World Electric Vehicle Journal

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13 pages, 315 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cycling Infrastructure for All EPACs Included?

by Nikolaas Van den Steen, Bas de Geus, Jan Cappelle and Lieselot Vanhaverbeke

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(5), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13050074 - 22 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2876

Abstract

A modal shift to electric pedal-assisted cycles (EPACs) can help with reaching the transport emission goals of the European Green Deal. With the rising sales of EPACs in Europe, a lack of appropriate (electric) cycling infrastructure remains a major barrier for many potential [...] Read more.

A modal shift to electric pedal-assisted cycles (EPACs) can help with reaching the transport emission goals of the European Green Deal. With the rising sales of EPACs in Europe, a lack of appropriate (electric) cycling infrastructure remains a major barrier for many potential users. This paper discusses the results of a survey about the requirements of (potential) cyclists to design a better cycling infrastructure. The differences in requirements for non-cyclists vs. cyclists and electric cyclists vs. conventional cyclists are discussed using statistical analysis. The key findings are that cyclists and non-cyclists both require wide quality cycling infrastructure with safe crossing points, secure bicycle parking and smart traffic lights. Non-cyclists’ requirements significantly differ from cyclists’ on 12 items, of which rain cover while cycling and parking spots for the car are the most noteworthy. There is (but) one significant difference between the requirements of EPAC users and conventional cyclists: the need for charging points for EPACs along the cycle route. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

11 pages, 3058 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A State-of-Charge Estimation Method Based on Multi-Algorithm Fusion

by Aihua Tang, Peng Gong, Jiajie Li, Kaiqing Zhang, Yapeng Zhou and Zhigang Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(4), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13040070 - 18 Apr 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2902

Abstract

Lithium-ion power batteries are widely used in the electric vehicle (EV) industry due to their high working voltage, high energy density, long cycle life, low self-discharge rate, and environmental protection. A multi-algorithm fusion method is proposed in this paper to estimate the battery [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion power batteries are widely used in the electric vehicle (EV) industry due to their high working voltage, high energy density, long cycle life, low self-discharge rate, and environmental protection. A multi-algorithm fusion method is proposed in this paper to estimate the battery state of charge (SOC), establishing the Thevenin model and collecting the terminal voltage residuals when the extended Kalman filter (EKF), adaptive extended Kalman filter (AEKF), and H infinite filter (HIF) estimate the SOC separately. The residuals are fused by Bayesian probability and the weight is obtained, and then the SOC estimated value of the fusion algorithm is obtained from the weight. A comparative analysis of the estimation accuracy of a single algorithm and a fusion algorithm under two different working conditions is made. Experimental results show that the fusion algorithm is more robust in the whole process of SOC estimation, and its estimation accuracy is better than the EKF algorithm. The estimation result for the fusion algorithm under a Dynamic Stress Test (DST) is better than that under a Hybrid Pulse Power Characterization (HPPC) test. With the emergence of cloud batteries, the fusion algorithm is expected to realize real vehicle online application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 4772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

IPTVisual: Visualisation of the Spatial Energy Flows in Inductive Power Transfer Systems with Arbitrary Winding Shapes

by Cheng Zhang, Xiaoyun Chen, Kunyu Chen and Deyan Lin

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(4), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13040063 - 2 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2381

Abstract

Mid-ranged wireless power transfer by induction or inductive power transfer (IPT), including the strong magnetic resonance method, has been widely adopted, in numerous applications where wires are restricted. The energy flow in space, of course, is invisible to engineers. The windings are often [...] Read more.

Mid-ranged wireless power transfer by induction or inductive power transfer (IPT), including the strong magnetic resonance method, has been widely adopted, in numerous applications where wires are restricted. The energy flow in space, of course, is invisible to engineers. The windings are often required to be irregular shapes to accommodate the industrial designs of the products, thus, a visualisation method for energy transfer paths could greatly help the design and optimization of such systems. A time-efficient methodology, including the model, analysis and plot of the three-dimensional energy flow for IPT systems, is proposed in this paper. Algorithms of fast describing arbitrarily shaped windings are proposed and the time complexities are evaluated. A software tool, IPTVisual, is developed. It takes the inputs of key coordinates of the windings, the assignments of voltage and/or current sources, any compensation capacitors and auxiliary circuits, and the required observation points to generate the 3D models of the windings and the Poynting vectors, rendered in web browsers for the most extendable compatibility. Several example scenarios have been tested and the results match with the expected operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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17 pages, 2639 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction for the Remaining Useful Life of Lithium–Ion Battery Based on RVM-GM with Dynamic Size of Moving Window

by Jinrui Nan, Bo Deng, Wanke Cao and Zihao Tan

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13020025 - 19 Jan 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2596

Abstract

Accurate prediction of the remaining useful life of a lithium–ion battery (LiB) is of paramount importance for ensuring its durable operation. To achieve more accurate prediction with limited data, this paper proposes an RVM-GM algorithm based on dynamic window size. The method combines [...] Read more.

Accurate prediction of the remaining useful life of a lithium–ion battery (LiB) is of paramount importance for ensuring its durable operation. To achieve more accurate prediction with limited data, this paper proposes an RVM-GM algorithm based on dynamic window size. The method combines the advantages of the relevance vector machine (RVM) algorithm and grey predictive model (GM). The RVM is applied to provide the relevance vectors of fitting function and output probability prediction, and the GM is used to obtain the trend prediction with limited data information. The algorithm is further verified by the NASA PCoE lithium–ion battery data repository. The experimental prediction results of different batteries data show that the proposed algorithm has less error while applying a dynamic window size compared with a fixed window size, while it has higher prediction accuracy than particle filter algorithm (PF) and convolutional neural network (CNN), which has verified the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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13 pages, 2287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Path Planning and Tracking Control of Automatic Parking System

by Bingzhan Zhang, Zhiyuan Li, Yaoyao Ni and Yujie Li

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13010014 - 1 Jan 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4397

Abstract

In this paper, we focus on the parking path planning and path tracking control under parallel parking conditions with automatic parking system as the research object. In order to solve the problem of discontinuity of curvature in the path planning of traditional arc-straight [...] Read more.

In this paper, we focus on the parking path planning and path tracking control under parallel parking conditions with automatic parking system as the research object. In order to solve the problem of discontinuity of curvature in the path planning of traditional arc-straight combined curve, a quintic polynomial is used to smooth the path. we design a path tracking controller based on the incremental model predictive control (MPC). The preview control based on pure tracking algorithm is used as the comparison algorithm for path tracking. The feasibility of the controller is verified by building a Simulink/CarSim co-simulation platform. In addition, the practicality of the parking controller is further verified by using the ROS intelligent car in the laboratory environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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17 pages, 8387 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Constant-Current and Constant-Voltage Output for Single-Switch WPT System with Composite Shielding Structure

by Quanlei Zhang, Chunfang Wang, Lingyun Yang and Zhihao Guo

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13010013 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3066

Abstract

With the development of wireless power transfer (WPT), the wireless charging has become a research hotspot. This paper proposes a novel single-switch hybrid compensation topology, which can change the compensation network to realize the constant-current (CC) and constant-voltage (CV) output. The zero voltage [...] Read more.

With the development of wireless power transfer (WPT), the wireless charging has become a research hotspot. This paper proposes a novel single-switch hybrid compensation topology, which can change the compensation network to realize the constant-current (CC) and constant-voltage (CV) output. The zero voltage switching (ZVS) margin can be designed to increase the stability of the system. In addition, the magnetic coupler adopts a composite shielding structure composed of ferrite, nanocrystalline, and aluminium foil. The composite shielding structure has a better shielding effect on magnetic flux leakage, and its weight is lighter. The composite shielding structure is expected to be used in the wireless charging system of electric vehicles (EVs). Finally, an experimental prototype is built to verify the theoretical analysis, and the maximum efficiency can reach 91.4%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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13 pages, 5333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Suppression of Cross-Coupling Effect of Hybrid Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor with Parallel Magnetic Circuit

by Xiao He and Guangqing Bao

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13010011 - 30 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3028

Abstract

Hybrid permanent magnet synchronous motor (HPMSM) has attracted increased attention in recent years due to its adjustable air gap flux. However, as a result of the cross-coupling effect of high- and low-coercive permanent magnets, the precise magnetic adjustment of HPMSM has become increasingly [...] Read more.

Hybrid permanent magnet synchronous motor (HPMSM) has attracted increased attention in recent years due to its adjustable air gap flux. However, as a result of the cross-coupling effect of high- and low-coercive permanent magnets, the precise magnetic adjustment of HPMSM has become increasingly difficult. In order to weaken the cross-coupling effect, two methods of adding magnetic barrier and exciting coil are adopted in this paper. First, the equivalent magnetic circuit model is established, and the theoretical rationality of the weakening method is analyzed. Second, the electromagnetic performance of two weakening methods are analyzed based on the finite element analysis. Finally, the rationality of the theoretical analysis is verified, which provides the structure basis for the precise magnetic adjustment of the hybrid permanent magnet motor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 4998 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Integrated Kinetic Energy Recoup Drive (i-KERD): An Optimized Powertrain for EVs, HEVs and FCEVs

by Min Yang, Tao Wang, Chunji Guo, Chris Ellis and Yuefeng Liao

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13010008 - 28 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2622

Abstract

In this paper, a particular form of flywheel hybrid powertrain, namely, the Integrated Kinetic Energy Recoup Drive (i-KERD) is fully explored and its applications for EVs, HEVs and FCEVs in recent years to show the energy-savings and performance enhancement potential of this innovative [...] Read more.

