zhonghong Li and Donghai Yuan

Toxics 2024, 12(12), 920; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12120920 - 19 Dec 2024

Viewed by 809

Abstract

Sewage sludge is recognized as both a source and a reservoir for antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Within an anaerobic digestion (AD) system, the presence of microplastics (MPs) has been observed to potentially facilitate the proliferation of these ARGs. Understanding the influence of MPs [...] Read more.

Sewage sludge is recognized as both a source and a reservoir for antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Within an anaerobic digestion (AD) system, the presence of microplastics (MPs) has been observed to potentially facilitate the proliferation of these ARGs. Understanding the influence of MPs on microbial behavior and horizontal gene transfer (HGT) within the AD system is crucial for effectively managing the dissemination of ARGs in the environment. This study utilized metagenomic approaches to analyze the dynamics of various types of ARGs and potential microbial mechanisms under exposure to MPs during the AD process. The findings indicated that MPs in the AD process can enhance the proliferation of ARGs, with the extent of this enhancement increasing with the dosage of MPs: polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polylactic acid (PLA) MPs increased the abundance of ARGs in the anaerobic digestion system by up to 29.90%, 18.64%, and 14.15%, respectively. Additionally, the presence of MPs increased the relative abundance of mobile genetic elements (MGEs) during the AD process. Network correlation analysis further revealed that plasmids represent the predominant category of MGEs involved in the HGT of ARGs. Propionibacterium and Alicycliphilus were identified as the primary potential hosts for these ARGs. The results of gene function annotation indicated that exposure to MPs led to an increased the relative abundance of genes related to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), alterations in membrane permeability, ATP synthesis, and the secretion of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). These genes play crucial roles in influencing the HGT of ARGs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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16 pages, 2161 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accumulation of Microplastics and Potentially Toxic Elements in Plant Leaves Along an Urbanization Gradient in Bangladesh

by Md. Sohel Parvez, Herta Czédli, Md. Imdadul Hoque, Mohammad Mizanur Rahman, Armin Anwar, Abu Hena Mohammad Mezbah Uddin, Md. Siddiq Hasan, Dina Bibi, Béla Tóthmérész, Tibor Magura and Edina Simon

Toxics 2024, 12(12), 848; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12120848 - 25 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1044

Abstract

Potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and microplastics (MPs) in the atmosphere raise widespread apprehension due to their association with the ecosystem and public health. The accumulation of airborne MPs and PTEs was analyzed in Polyalthia longifolia leaves, and the Pollution Index (PI) was calculated [...] Read more.

Potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and microplastics (MPs) in the atmosphere raise widespread apprehension due to their association with the ecosystem and public health. The accumulation of airborne MPs and PTEs was analyzed in Polyalthia longifolia leaves, and the Pollution Index (PI) was calculated along an industrial, residential, and rural gradient in Bangladesh. Only polyethylene terephthalate (PET) was found in the highest concentration in industrial areas compared to other areas. In leaves, a significantly higher Cd, Pb, and Zn concentration was found in industrial regions compared to residential and rural areas. For Cd, the PI was observed to be higher than 1 in rural areas, indicating a moderate level of pollution; it was higher than 3 in residential areas, showing considerable pollution; and it was found to be more than 6 in industrial areas. The higher concentration of both MPs and PTEs with increasing urbanization reflects the influence of anthropogenic activities. The findings of the study demonstrate the fascinating potential of P. longifolia tree leaves as a promising bioindicator for air quality biomonitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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16 pages, 1905 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are Microfibers a Threat to Marine Invertebrates? A Sea Urchin Toxicity Assessment

by Jennifer Barbosa dos Santos, Rodrigo Brasil Choueri, Francisco Eduardo Melo dos Santos, Laís Adrielle de Oliveira Santos, Letícia Fernanda da Silva, Caio Rodrigues Nobre, Milton Alexandre Cardoso, Renata de Britto Mari, Fábio Ruiz Simões, Tomas Angel Delvalls and Paloma Kachel Gusso-Choueri

Toxics 2024, 12(10), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12100753 - 17 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1147

Abstract

The rise of “fast fashion” has driven up the production of low-cost, short-lived clothing, significantly increasing global textile fiber production and, consequently, exacerbating environmental pollution. This study investigated the ecotoxicological effects of different types of anthropogenic microfibers—cotton, polyester, and mixed fibers (50% cotton: [...] Read more.