In this paper, a particular form of flywheel hybrid powertrain, namely, the Integrated Kinetic Energy Recoup Drive (i-KERD) is fully explored and its applications for EVs, HEVs and FCEVs in recent years to show the energy-savings and performance enhancement potential of this innovative powertrain technology. It is shown that the i-KERD is a small highspeed flywheel integrated into an e-CVT, or power-split hybrid drive. Under NEDC or WLTC, typically it can achieve some 40% energy savings and >50% gain in 0–100 kph acceleration due to effective regenerative braking mechanism of the integrated flywheel power system. In addition to its “peak-shaving” capability, the highly-efficient, long-life flywheel power on-board, is able to keep the kinetic energy of the vehicle fully recycled, rather than dissipated during braking. The i-KERD technology has also been applied to urban railway transportation (i.e., underground railway) and off-road heavy construction equipment, where regenerative braking plays a great role on energy efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 3601 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dual-Side Phase-Shift Control for Strongly Coupled Series–Series Compensated Electric Vehicle Wireless Charging Systems

by Yiming Zhang, Zhiwei Shen, Yuanchao Wu, Hui Wang and Wenbin Pan

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13010006 - 26 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2531

Abstract

Wireless power transfer (WPT) for electric vehicles is an emerging technology and a future trend. To increase power density, the coupling coefficient of coils can be designed to be large, forming a strongly coupled WPT system, different from the conventional loosely coupled WPT [...] Read more.

Wireless power transfer (WPT) for electric vehicles is an emerging technology and a future trend. To increase power density, the coupling coefficient of coils can be designed to be large, forming a strongly coupled WPT system, different from the conventional loosely coupled WPT system. In this way, the power density and efficiency of the WPT system can be improved. This paper investigates the dual-side phase-shift control of the strongly coupled series–series compensated WPT systems. The mathematical models based on the conventional first harmonic approximation and differential equations for the dual-side phase-shift control are built and compared. The dual-side phase-shift angle and its impact on the power transfer direction and soft switching are investigated. It is found that synchronous rectification at strong couplings can lead to hard switching because the dual-side phase shift in this case is over 90°. In comparison, a relatively high efficiency and soft switching can be realized when the dual-side phase shift is below 90°. The experimental results have validated the analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 5392 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of TSPWM for Common-Mode Voltage Reduction in Vehicular Electric Drive System

by Shang Jiang and Yuan Wang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13010005 - 24 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2499

Abstract

Common-mode voltage can be reduced effectively by optimized modulation methods without increasing additional costs. However, the existing methods cannot satisfy the requirements of the vehicular electric-drive application. This paper optimizes the tri-state voltage modulation method to reduce the common-mode voltage for vehicular electric [...] Read more.

Common-mode voltage can be reduced effectively by optimized modulation methods without increasing additional costs. However, the existing methods cannot satisfy the requirements of the vehicular electric-drive application. This paper optimizes the tri-state voltage modulation method to reduce the common-mode voltage for vehicular electric drive system applications. Firstly, the discontinuous switching issue during sector transition is analyzed. Under the limit of two switching times in one period, multiple alignments combination is proposed to address that issue. Secondly, the zero-voltage time intervals in different modulation ranges are explored. This paper proposes an unsymmetric translation method to reconstruct the voltage vector, and then the minimum zero-voltage time interval is controlled to enough value for safe switching. Finally, the proposed methods have been validated through experiments on a vehicular electric drive system. The results show that the common-mode voltage can be reduced effectively in the whole range with the optimized tri-state voltage modulation method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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15 pages, 8416 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Design Technique of Traction Motor for Efficiency Improvement Based on Multiobjective Optimization

by Shoulun Guo, Huichao Zhao, Yu Wang, Xiangrui Yin, Hongyang Qi, Pei Li and Zhanxi Lin

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040260 - 11 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3410

Abstract

With the increasing demand of driving range of new energy vehicle (NEV), design optimization for energy efficiency of traction motors became more important. However, traction motor design is complex since multiple objectives should be satisfied, such as the required torque-speed operating range and [...] Read more.

With the increasing demand of driving range of new energy vehicle (NEV), design optimization for energy efficiency of traction motors became more important. However, traction motor design is complex since multiple objectives should be satisfied, such as the required torque-speed operating range and package and thermal constraints. This dramatically increases the computation time of the design optimization process, while the additional energy efficiency objective of the whole driving cycle. This paper proposes an equivalent driving cycle points extraction method, based on energy consumption equivalence to facilitate the design optimization of traction motors. This paper presents necessary rules of multiobjective optimization methods, and then gives an optimization process and proves the effectiveness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 27974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Numerical Simulation on the Leakage Event of a High-Pressure Hydrogen Dispenser

by Benjin Wang, Yahao Shen, Hong Lv and Pengfei He

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040259 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3143

Abstract

For the sake of the increasing demand of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, there are more concerns on the safety of hydrogen refueling stations. As one of the key pieces of equipment, the hydrogen dispenser has drawn attention on this aspect since it involves [...] Read more.

For the sake of the increasing demand of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, there are more concerns on the safety of hydrogen refueling stations. As one of the key pieces of equipment, the hydrogen dispenser has drawn attention on this aspect since it involves massive manual operations and may be bothered by a high probability of failure. In this paper, a numerical study is conducted to simulate the possible leakage events of the hydrogen dispenser based on a prototype in China whose working pressure is 70 MPa. The leakage accident is analyzed with respect to leakage sizes, leak directions, and the time to stop the leakage. It is found that, due to the large mass flow rate under such high pressure, the leak direction and the layout of the components inside the dispenser become insignificant, and the ignitable clouds will form inside the dispenser in less than 1 s if there is a leakage of 1% size of the main tube. The ignitable clouds will form near the vent holes outside the dispenser, which may dissipate quickly if the leakage is stopped. On the other hand, the gas inside the dispenser will remain ignitable for a long time, which asks for a design with no possible ignition source inside. The results can be useful in optimizing the design of the dispenser, regarding the reaction time and sensitivity requirements of the leakage detector, the size and amount of vent holes, etc. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 4193 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Online Capacity Estimation for Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Semi-Supervised Convolutional Neural Network

by Yi Wu and Wei Li

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040256 - 6 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2684

Abstract

Accurate capacity estimation can ensure the safe and reliable operation of lithium-ion batteries in practical applications. Recently, deep learning-based capacity estimation methods have demonstrated impressive advances. However, such methods suffer from limited labeled data for training, i.e., the capacity ground-truth of lithium-ion batteries. [...] Read more.

Accurate capacity estimation can ensure the safe and reliable operation of lithium-ion batteries in practical applications. Recently, deep learning-based capacity estimation methods have demonstrated impressive advances. However, such methods suffer from limited labeled data for training, i.e., the capacity ground-truth of lithium-ion batteries. A capacity estimation method is proposed based on a semi-supervised convolutional neural network (SS-CNN). This method can automatically extract features from battery partial-charge information for capacity estimation. Furthermore, a semi-supervised training strategy is developed to take advantage of the extra unlabeled sample, which can improve the generalization of the model and the accuracy of capacity estimation even in the presence of limited labeled data. Compared with artificial neural networks and convolutional neural networks, the proposed method is demonstrated to improve capacity estimation accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 4700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fault Diagnosis for PEMFC Water Management Subsystem Based on Learning Vector Quantization Neural Network and Kernel Principal Component Analysis

by Shuna Jiang, Qi Li, Rui Gan and Weirong Chen

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040255 - 4 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2773

Abstract

To solve the problem of water management subsystem fault diagnosis in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) system, a novel approach based on learning vector quantization neural network (LVQNN) and kernel principal component analysis (KPCA) is proposed. In the proposed approach, the [...] Read more.

To solve the problem of water management subsystem fault diagnosis in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) system, a novel approach based on learning vector quantization neural network (LVQNN) and kernel principal component analysis (KPCA) is proposed. In the proposed approach, the KPCA method is used for processing strongly coupled fault data with a high dimension to reduce the data dimension and to extract new low-dimensional fault feature data. The LVQNN method is used to carry out fault recognition using the fault feature data. The effectiveness of the proposed fault detection method is validated using the experimental data of the PEMFC power system. Results show that the proposed method can quickly and accurately diagnose the three health states: normal state, water flooding failure and membrane dry failure, and the recognition accuracy can reach 96.93%. Therefore, the method proposed in this paper is suitable for processing the fault data with a high dimension and abundant quantities, and provides a reference for the application of water management subsystem fault diagnosis of PEMFC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 5118 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonlinear Varying-Network Magnetic Circuit Analysis of Consequent-Pole Permanent-Magnet Motor for Electric Vehicles

by Hui Wang, Kwok Tong Chau, Christopher H. T. Lee, C. C. Chan and Tengbo Yang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040254 - 1 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2711

Abstract

To conserve rare earth resources, consequent-pole permanent-magnet (CPPM) machine has been studied, which employs iron-pole to replace half PM poles. Meanwhile, to increase flux-weakening ability, hybrid excitation CPPM machine with three-dimensional (3-D) flux flow has been proposed. Considering finite element method (FEM) is [...] Read more.

To conserve rare earth resources, consequent-pole permanent-magnet (CPPM) machine has been studied, which employs iron-pole to replace half PM poles. Meanwhile, to increase flux-weakening ability, hybrid excitation CPPM machine with three-dimensional (3-D) flux flow has been proposed. Considering finite element method (FEM) is time-consuming, for the analysis of the CPPM machine, this paper presents a nonlinear varying-network magnetic circuit (NVNMC), which can analytically calculate the corresponding electromagnetic performances. The key is to separate the model of CPPM machine into different elements reasonably; thus, the reluctances and magnetomotive force (MMF) sources in each element can be deduced. While taking into account magnetic saturation in the iron region, the proposed NVNMC method can accurately predict the 3-D magnetic field distribution, hence determining the corresponding back-electromotive force and electromagnetic power. Apart from providing fast calculation, this analytical method can provide physical insight on how to optimize the design parameters of this CPPM machine. Finally, the accuracy of the proposed model is verified by comparing the analytical results with the results obtained by using FEM. As a result, with so many desired attributes, this method can be employed for machine initial optimization to achieve higher power density. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 1210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parameter Matching Method of a Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid Energy Storage System for Electric Vehicles

by Fengchen Liu, Chun Wang and Yunrong Luo

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040253 - 1 Dec 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3808

Abstract

To satisfy the high-rate power demand fluctuations in the complicated driving cycle, electric vehicle (EV) energy storage systems should have both high power density and high energy density. In order to obtain better energy and power performances, a combination of battery and supercapacitor [...] Read more.

To satisfy the high-rate power demand fluctuations in the complicated driving cycle, electric vehicle (EV) energy storage systems should have both high power density and high energy density. In order to obtain better energy and power performances, a combination of battery and supercapacitor are utilized in this work to form a semi-active hybrid energy storage system (HESS). A parameter matching method of battery-supercapacitor HESS for electric vehicles (EVs) is proposed. This method can meet the performance indicators of EVs in terms of power and energy for parameter matching. The result shows that optimized parameter matching is obtained by reducing the weight and cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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13 pages, 2759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on New Energy Vehicle Market Penetration Rate Based on Nested Multinominal Logit Model

by Kexin Liu, Hong Shi, Bin Liu and Xiaorong Jian

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040249 - 21 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3819

Abstract

This article uses the NMNL (nested multinominal logit) model to analyze the impact of different policies on the cost of owning a vehicle by a consumer and discusses the changes in the share of various fuel-driven types of passenger vehicles that may be [...] Read more.

This article uses the NMNL (nested multinominal logit) model to analyze the impact of different policies on the cost of owning a vehicle by a consumer and discusses the changes in the share of various fuel-driven types of passenger vehicles that may be brought by different policy portfolios. This article also considers the differences in the development of various technical routes, conducts the nested classification calculation of different models, divides the differences in product preferences and obtains the market share results that are more in line with the market development status, providing a basis for the formulation of policies related to new energy vehicles. The study found that the popularization of NEVs requires more cost-reducing measures. As policies that consumers can perceive, consumers are more sensitive to fiscal and taxation policies than other types of policies. Based on the calculation of policy effects, this article recommends a policy plan to gradually impose vehicle purchase tax on NEVs after 2024, increase the fuel tax rate in stages after 2025, and impose an excise tax on BEVs and FCEVs after 2030. The plan can guarantee the stability of support for NEVs and the gradual reduction of financial investment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 3037 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Stator Fault Diagnosis Method Based on the Offline Motor Parameter Measurement for PMSM

by Jing Tang, Chao Liang, Yuanhang Wang, Shuhan Lu and Jian Zhou

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040248 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2548

Abstract

The permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) is used widely in electric vehicle application due to its high-power density and efficiency. Stator fault is a frequently fault in the motor as it usually works in a harsh environment. Therefore, a stator fault diagnosis method [...] Read more.

The permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) is used widely in electric vehicle application due to its high-power density and efficiency. Stator fault is a frequently fault in the motor as it usually works in a harsh environment. Therefore, a stator fault diagnosis method based on the offline motor parameter measurement is proposed to detect and evaluate the stator fault in this paper. Firstly, the line-to-line resistance and inductance of a healthy motor are analyzed when a DC voltage and a high-frequency voltage are excited to the motor respectively, where the DC and AC equivalent circuits at a standstill are introduced. Then, to analyze the resistance and inductance of the stator fault, an extra branch is added to the fault part to obtain the fault equivalent circuits. Accordingly, the stator fault resistance and inductance are derived, and then the resistance and inductance differences between healthy and fault motors are analyzed to provide the basis for the stator fault detection. Furthermore, the fault indicators are defined based on the resistance and inductance differences when a motor has a stator fault. Hence the stator fault severity and location can be evaluated by using these fault indicators. Finally, the experimental results from a 400 W permanent magnet synchronous motor are demonstrated to validate the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 6683 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrical Interoperability Evaluating of Wireless Electric Vehicle Charging Systems Based on Impedance Space

by Bingkun Shi, Fuyuan Yang, Bin Wei and Minggao Ouyang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040245 - 16 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2669

Abstract

In the commercialization process of wireless electric vehicle charging (WEVC), it is essential to ensure the interoperability between diverse WEVC systems due to the wide application of various coil configurations and compensation topologies. This paper proposes a novel electrical interoperability evaluation method based [...] Read more.

In the commercialization process of wireless electric vehicle charging (WEVC), it is essential to ensure the interoperability between diverse WEVC systems due to the wide application of various coil configurations and compensation topologies. This paper proposes a novel electrical interoperability evaluation method based on impedance indices and corresponding feasible space in the complex plane. Firstly, the electromagnetic description of the coil system is introduced to reveal the energy flow process of WEVC system. Further, two key impedance indices and their feasible space are derived and verified. Interoperability evaluation results show that the reference devices in Chinese WEVC standard GB/T 38775.6 and GB/T 38775.7 are able to achieve the requirements of power capability. Moreover, it is necessary to reduce the duty cycle of rectifier when the battery voltage rises so as to narrow down the variation of load resistance and avoid dangerous working conditions. The proposed method can effectively evaluate the electrical interoperability of WEVC systems from different manufacturers under different power or distance levels before conducting experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 2282 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Planning of Electric Vehicle Charging Station Considering Mutual Benefit of Users and Power Grid

by Hui Hou, Junyi Tang, Bo Zhao, Leiqi Zhang, Yifan Wang and Changjun Xie

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040244 - 15 Nov 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5035

Abstract

A reasonable plan for charging stations is critical to the widespread use of electric vehicles. In this paper, we propose an optimal planning method for electric vehicle charging stations. First of all, we put forward a forecasting method for the distribution of electric [...] Read more.

A reasonable plan for charging stations is critical to the widespread use of electric vehicles. In this paper, we propose an optimal planning method for electric vehicle charging stations. First of all, we put forward a forecasting method for the distribution of electric vehicle fast charging demand in urban areas. Next, a new mathematical model that considers the mutual benefit of electric vehicle users and the power grid is set up, aiming to minimize the social cost of charging stations. Then, the model is solved by the Voronoi diagram combined with improved particle swarm optimization. In the end, the proposed method is applied to an urban area, simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method can yield optimal location and capacity of each charging station. A contrasting case is carried out to verify that improved particle swarm optimization is more effective in finding the global optimal solution than particle swarm optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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18 pages, 4157 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multistage and Dynamic Layout Optimization for Electric Vehicle Charging Stations Based on the Behavior Analysis of Travelers

by Feng Chen, Minling Feng, Bing Han and Shaofeng Lu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040243 - 15 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3583

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EV) are growing fast in recent years with the widespread concern about carbon neutrality. The development of charging infrastructures needs to be in phase with EV both in terms of quantity and charging time to decrease the range anxiety of EV [...] Read more.

Electric vehicles (EV) are growing fast in recent years with the widespread concern about carbon neutrality. The development of charging infrastructures needs to be in phase with EV both in terms of quantity and charging time to decrease the range anxiety of EV users and resource waste. This paper proposed a multistage and dynamic layout optimization model based on mixed integer linear programming (MILP) for EV charging stations (CSs) to minimize the total social costs (TSC) consisting of the detour cost of EV users and the construction, relocation, and operating cost of CSs. The charging satisfaction coefficient and M/M/S/K model of queuing theory has been introduced to determine the desirable charging supply. The spatial-temporal distribution of charging demand was modeled based on the behavior analysis of travelers and over the discrete-time intervals for a day. Comparison studies based on the Sioux Falls network reveal that TSC with a multistage optimization strategy will drop 8.79% from that with a one-time optimization strategy. Charging service quality, relocation cost, and road network scales have a significant impact on the optimization results according to the sensitivity analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 1365 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aggregate Electric Vehicles in Demand Side for Ancillary Service

by Xianglu Liu, Xianglong Li, Haiyang Chen, Wenbin Zhou, Zhou Sun and Hao Xu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040242 - 15 Nov 2021

Viewed by 2676

Abstract

This paper investigates the win-win commercialization mode of aggregating electric vehicles (EVs) in demand side for ancillary service. We have conducted a half-year-long incentive verification experiment covering 10,066 electric vehicle owners in Beijing. Based on the experimental results, we develop an incentive-based mechanism [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the win-win commercialization mode of aggregating electric vehicles (EVs) in demand side for ancillary service. We have conducted a half-year-long incentive verification experiment covering 10,066 electric vehicle owners in Beijing. Based on the experimental results, we develop an incentive-based mechanism that enables electric vehicles to participate the wholesale capacity market through an aggregator. The aggregator, which is held by charging service operators can make a profit by designing a smart pricing policy. In this process, not only the electric vehicle owners but also the utility can gain benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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15 pages, 6166 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis and Improvement Measures of Driving Range Attenuation of Electric Vehicles in Winter

by Shuoyuan Mao, Meilin Han, Xuebing Han, Jie Shao, Yong Lu, Languang Lu and Minggao Ouyang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040239 - 12 Nov 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3708

Abstract

A great many EVs in cold areas suffer from range attenuation in winter, which causes driver anxiety concerning the driving range, representing a hot topic. Many researchers have analyzed the reasons for range attenuation but the coupling mechanism of the battery as well [...] Read more.