The rise of “fast fashion” has driven up the production of low-cost, short-lived clothing, significantly increasing global textile fiber production and, consequently, exacerbating environmental pollution. This study investigated the ecotoxicological effects of different types of anthropogenic microfibers—cotton, polyester, and mixed fibers (50% cotton: 50% polyester)—on marine organisms, specifically sea urchin embryos. All tested fibers exhibited toxicity, with cotton fibers causing notable effects on embryonic development even at environmentally relevant concentrations. The research also simulated a scenario where microfibers were immersed in seawater for 30 days to assess changes in toxicity over time. The results showed that the toxicity of microfibers increased with both concentration and exposure duration, with polyester being the most toxic among the fibers tested. Although synthetic fibers have been the primary focus of previous research, this study highlights that natural fibers like cotton, which are often overlooked, can also be toxic due to the presence of harmful additives. These natural fibers, despite decomposing faster than synthetic ones, can persist in aquatic environments for extended periods. The findings underline the critical need for further research on both natural and synthetic microfibers to understand their environmental impact and potential threats to marine ecosystems and sea urchin populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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12 pages, 4162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Macroplastic and Microparticle Pollution in Beach Sediments from Urias Coastal Lagoon (Northwest Mexico)

by Daniela Alvarado-Zambrano, José R. Rivera-Hernández and Carlos Green-Ruiz

Toxics 2024, 12(6), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12060439 - 18 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1662

Abstract

This study investigates the occurrence and characteristics of macroplastic and polymer microparticles in the Urias coastal lagoon’s beach sediments, in northwest Mexico. Coastal lagoons, productive and vulnerable ecosystems, are impacted significantly by anthropogenic activities, leadings to their pollution by various contaminants, including plastics. [...] Read more.

This study investigates the occurrence and characteristics of macroplastic and polymer microparticles in the Urias coastal lagoon’s beach sediments, in northwest Mexico. Coastal lagoons, productive and vulnerable ecosystems, are impacted significantly by anthropogenic activities, leadings to their pollution by various contaminants, including plastics. Our research involved sampling sediments from four sites within the lagoon that were influenced by different human activities such as fishing, aquaculture, thermoelectric power plant operations, industrial operations, and domestic wastewater discharge. Our methodology included collecting macroplastics and beach sediment samples, followed by laboratory analyses to identify the plastic debris’ size, shape, color, and chemical composition. The results indicated a notable presence of macroplastic items (144), predominantly bags, styrofoam, and caps made of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The polymer microparticles were mainly fibers, with cotton and polyester as the most common polymers, suggesting a significant contribution from clothing-related waste. The dominant colors of the microparticles were blue and transparent. High densities were observed in areas with slower water exchange. Our findings highlight the urgent need for better waste management practices to mitigate plastic pollution in coastal lagoons, preserving their ecological and economic functions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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14 pages, 1445 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Navigating a Microplastic Sea: How the Pacific Cupped Oyster (Magallana gigas) Respond to Microplastic Pollution in Lagoons

by Gianluca De Rinaldis, Paolo Pastorino, Tommaso Scirocco, Claudia Sacchetti, Serena Anselmi, Francesca Provenza, Monia Renzi and Antonietta Specchiulli

Toxics 2024, 12(6), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12060429 - 13 Jun 2024

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Abstract

Microplastic pollution poses an escalating concern, particularly in coastal lagoons rich in biodiversity. This study delved into the occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in Magallana gigas (formerly Crassostrea gigas) from the Orbetello and Varano coastal lagoons (Italy), also investigating the response of these [...] Read more.

Microplastic pollution poses an escalating concern, particularly in coastal lagoons rich in biodiversity. This study delved into the occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in Magallana gigas (formerly Crassostrea gigas) from the Orbetello and Varano coastal lagoons (Italy), also investigating the response of these filter-feeding organisms to various colors (P = pink; B = blue; W = white) of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) MP fragments. Oysters were exposed for 7 days under controlled conditions. Subsequently, the oysters underwent analysis for both MP presence and biochemical markers of oxidative stress. Diverse ingestion rates of HDPE were noted among oysters from the two lagoons, eliciting antioxidant responses and modifying baseline activity. The two-way ANOVA revealed the significant effects of treatment (control; HDPE_B; HDPE_P; HDPE_W), site, and the interaction between treatment and site on all biomarkers. Non-metric multidimensional scaling showed a divergent effect of HDPE color on biomarkers. Further investigation is warranted to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the influence of MP color, dose-dependent effects, and the long-term impacts of exposure. Comprehending these intricacies is imperative for devising effective strategies to mitigate plastic pollution and safeguard marine health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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11 pages, 1147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microfibers in the Diet of a Highly Aerial Bird, the Common Swift Apus apus

by Alessandra Costanzo, Roberto Ambrosini, Milo Manica, Daniela Casola, Carlo Polidori, Valentina Gianotti, Eleonora Conterosito, Maddalena Roncoli, Marco Parolini and Beatrice De Felice

Toxics 2024, 12(6), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12060408 - 3 Jun 2024

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Abstract

Microplastic pollution is a pervasive global issue affecting various ecosystems. Despite the escalating production and well-documented contamination in both aquatic and terrestrial environments, the research focused on airborne microplastics and their interaction with terrestrial birds remains limited. In this study, we collected fecal [...] Read more.

Microplastic pollution is a pervasive global issue affecting various ecosystems. Despite the escalating production and well-documented contamination in both aquatic and terrestrial environments, the research focused on airborne microplastics and their interaction with terrestrial birds remains limited. In this study, we collected fecal sacs from Common swifts (Apus apus) to investigate their diet and to evaluate the potential ingestion of microplastics by both adults and nestlings. The diet was mainly composed of Hymenoptera and Coleoptera and did not differ among sexes and age classes. The 33% of nestlings’ and 52% of adults’ fecal sacs contained anthropogenic items, the totality of which was in the shape form of fibers. The 19.4% of the anthropogenic items were chemically characterized as microplastics, either polyethylene terephthalate (PET; two microfibers) or cellophane (four microfibers). Airborne anthropogenic items, including microplastic, might be passively ingested during the Common swift aerial feeding. In addition, our findings suggest that these ingested microparticles have the potential to be transferred to the offspring through food. While further research is essential to elucidate the pathways of microplastic ingestion, our results reinforce the evidence of the transfer of anthropogenic items from the atmosphere to the biota. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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17 pages, 2891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microplastics and 17α Ethinylestradiol: How Do Different Aquatic Invertebrates Respond to This Combination of Contaminants?

by Caio Rodrigues Nobre, Beatriz Barbosa Moreno, Aline Vecchio Alves, Mayana Karoline Fontes, Bruno Galvão de Campos, Leticia Fernanda da Silva, Luciane Alves Maranho, Luís Felipe de Almeida Duarte, Denis Moledo de Souza Abessa, Rodrigo Brasil Choueri, Paloma Kachel Gusso-Choueri and Camilo Dias Seabra Pereira

Toxics 2024, 12(5), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12050319 - 28 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1523

Abstract

The synthetic hormone 17α ethinyl estradiol (EE2) is a molecule widely used in female contraceptives and recognized as a contaminant of attention (Watch List) in the European Union due to its high consumption, endocrine effects and occurrence in aquatic environments. Its main source [...] Read more.