A great many EVs in cold areas suffer from range attenuation in winter, which causes driver anxiety concerning the driving range, representing a hot topic. Many researchers have analyzed the reasons for range attenuation but the coupling mechanism of the battery as well as the vehicle and driving conditions have not been clearly estimated. To quantitatively investigate the driving range attenuation of electric vehicles (EVs) during winter, an EV model mainly integrated with a passenger-cabin thermal model, battery model, and vehicle dynamic model was constructed and simulated based on the mass-produced Wuling HongGuang Mini EV. Real vehicle dynamic driving data was used to validate the model. Based on NEDC driving conditions, the driving range calculation formula and energy flow diagram analysis method were used. The reason for attenuation was evaluated quantitatively. Results show that battery energy loss and breaking recovery energy loss contribute nearly half of the range attenuation, which may be alleviated by battery preheating. Suggestions for extending driving range are proposed based on the research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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7 pages, 21697 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intelligent Power Unit Parameters Design and the Influence Analyses

by Zhanshan Zhu, Huichao Zhao, Xiaolu Liu, Hongbao Wang and Zhiqiang Liu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040238 - 11 Nov 2021

Viewed by 2221

Abstract

The power unit is mainly responsible for the power converter’s function of the electric vehicle, which converts the DC power from the battery to the AC power to drive the motor. Therefore, the parasitic parameters of the power unit will directly affect the [...] Read more.

The power unit is mainly responsible for the power converter’s function of the electric vehicle, which converts the DC power from the battery to the AC power to drive the motor. Therefore, the parasitic parameters of the power unit will directly affect the output performance of the vehicle. In this paper, the parasitic parameters of the power unit are analyzed. By using an asymmetric design, the capacitor cost and performance are balanced. Moreover, the structure of the busbar is optimized according to the reasonable theoretical analysis. The simulation comparison before and after the optimization, and the comparison results of the measurement results by the double pulse test, are given to verify the optimization. Additionally, the ESL of the busbar is reduced by 10 nH. The results will offer some references to the power unit design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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20 pages, 3156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on a New Static Sealing Method and Sealing Performance Evaluation Model for PEMFC

by Xiaoyu Huang, Jinghui Zhao, Yichun Wang, Yuchao Ke and Zixi Wang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040237 - 11 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2996

Abstract

The long-term stability and durability of seals are critical for various instruments and types of equipment. For static sealing, an important sealing state, there are currently two representative sealing methods, namely, pre-compressing static sealing and adhesive static sealing. In this paper, the characteristics [...] Read more.

The long-term stability and durability of seals are critical for various instruments and types of equipment. For static sealing, an important sealing state, there are currently two representative sealing methods, namely, pre-compressing static sealing and adhesive static sealing. In this paper, the characteristics and shortcomings of these sealing methods are summarized. At present, some static sealing requirements are urgent and difficult. For example, the deterioration of the sealing performance is an important factor which limits the service life of proton exchange membrane fuel cells and redox flow batteries. Therefore, a new method of static sealing whose sealing materials are rubber elastomers is proposed, named alterable static sealing. Then, its sealing processes are proposed. Furthermore, the actual contact area ratio r is used as the standard for sealability. Based on the mathematical model of pre-compressing static sealing, the influence of interface bonding was considered, and the mathematical model of alterable static sealing was established. Moreover, the compensatory effect of alterable static sealing on the static sealing capacity of rubber elastomers was proved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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39 pages, 2037 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vehicle to Grid Impacts on the Total Cost of Ownership for Electric Vehicle Drivers

by Dominik Huber, Quentin De Clerck, Cedric De Cauwer, Nikolaos Sapountzoglou, Thierry Coosemans and Maarten Messagie

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040236 - 11 Nov 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5720

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EV) are foreseen as one major technology toward decarbonizing the mobility sector. At the same time, Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology opens a new market for EV owners. This article identifies the impacts of providing V2G services on the Total Cost [...] Read more.

Electric vehicles (EV) are foreseen as one major technology toward decarbonizing the mobility sector. At the same time, Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology opens a new market for EV owners. This article identifies the impacts of providing V2G services on the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of EVs. Thus, we studied EVs in private, semi-public and public charging cases, considering two different V2G revenue streams. The included V2G services were: (i) local load balancing to balance the peaks and valleys of the electricity demands of buildings and (ii) an imbalance service to enhance grid stability. In this paper, the impact of these two V2G services is quantified and considered in the TCO calculations. To the authors’ knowledge, no comparable study incorporating the same V2G services exists in the literature. The TCO is calculated with real-life data for four different EVs currently available in the market. As a result, the V2G TCO ranges from €33.167 to €61.436 over an average of nine years for the Flanders region (Belgium). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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18 pages, 4652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Management Method for Fast-Charging Stations with the Energy Storage System to Alleviate the Voltage Problem of the Observation Node

by Rui Ye, Xueliang Huang and Zexin Yang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040234 - 11 Nov 2021

Viewed by 1615

Abstract

Large-scale fast charging of electric vehicles (EVs) probably causes voltage deviation problems in the distribution network. Installing energy storage systems (ESSs) in the fast-charging stations (FCSs) and formulating appropriate active power plans for ESSs is an effective way to reduce the local voltage [...] Read more.

Large-scale fast charging of electric vehicles (EVs) probably causes voltage deviation problems in the distribution network. Installing energy storage systems (ESSs) in the fast-charging stations (FCSs) and formulating appropriate active power plans for ESSs is an effective way to reduce the local voltage deviation problem. Some deterministic centralized strategies used for ESSs at FCSs are proposed to solve the voltage deviation problem mentioned above. However, the randomness of the EV load is very large, which can probably reduce the effects of deterministic centralized strategies. A fast and reliable centralized strategy considering the randomness of the EV load for ESSs is a key requirement. Therefore, we propose in this paper a day-ahead scheduling strategy with the aim of maximizing the probability of the nodal voltage change being smaller than a preset limit at the observation node. In the proposed strategy, the uncertainty of EV load is taken into account and the probability of the voltage change of an observation node is quantified by a proposed analytic assessment model (AMM). Furthermore, a voltage change optimization model (VCOM) based on a novel control parameter β is proposed, where β can be used as a constraint to suppress the nodal voltage change at the observation node. Finally, the IEEE 33-bus test system is used to verify the effectiveness of the proposed day-ahead ESS strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 2253 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New On-board Charging-Driving Integrated Topology for V2G Technology

by Fangxu Zhang, Daohan Wang, Chen Peng, Zhenkang Feng, Junchen Li, Wentao Feng, Yang Li and Xiuhe Wang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040231 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2143

Abstract

The performance of batteries and on-board chargers (such as the volume in the car, energy storage capacity and charging speed) needs to be improved, which has become one of the main factors restricting the development of electric vehicles. The development of Vehicles to [...] Read more.

The performance of batteries and on-board chargers (such as the volume in the car, energy storage capacity and charging speed) needs to be improved, which has become one of the main factors restricting the development of electric vehicles. The development of Vehicles to Grid technology puts forward higher requirements for chargers. With the development of Vehicles to Grid (V2G) technology, more realizable functions put forward higher requirements for chargers. To solve the problem of charging system in electric vehicle, a charging-driving integrated topology was designed, which makes full use of two-stator motor and inverters to be transformed to a charging system. The supercapacitor and the battery are used to form the hybrid power system. In the driving mode, the startup and acceleration performance of the vehicle are improved. In the charging mode, the various functions of Vehicles to Grid technology can be satisfied, and the electrical isolation is realized. This topology not only improves the power, but also greatly reduces the charging/discharging times of the battery, and improves the overall performance of the system. The feasibility is verified by simulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 5861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Multiphysics Coupling Relationship for the IPT System in Seawater Environment

by Kehan Zhang and Yue An

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040230 - 10 Nov 2021

Viewed by 1449

Abstract

Wireless charging in the marine environment has problems such as high loss and low efficiency. In order to solve these problems, based on the wireless power transmission technology in the seawater environment, this paper studies the multi-physical field coupling relationship of the underwater [...] Read more.

Wireless charging in the marine environment has problems such as high loss and low efficiency. In order to solve these problems, based on the wireless power transmission technology in the seawater environment, this paper studies the multi-physical field coupling relationship of the underwater IPT system. Through researching on the law of mutual influence and interaction between the fields, the relationship between the physical fields is established. The software is used to establish a system simulation model, the dataset is solved and analyzed to get the distribution of electric field, magnetic field, thermal field, and flow field, which provides a theoretical basis for the model and optimization of the IPT system in the seawater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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18 pages, 1106 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Business Model Quantification Framework for the Core Participants of the EV Charging Market

by Andrei Goncearuc, Nikolaos Sapountzoglou, Cedric De Cauwer, Thierry Coosemans, Maarten Messagie and Thomas Crispeels

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040229 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3460

Abstract

The rapid growth of the electrical vehicle (EV) market over the last decade has rendered the existence and accuracy of the business models of the EV charging market a critical factor for a company’s success. To address this issue, this paper presents a [...] Read more.

The rapid growth of the electrical vehicle (EV) market over the last decade has rendered the existence and accuracy of the business models of the EV charging market a critical factor for a company’s success. To address this issue, this paper presents a quantification framework for the business models of the core participants of the EV charging market, defining the factors that directly influence their revenues and costs and providing two sets of earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) formulas: explicit and implicit. The explicit formulas would be useful for business analytics of the current participants of the EV charging market, while the implicit could be applied by the new entrants, to make reliable predictions based on the benchmark data. These formulas include factors that have not been previously addressed in the literature such as different prices per type of charger, the annual consumed amount of energy per charger and their utilization rate among others. Finally, this research applies the defined framework on an EBIT scenario of an archetypical charge point operator, based on real-life data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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15 pages, 2394 KiB

Open AccessArticle

State-of-Health Estimate for the Lithium-Ion Battery Using Chi-Square and ELM-LSTM

by Jianfeng Jiang, Shaishai Zhao and Chaolong Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040228 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2239

Abstract

The state-of-health (SOH) estimation is of extreme importance for the performance maximization and upgrading of lithium-ion battery. This paper is concerned with neural-network-enabled battery SOH indication and estimation. The insight that motivates this work is that the chi-square of battery voltages of each [...] Read more.

The state-of-health (SOH) estimation is of extreme importance for the performance maximization and upgrading of lithium-ion battery. This paper is concerned with neural-network-enabled battery SOH indication and estimation. The insight that motivates this work is that the chi-square of battery voltages of each constant current-constant voltage phrase and mean temperature could reflect the battery capacity loss effectively. An ensemble algorithm composed of extreme learning machine (ELM) and long short-term memory (LSTM) neural network is utilized to capture the underlying correspondence between the SOH, mean temperature and chi-square of battery voltages. NASA battery data and battery pack data are used to demonstrate the estimation procedures and performance of the proposed approach. The results show that the proposed approach can estimate the battery SOH accurately. Meanwhile, comparative experiments are designed to compare the proposed approach with the separate used method, and the proposed approach shows better estimation performance in the comparisons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 1832 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parity–Time Symmetric Model and Analysis for Stable Multi-Load Wireless Power Transfer

by Zhenghao Zhu, Huan Yuan, Renjie Zhang, Aijun Yang, Xiaohua Wang and Mingzhe Rong

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040226 - 9 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2109

Abstract

A noticeable challenge for a multi-load wireless power transfer system is to achieve stable power transfer under a dynamic change in coupling conditions. It was proposed that the parity–time symmetric wireless power transfer (PT-WPT) system can achieve stable output efficiency for a single [...] Read more.

A noticeable challenge for a multi-load wireless power transfer system is to achieve stable power transfer under a dynamic change in coupling conditions. It was proposed that the parity–time symmetric wireless power transfer (PT-WPT) system can achieve stable output efficiency for a single receiver when tuned at the purely real eigenfrequency. However, in the case of higher order, PT symmetric systems usually cannot maintain the real eigenfrequency. To address the issue, a high-order PT-WPT model was established using coupled mode theory (CMT) theory in this paper, and the eigenfrequency of the multi-load PT-WPT system was analyzed. Here, we propose that, theoretically, the system can work at the purely real eigenfrequency by impedance matching. The transfer efficiency of the multi-load PT-WPT system when the system works at the real eigenfrequency was analyzed. The results of the numerical simulation show that the multi load PT-WPT system can maintain stable output efficiency under a dynamic change in coupling conditions. In the long run, our work provides a new possibility for the stable transmission of the multi-load wireless power transfer system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 4719 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Magnetic Coupling Common Mode Conducted EMI Analysis and Improvement in a Boost Converter

by Junping He, Yujin Liu, Cong Wang and Lingling Cao

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040225 - 9 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2231

Abstract

Common mode (CM) electromagnetic interference (EMI) has been a difficult subject in electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) analysis and design of power converters for electric vehicles (EV) because of its complex formation mechanism and hidden propagation path. This paper studies a new mechanism of CM [...] Read more.

Common mode (CM) electromagnetic interference (EMI) has been a difficult subject in electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) analysis and design of power converters for electric vehicles (EV) because of its complex formation mechanism and hidden propagation path. This paper studies a new mechanism of CM conducted emission caused by the leakage flux of a toroidal inductor in the main circuit of a boost DC/DC converter. The stray magnetic source and the CM inducted loops are firstly identified out by simulation analysis and experiments. Then a comprehensive conducted emission circuit model including magnetic coupling parameters is built to explain this CM EMI formation mechanism. Finally, several effective magnetic coupling suppression methods are proposed and verified, such as changing the installation angle of the inductor and the shape of the magnetic core. The research results are helpful to the EMC understanding and design of power electronic converters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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13 pages, 3477 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Battery Capacity Estimation Based on Incremental Capacity Analysis Considering Charging Current Rate

by Yiran Lin, Bo Jiang and Haifeng Dai

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040224 - 9 Nov 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2953

Abstract

Incremental capacity analysis (ICA) is widely used in the battery decay mechanism analysis since the features of battery incremental capacity (IC) curves are closely related to battery aging and maximum available capacity. However, the traditional ICA method to estimate battery capacity mainly focuses [...] Read more.

Incremental capacity analysis (ICA) is widely used in the battery decay mechanism analysis since the features of battery incremental capacity (IC) curves are closely related to battery aging and maximum available capacity. However, the traditional ICA method to estimate battery capacity mainly focuses on a single charging condition, and the influence of charging current on IC curves is ignored. In this paper, an adaptive capacity estimation method based on ICA considering the charging current is established. First, the charging experiments using different charging current rates under different battery aging statuses are designed and conducted. Then, the relationship between battery maximum available capacity, IC curve features, and charging current is investigated. Furthermore, the fitting method and data-driven method considering charging current are proposed and compared. Finally, the capacity estimation results prove the accuracy and adaptability of the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 6755 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation and Experimental Validation of Sideband Harmonic Vibration of IPMSM with and without Skewed Slots for EVs

by Zhenkang Feng, Daohan Wang, Chen Peng, Wentao Feng, Bingdong Wang, Junchen Li and Xiuhe Wang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040223 - 9 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1898

Abstract

Due to their advantages of high power density and high efficiency, permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) are widely used in the field of electric vehicles (EVs). Vibration and noise are important indicators for evaluating the performance of PMSMs, and the skewed slot method [...] Read more.

Due to their advantages of high power density and high efficiency, permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) are widely used in the field of electric vehicles (EVs). Vibration and noise are important indicators for evaluating the performance of PMSMs, and the skewed slot method is now widely used to mitigate the torque ripple and noise of motors. In the vector control strategy, the space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) method produces sideband voltage harmonics with a frequency near the switching frequency. These harmonics act on the magnetic field to generate an excitation force with a frequency near the switching frequency. This paper compares and analyzes the sideband harmonic current and the exciting force of a skewed slot motor and a straight slot motor during steady-state operation. The research results show that the skewed slot method can effectively mitigate the vibration and noise caused by sideband harmonics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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17 pages, 4275 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Anti-Interference Control Method for an AGV-WPT System Based on UIO-SMC

by Jun Hou, Weidong Huang and Dongxiao Huang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040220 - 4 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2048

Abstract

During the wireless charging of an automated guided vehicle (AGV), the output voltage is unstable due to changes in parameters such as coil mutual inductance and load resistance caused by external interferences and internal mismatches of the system. In this paper, an integral [...] Read more.

During the wireless charging of an automated guided vehicle (AGV), the output voltage is unstable due to changes in parameters such as coil mutual inductance and load resistance caused by external interferences and internal mismatches of the system. In this paper, an integral sliding mode control method based on an unknown input observer (UIO) containing predictive equations is designed to build an inductor–capacitor–capacitor-series (LCC-S) topology model for wireless power transfer (WPT). The observer designed by this method can perceive changes in the secondary resistance parameter and the mutual inductance of the primary and secondary coils. The design with the prediction equation speeds up the convergence of the observer to the true value. The observer’s compensation of the control system avoids the occurrence of integral oversaturation. The experimental results show that, based on the UIO-SMC system output, voltage can be accurately controlled to meet the requirement for a given voltage. The effect of suppressing disturbance is better than with SMC and PI control. When the system parameter changes, it has better voltage anti-interference performance and stronger ripple suppression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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16 pages, 5071 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Finite Element Analysis-Aided Optimization of Rectangular Coil Assemblies Applied in Electric Vehicle Inductive Chargers

by Guodong Zhu and Dawei Gao

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040219 - 4 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1922

Abstract

Energy efficiency and leakage magnetic field (LMF) are two important issues in electric vehicle inductive chargers. In this work, the maximum achievable coil efficiency and the corresponding LMF strength are formulated as functions of system parameters, and figures of merits (FOM) are proposed [...] Read more.