The synthetic hormone 17α ethinyl estradiol (EE2) is a molecule widely used in female contraceptives and recognized as a contaminant of attention (Watch List) in the European Union due to its high consumption, endocrine effects and occurrence in aquatic environments. Its main source of introduction is domestic sewage where it can be associated with other contaminants such as microplastics (MPs). Due to their characteristics, they can combine with each other and exacerbate their isolated effects on biota. This study evaluated the combined effects of microplastics (MPs) and 17α ethinylestradiol (EE2) on two tropical estuarine invertebrate species: Crassostrea gasar and Ucides cordatus. Polyethylene particles were spiked with EE2 and organisms were exposed to three treatments, categorized into three groups: control group (C), virgin microplastics (MPs), and spiked microplastics with EE2 (MPEs). All treatments were evaluated after 3 and 7 days of exposure. Oysters exhibited changes in phase 2 enzymes and the antioxidant system, oxidative stress in the gills, and reduced lysosomal membrane stability after exposure to MPs and MPEs. Crabs exposed to MPs and MPEs after seven days showed changes in phase 1 enzymes in the gills and changes in phases 1 and 2 enzymes in the hepatopancreas, such as disturbed cellular health. The combined effects of microplastics and EE2 increased the toxicity experienced by organisms, which may trigger effects at higher levels of biological organization, leading to ecological disturbances in tropical coastal ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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15 pages, 2173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exposure to Microplastics Made of Plasmix-Based Materials at Low Amounts Did Not Induce Adverse Effects on the Earthworm Eisenia foetida

by Beatrice De Felice, Stefano Gazzotti, Maddalena Roncoli, Eleonora Conterosito, Valentina Gianotti, Marco Aldo Ortenzi and Marco Parolini

Toxics 2024, 12(4), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12040300 - 18 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1667

Abstract

The implementation of recycling techniques represents a potential solution to the plastic pollution issue. To date, only a limited number of plastic polymers can be efficiently recycled. In the Italian plastic waste stream, the residual, non-homogeneous fraction is called ‘Plasmix’ and is intended [...] Read more.

The implementation of recycling techniques represents a potential solution to the plastic pollution issue. To date, only a limited number of plastic polymers can be efficiently recycled. In the Italian plastic waste stream, the residual, non-homogeneous fraction is called ‘Plasmix’ and is intended for low-value uses. However, Plasmix can be used to create new materials through mechanical recycling, which need to be tested for their eco-safety. This study aimed to investigate the potential toxicity of two amounts (0.1% and 1% MPs in soil weight) of microplastics (MPs) made of naïve and additivated Plasmix-based materials (Px and APx, respectively) on the earthworm Eisenia foetida. Changes in oxidative status and oxidative damage, survival, gross growth rate and reproductive output were considered as endpoints. Although earthworms ingested both MP types, earthworms did not suffer an oxidative stress condition or growth and reproductive impairments. The results suggested that exposure to low amounts of both MPs can be considered as safe for earthworms. However, further studies testing a higher amount or longer exposure time on different model species are necessary to complete the environmental risk assessment of these new materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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Review

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22 pages, 2261 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Potential Effects of Environmental and Occupational Exposure to Microplastics: An Overview of Air Contamination

by Priscilla Boccia, Simona Mondellini, Simona Mauro, Miriam Zanellato, Marco Parolini and Elena Sturchio

Toxics 2024, 12(5), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12050320 - 28 Apr 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2457

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) are now ubiquitous environmental contaminants that lead to unavoidable human exposure; they have received increasing attention in recent years and have become an emerging area of research. The greatest concern is the negative impacts of MPs on marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) are now ubiquitous environmental contaminants that lead to unavoidable human exposure; they have received increasing attention in recent years and have become an emerging area of research. The greatest concern is the negative impacts of MPs on marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial ecosystems, as well as human health, to the extent that the World Health Organization (WHO) calls for increased research and standardized methods to assess exposure to MPs. Many countries and international organizations are implementing or proposing legislation in this regard. This review aims to summarize the current state of legislation, indoor and outdoor contamination, and potential human health risk due to exposure to airborne MPs, considering that occupational exposure to MPs is also becoming a growing area of concern. Even though research regarding MPs has continuously increased in the last twenty years, the effects of MPs on human health have been scarcely investigated, and toxicity studies are still limited and not directly comparable, due to the lack of standardized studies in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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