Energy efficiency and leakage magnetic field (LMF) are two important issues in electric vehicle inductive chargers. In this work, the maximum achievable coil efficiency and the corresponding LMF strength are formulated as functions of system parameters, and figures of merits (FOM) are proposed for assessing the efficiency and LMF performance of the coil assembly pair. The impacts of the coil assemblies’ geometric parameters on both FOMs are examined with the aid of finite element analysis (FEA), and measures to improve the FOMs are suggested based on FEA results. A manual optimization process is conducted on a coil assembly pair. Compared with the initial design, the optimized one results in a higher DC-to-DC efficiency and lower LMF strength while consuming less copper. The performance improvement is verified by FEA results and experimental data measured on an 85 kHz electric vehicle inductive charger prototype. The key measures for coil assembly optimization are summarized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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18 pages, 5357 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Medium- and Long-Term Orderly Charging Load Planning Method for Electric Vehicles in Residential Areas

by Zhaoxia Xiao, Yi Zhou, Jianing Cao and Rui Xu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040216 - 3 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1986

Abstract

Due to the large number of electric vehicles (EVs) connected to the distribution network of residential areas (RAs), community charging has become a major constraint. The planning of the distribution network in RAs needs to consider the orderly charging load of EVs. In [...] Read more.

Due to the large number of electric vehicles (EVs) connected to the distribution network of residential areas (RAs), community charging has become a major constraint. The planning of the distribution network in RAs needs to consider the orderly charging load of EVs. In the current study, an orderly charging planning method for the charging posts and distribution network of RAs was proposed. First, a charging load forecasting model based on the travel characteristics, charging time, and ownership of EVs in RAs was established. Then, a hierarchical orderly charging optimization method, including a distribution network layer and EV access node layer, was devised. The upper layer optimizes the distribution network. The objective function is the minimum variance of the overall load in the RA and the constraint conditions satisfy the overall charging load demand and the capacity of the distributed network. The lower layer optimizes the EV access nodes. The objective function is the minimum variance of the node access load, and the constraint conditions are to meet the regional charging load demand and the optimal power balance demand transmitted from the upper layer to the lower layer. A nonlinear optimization algorithm is employed to solve these objective functions. An IEEE 33 node example was used to obtain the orderly charging power load curves for weekdays and weekends in RAs, and the simulation results prove the effectiveness of the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 8412 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-System Coupling DMi Hybrid Vehicle Modeling and Its Performance Analysis Based on Simulation

by Song Li, Puxi Wang, Dong Zeng, Wenjie Peng and Liu Yang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040215 - 1 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6767

Abstract

Key subsystems, such as driving resistance, component performance, and energy management strategy, determine the power performance and energy consumption of hybrid electric vehicles. Qin Plus performs excellently in fuel consumption due to its low driving resistance, high thermal efficiency of the engine, and [...] Read more.

Key subsystems, such as driving resistance, component performance, and energy management strategy, determine the power performance and energy consumption of hybrid electric vehicles. Qin Plus performs excellently in fuel consumption due to its low driving resistance, high thermal efficiency of the engine, and multi-factor multi-mode energy management strategy. This article aims to explain the outstanding energy consumption of DMi vehicles by analyzing the driving resistance, component parameters of Qin Plus and introducing the drive modes selection and vehicle energy management strategy through multi-system modeling and simulation. The ultra-low fuel consumption of 3.8 L is obtained under the NEDC driving cycle and evaluated by the corresponding experiment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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18 pages, 10751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on High Power Factor Single Tube Variable Structure Wireless Power Transmission

by Yi Yang, Xuejian Zhang, Lei Luo, Shiyun Xie and Qingshan Zhou

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040214 - 1 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1742

Abstract

Aiming at the problems existing in the current radio energy transmission system, we propose a wireless power transmission (WPT) system with the parallel–parallel (PP)-compensated structure. The transmitter of the transmission system adopts a separate topological structure to suppress the current shock and noise. [...] Read more.

Aiming at the problems existing in the current radio energy transmission system, we propose a wireless power transmission (WPT) system with the parallel–parallel (PP)-compensated structure. The transmitter of the transmission system adopts a separate topological structure to suppress the current shock and noise. In order to improve the efficiency of the WPT, reduce the static loss, and reduce the current oscillation loss on the power side, the input current ripple can be improved by two parallel phase-shifting methods. In this paper, two topological theories are analyzed, and the simulation and experiment results verify the correctness of these theories under both static and on-load conditions. After the final two-way phase-shift, 61.99% of the ripple is reduced. It provides a new approach for the design of WPT systems with PP structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 4298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Establishment of Vehicle Energy Distribution Model and Energy Consumption Optimization Based on Electric Hybrid System

by Peng Liang, Huatuo He, Huafang Cui and Minglang Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040213 - 1 Nov 2021

Viewed by 2004

Abstract

In order to improve the adaptability and accuracy of the system average efficiency model in energy consumption analysis of working conditions, this paper presents a vehicle energy distribution model based on the layout and powertrain operation features of the electric hybrid system, and [...] Read more.

In order to improve the adaptability and accuracy of the system average efficiency model in energy consumption analysis of working conditions, this paper presents a vehicle energy distribution model based on the layout and powertrain operation features of the electric hybrid system, and presents a vehicle energy consumption optimization method for control strategy and hardware quality optimization based on the guidance of the energy distribution model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 3846 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Adaptive Adjustment Method of Equivalent Factor Considering Speed Predict Information

by Bingzhan Zhang, Qinglong Meng, Juncheng Wu and Yaoyao Ni

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040211 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2081

Abstract

Although the energy management strategies at present have achieved a good effect, they still have their limitations, so there is still room for further improvement to improve the fuel economy of hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). This paper proposes an adaptive equivalent consumption minimization [...] Read more.

Although the energy management strategies at present have achieved a good effect, they still have their limitations, so there is still room for further improvement to improve the fuel economy of hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). This paper proposes an adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) based on speed prediction, which can distribute power more reasonably and improve the power balance and fuel economy. The driving speed reflects the operation of the road and driver during the driving process. Under the motor assisted energy management control strategy, knowing all working condition information in advance can improve the battery power use planning to a certain extent and reduce the fuel consumption during the whole driving process by adjusting parameters. In this paper, a novel adaptive adjustment method for the equivalent factor (EF) of the ECMS based on future information is proposed. In this paper, a novel speed-prediction method combined with wavelet packet transformation (WPT) and a radial basis function neural network (RBF-NN) is proposed to realize accurate vehicle speed prediction. Then, the optimal equivalent factor under the state of charge (SOC) constraint is calculated by using the predicted speed. Simulation studies are conducted to verify the effectiveness of the proposed adjustment method for the EF compared to a commonly adjustment method from SOC balance and economic viewpoints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 2279 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Load Transfer Path Search and Its Evaluation between Networks in Consideration of the Mobile Energy Storage of Electric Vehicles

by Dongyu Mao, Xueliang Huang, Zhong Chen, Yang Lv, Jiang Tian and Zexin Yang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040210 - 25 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1808

Abstract

Load transfer is an important way of restoring a power supply after equipment failure or maintenance. However, current methods ignore cooperation between networks and users, and they also fail to take into account the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) potential of electric vehicles (EVs). In this [...] Read more.

Load transfer is an important way of restoring a power supply after equipment failure or maintenance. However, current methods ignore cooperation between networks and users, and they also fail to take into account the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) potential of electric vehicles (EVs). In this paper, a load transfer scheme between transmission and distribution networks is proposed, considering the mobile energy storage capacities of electric vehicles. First, the mobility characteristic and the available discharge capacity of EVs are analyzed on the basis of the parking generation rate. Then, the breadth-first algorithm is used to search the load transfer paths within and between stations, and an edge matching method is proposed to realize the conversion between networks with different voltage levels. Lastly, the optimal combination weighting method was adopted to combine subjective and objective index weights and to evaluate power supply paths. The effectiveness of the proposed scheme is validated in a case composed of an IEEE 30-node network and an IEEE 57-node network, with four typical scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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13 pages, 7494 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Energy Storage Management Strategy for Electric Propulsion Aircraft Based on Three-Step Power Distribution

by Hang Li, Taike Yao, Xuan Zhang, Feifei Bu and Luhui Weng

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040209 - 23 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2224

Abstract

To solve the problem of severe DC bus voltage fluctuations caused by frequent changes in the distributed electric propulsion aircraft load, and to further optimize the size and life of the hybrid energy storage system (HESS), this paper proposes a method based on [...] Read more.

To solve the problem of severe DC bus voltage fluctuations caused by frequent changes in the distributed electric propulsion aircraft load, and to further optimize the size and life of the hybrid energy storage system (HESS), this paper proposes a method based on three-step power distribution (TSPD). This strategy realizes the reasonable distribution of battery and supercapacitor power by using a low pass filter. Through the introduction of a supercapacitor state-of-charge (SOC) automatic recovery control and maximum power value dynamic limit strategy, the size of the HESS is optimized, and the service life of the energy storage device is extended. Finally, simulation and experiment platform are built to prove the effectiveness of the proposed strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 3028 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of Equilibrium Strategy Aiming at Throughput Maximization of Series Battery Pack

by Rui Cao, Xinhua Liu, Zhengjie Zhang, Mingyue Wang, Hanchao Cheng, Xinlei Gao, Xiaoyu Yan and Shichun Yang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040208 - 22 Oct 2021

Viewed by 1813

Abstract

In the operation process of a power battery pack, the inconsistency among lithium-ion cells may seriously restrict the pack’s capacity, power capability and lifetime, which may bring hidden danger to the use of electric vehicles. Equalization management systems (EMSs) are crucial to alleviate [...] Read more.

In the operation process of a power battery pack, the inconsistency among lithium-ion cells may seriously restrict the pack’s capacity, power capability and lifetime, which may bring hidden danger to the use of electric vehicles. Equalization management systems (EMSs) are crucial to alleviate such inter-cell inconsistency, whose performance such as accuracy and stability, mainly depends on the setting of equalization control strategies. This paper proposes an equalization strategy aimed at throughput maximization of series battery in the whole life cycle based on Model Prediction Control (MPC). In this paper, a Mean-plus-difference model (M+D) model is selected as the series battery model and the parameters are identified by Recursive Least Squares (RLS). Based on the model predictive control theory, the control model of series battery pack is established and the objective function of maximizing the throughput in the whole life cycle is derived. At the end of the paper, the simulation results show that the proposed equalization strategy can achieve greater life cycle throughput compared with the traditional SOC equalization strategy, which verifies the guiding significance of the equilibrium strategy proposed in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 5248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Challenges in Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles in Urban and Rural Areas

by Jakob Gemassmer, Carolin Daam and Ricardo Reibsch

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040206 - 21 Oct 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4690

Abstract

The ramp-up of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) could lead to severe grid issues but also enables flexibility. This paper provides a better understanding of the challenges and potentials of integrating BEVs in power grids. Three charging strategies were modelled on four use cases [...] Read more.

The ramp-up of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) could lead to severe grid issues but also enables flexibility. This paper provides a better understanding of the challenges and potentials of integrating BEVs in power grids. Three charging strategies were modelled on four use cases and six low-voltage grids for urban and rural areas. Especially in rural areas, where many cars charge at home overnight, the charging strategy significantly affects grid issues. Purely market-oriented strategies can lead to high load peaks and thus to transformer and line overloading, while even a relatively simple, balanced charging strategy can significantly reduce grid issues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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15 pages, 3390 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Operation Strategy of Parking Lots Integrated with PV and Considering Energy Price Tags

by Zexin Yang, Xueliang Huang, Shan Gao, Qi Zhao, Hongen Ding, Tian Gao, Dongyu Mao and Rui Ye

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040205 - 21 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2136

Abstract

In recent years, the orderly charging of electric vehicles (EVs) in commercial parking has become a meaningful research topic due to the increasing number of EVs, especially for parking lots close to workplaces and serving fixed users. In this paper, a parking lot [...] Read more.

In recent years, the orderly charging of electric vehicles (EVs) in commercial parking has become a meaningful research topic due to the increasing number of EVs, especially for parking lots close to workplaces and serving fixed users. In this paper, a parking lot energy management system integrated with energy storage system (ESS) and photovoltaic (PV) system is established. The concept of energy price tag (EPT) is introduced to define the price of all energy storage devices, and the priority order between PV, ESS, EVs, and power grid is established. Taking the minimization of charging cost as the optimization objective, the charging plans of ESS, EVs, and buildings are optimized considering the constraints of EVs user demand and PV power. By comparing the simulation results of four cases, it is proven that this strategy can reduce the charging cost and improve the consumption rate of PV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 2715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Battery Pack State of Health Prediction Based on the Electric Vehicle Management Platform Data

by Xiaoyu Li, Tengyuan Wang, Chuxin Wu, Jindong Tian and Yong Tian

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040204 - 20 Oct 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2117

Abstract

In electric vehicle technologies, the state of health prediction and safety assessment of battery packs are key issues to be solved. In this paper, the battery system data collected on the electric vehicle data management platform is used to model the corresponding state [...] Read more.

In electric vehicle technologies, the state of health prediction and safety assessment of battery packs are key issues to be solved. In this paper, the battery system data collected on the electric vehicle data management platform is used to model the corresponding state of health of the electric vehicle during charging and discharging processes. The increment in capacity in the same voltage range is used as the battery state of health indicator. In order to improve the modeling accuracy, the influence of ambient temperature on the capacity performance of the battery pack is considered. A temperature correction coefficient is added to the battery state of health model. Finally, a double exponential function is used to describe the process of battery health decline. Additionally, for the case where the amount of data is relatively small, model migration is also applied in the method. Particle swarm optimization algorithm is used to calibrate the model parameters. Based on the migration battery pack model and parameter identification method, the proposed method can obtain accurate battery pack SOH prediction result. The method is simple and easy to perform on the electric vehicle data management platform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 3335 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Metal Foreign Object Detection of Electric Vehicle Wireless Charging System Based on Detection Coil

by Tao Meng, Linlin Tan, Ruying Zhong, Huiru Xie and Xueliang Huang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040203 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2624

Abstract

Due to the open structure of wireless charging systems, foreign objects are inevitably involved. In the process of energy transfer, the intervention of metal foreign objects will cause the system to deviate from the normal operating point and even cause safety accidents. Therefore, [...] Read more.

Due to the open structure of wireless charging systems, foreign objects are inevitably involved. In the process of energy transfer, the intervention of metal foreign objects will cause the system to deviate from the normal operating point and even cause safety accidents. Therefore, metal foreign objects detection (MOD) technology is of considerable importance. In this paper, a metal foreign object detection system of a wireless power transfer (WPT) system based on the symmetrical detection coil was designed, and a MOD method based on frequency scanning is proposed. The coil size of the WPT system was designed based on SAE-J2954 standard. In addition, the suitable detection coil was installed at the transmitting coil. The system model was established in ANSYS simulation software, and 5 cm × 5 cm copper sheet and iron sheet were used as the metal to be detected. The result shows that the self-induction of the detection coil at the position of the foreign object can achieve a fluctuation of 52.46% and −34.72%, and the resonant frequency of the detection system is offset by 24.7% and −18.82%, respectively. Finally, the experimental platform of MOD system was built, and the effectiveness of the system was verified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 1905 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Safety Design and Engineering Solution of Fuel Cell Powered Ship in Inland Waterway of China

by Lijian Chen and Wenfeng Guan

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040202 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3616

Abstract

From the perspective of risk control, when hydrogen fuel and fuel cells are used on ships, there is a possibility of low-flash fuel leakage, leading to the risk of explosion. Since the fuel cell space (cabin for fuel cell installations) is an enclosed [...] Read more.

From the perspective of risk control, when hydrogen fuel and fuel cells are used on ships, there is a possibility of low-flash fuel leakage, leading to the risk of explosion. Since the fuel cell space (cabin for fuel cell installations) is an enclosed space, any small amount of leakage must be handled properly. In ship design, area classification is a method of analyzing and classifying the areas where explosive gas atmospheres may occur. If the fuel cell space is regarded as a hazardous area, all the electrical devices inside it must be explosion-proof type, which will make the ship’s design very difficult. This paper takes a Chinese fuel cell powered ship as an example to analyze its safety. Firstly, the leakage rates of fuel cell modules, valves, and connectors are calculated. Secondly, the IEC60079-10-1 algorithm is used to calculate the risk level of the fuel cell space. Finally, the ship and fuel cells are optimized and redesigned, and the risk level of the fuel cell space is recalculated and compared. The result shows that the optimized fuel space risk level could be reduced to the level of the non-hazardous zone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 4502 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Thrust Cooperative Control Strategy of Multiple Propulsion Motors for Distributed Electric Propulsion Aircraft

by Luhui Weng, Xuan Zhang, Taike Yao, Feifei Bu and Hang Li

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040199 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2099

Abstract

This paper presents a thrust cooperative control strategy of multiple propulsion motors for distributed electric propulsion aircraft. The control strategy can keep the propulsion motors running synchronously when the aircraft is flying in a straight line; at the same time, when the aircraft [...] Read more.

This paper presents a thrust cooperative control strategy of multiple propulsion motors for distributed electric propulsion aircraft. The control strategy can keep the propulsion motors running synchronously when the aircraft is flying in a straight line; at the same time, when the aircraft needs to turn, the yaw moment is generated by changing the speed of the propulsion motors on both sides, so as to achieve the given yaw angle of the aircraft. In order to verify the control strategy, the paper also carries out simulation and experimental verification, and the results show that the cooperative control strategy is feasible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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13 pages, 2836 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Core Loss Analysis and Modeling of a Magnetic Coupling System in WPT for EVs

by Qingbin Chen, Feng Fan, Jinshuai Wang and Wei Chen

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040198 - 18 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2123

Abstract

The magnetic core is an important part of the magnetic coupling system in wireless power transmission (WPT) for EVs. It helps to increase the coupling coefficient and reduce magnetic field leakage. However, it also brings additional core loss. While the traditional core loss [...] Read more.

The magnetic core is an important part of the magnetic coupling system in wireless power transmission (WPT) for EVs. It helps to increase the coupling coefficient and reduce magnetic field leakage. However, it also brings additional core loss. While the traditional core loss model cannot be used directly due to the uneven distribution of the magnetic flux density, this paper focuses on the flux density distribution in the disk core of a WPT system. Based on a finite element analysis (FEA) simulation and a theoretical magnetic flux density distribution analysis, a mathematical model of magnetic flux density distribution is built, which is regarded as a quadratic function. Through this model, the flux density distribution can be calculated by the electrical and mechanical specifications of the magnetic coupling system. Combining the model of flux density distribution, the disk core loss model of the WPT system is proposed—the idea of which is dividing the disk core into several circle sheets firstly, and then summing the core loss of all circle sheets. Finally, the FEA simulation results verify the proposed model as being correct and flexible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 3828 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Load and Mutual Inductance Identification Method of WPT System Based on a LCC-S Type Compensation Network

by Ming Xue, Keyan Lu and Lihua Zhu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040197 - 18 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2130

Abstract

The identification of load and mutual inductance parameters of a wireless power transfer system can make the mathematical model of the system more accurate, which can effectively avoid system errors due to parameter uncertainties in the implementation of control, and provide theoretical support [...] Read more.

The identification of load and mutual inductance parameters of a wireless power transfer system can make the mathematical model of the system more accurate, which can effectively avoid system errors due to parameter uncertainties in the implementation of control, and provide theoretical support for system interoperability and high efficiency. This paper uses the two-port theorem and fundamental wave analysis to establish the identification model and obtain the relationship between inverter output current and load and between mutual inductance and load based on the equivalent circuit of a LCC-S magnetically coupled wireless power transfer system. To make the identification results more accurate, a particle swarm optimization algorithm with weights is introduced to transform the parameter identification problem of the system into an optimization problem, which can obtain the identification method of the system load and mutual inductance parameters. Both simulation and experimental results verify the feasibility and effectiveness of the method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 2368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Particle Physics-Based Model of a Lithium-Ion Battery for Fast-Charging Control Application

by Xiaoyu Li, Wen Hua, Jindong Tian and Yong Tian

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040196 - 17 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2602

Abstract

The charging safety of electric vehicles is an area of focus in the electric automobile industry. For the purpose of ensuring safety, charging electric vehicles as soon as possible is a goal pursued by the public. In order to ensure the safety of [...] Read more.

The charging safety of electric vehicles is an area of focus in the electric automobile industry. For the purpose of ensuring safety, charging electric vehicles as soon as possible is a goal pursued by the public. In order to ensure the safety of electric vehicles during fast charging and to reduce the cycle life decay of the battery, a simplified multi-particle lithium-ion battery model is proposed, based on the pseudo two-dimensional (P2D) model. The model was developed by considering heterogeneous electrochemical reactions in the negative electrode area. The Butler–Volmer (BV) kinetic equation and the distribution of the pore wall flux in the negative electrode is approximated by the quasi-linear approximation method. Furthermore, this paper also analyzes the conditions of lithium precipitation from the negative electrode of a lithium-ion battery in the case of high charging rates, which has a certain reference significance for fast-charging control applications. The experimental and simulation results show that the model has a high simulation accuracy and can reflect the heterogeneity of electrochemical reactions in the negative electrode of the battery. The model can be adapted to fast-charging control applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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15 pages, 7662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of Hydrogen Leakage and Diffusion Process of Fuel Cell Vehicle

by Mingyu Jiao, Haoran Zhu, Jinglong Huang and Xin Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040193 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3478

Abstract

Regarding the problem of hydrogen diffusion of the fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) when its hydrogen supply system leaks, this research uses the FLUENT software to simulate numerical values in the process of hydrogen leakage diffusion in both open space and closed space. This [...] Read more.

Regarding the problem of hydrogen diffusion of the fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) when its hydrogen supply system leaks, this research uses the FLUENT software to simulate numerical values in the process of hydrogen leakage diffusion in both open space and closed space. This paper analyzed the distribution range and concentration distribution characteristics of hydrogen in these two different spaces. Besides, this paper also took a survey about the effects of leakage rate, wind speed, wind direction in open space and the role the air vents play on hydrogen safety in closed space, which provides a reference for the hydrogen safety of HFCV. In conclusion, the experiment result showed that: In open space, hydrogen leakage rate has a great influence on its diffusion. When the leakage rate doubles, the hydrogen leakage range will expand about 1.5 times simultaneously. The hydrogen diffusion range is the smallest when the wind blows at 90 degrees, which is more conducive to hydrogen diffusion. However, when the wind direction is against the direction of the leakage of hydrogen, the range of hydrogen distribution is maximal. Under this condition, the risk of hydrogen leakage is highest. In an enclosed space, when the vent is set closest to the leakage position, the volume fraction of hydrogen at each time is smaller than that at other positions, so it is more beneficial to safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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15 pages, 4049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hierarchical Model Predictive Control for Autonomous Collision Avoidance of Distributed Electric Drive Vehicle with Lateral Stability Analysis in Extreme Scenarios

by Bowen Wang, Cheng Lin, Sheng Liang, Xinle Gong and Zhenyi Tao

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040192 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2023

Abstract

This paper proposes an active collision avoidance controller based on a hierarchical model predictive control framework for distributed electric drive vehicles (4IDEV) considering extreme conditions. In this framework, a two-layer strategy is developed. The upper layer is the path replanning controller based on [...] Read more.

This paper proposes an active collision avoidance controller based on a hierarchical model predictive control framework for distributed electric drive vehicles (4IDEV) considering extreme conditions. In this framework, a two-layer strategy is developed. The upper layer is the path replanning controller based on nonlinear MPC (nMPC), from which a collision-free path including the optimal lateral displacement and yaw angle can be obtained in real-time while encountering the obstacles. The lower layer is the path tracking controller based on hybrid MPC (hMPC), and the coordinated control inputs (yaw moment and the front wheel steering angle) are solved by a Mixed-Integer Quadratic Programming (MIQP) with the piecewise affine (PWA) tire model considering tire saturation region. Moreover, to improve the lateral stability when tracking, the stable zone of lateral stability in the high-risk condition is analyzed based on the phase portrait method, by which the constraints of vehicle states and inputs are derived. The verification is carried out on the MATLAB and CarSim co-simulation platform, and the simulation results show that the proposed active collision avoidance controller can track the reference path accurately and prevent vehicle instability in extreme scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 5108 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Copper Foil Electromagnetic Coupler and Its Wireless Power Transfer System without Compensation

by Xueying Wu and Mingxuan Mao

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040191 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1748

Abstract

This paper proposes a copper foil electromagnetic coupler integrating inductance and capacitance and its wireless power transfer (WPT) system without additional compensation structure. Firstly, the equivalent circuit model of the integrated electromagnetic coupler is established, and the circuit model is simplified based on [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a copper foil electromagnetic coupler integrating inductance and capacitance and its wireless power transfer (WPT) system without additional compensation structure. Firstly, the equivalent circuit model of the integrated electromagnetic coupler is established, and the circuit model is simplified based on the circuit theory and mutual inductance coupling theory. The self-compensating characteristics of the coupler are utilized to analyze and design the relation between electrical parameters of the system, and the basic conditions of full resonance working of the system are given. The system’s performance is verified by simulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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9 pages, 5413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Interior Permanent Magnet Machine with Magnet Axis Shifted Effect for Electric Vehicle Applications

by Yongsheng Ge, Hui Yang, Weijia Wang, Heyun Lin and Ya Li

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040189 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1659

Abstract

This paper proposes a novel interior permanent magnet (IPM) machine with asymmetrical PM configuration. Different from the traditional IPM counterparts, the proposed machine can perform a magnet axis shifted (MAS) effect. The magnet axis is shifted towards the reluctance axis so that a [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a novel interior permanent magnet (IPM) machine with asymmetrical PM configuration. Different from the traditional IPM counterparts, the proposed machine can perform a magnet axis shifted (MAS) effect. The magnet axis is shifted towards the reluctance axis so that a higher resultant torque capability can be obtained. Firstly, the configuration and the basic principle of the proposed machine are described. The design parameters are optimized to improve the torque capability, and the effect of the PM asymmetry ratio on the torque performance is then evaluated in detail. In addition, the major electromagnetic characteristics of the optimized machine are investigated and compared with those of the Prius 2010 IPM machine by finite element method (FEM). The results demonstrate that the proposed asymmetrical PM configuration can achieve the torque improvement due to the MAS effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 5306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Data Analysis and Visualization Platform Design for Batteries Using Flask-Based Python Web Service

by Zuyi Liang, Zongwei Liang, Yubin Zheng, Beichen Liang and Linfeng Zheng

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040187 - 14 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6118

Abstract

Battery operating data of electric vehicles is becoming increasingly quantified and complicated. A data analysis platform is necessary to excavate high-value battery status information for more efficient battery management. This paper proposes a Flask framework and Pyecharts-based lithium-ion data analysis and visualization platform. [...] Read more.

Battery operating data of electric vehicles is becoming increasingly quantified and complicated. A data analysis platform is necessary to excavate high-value battery status information for more efficient battery management. This paper proposes a Flask framework and Pyecharts-based lithium-ion data analysis and visualization platform. The design processes including the front-end and back-end frameworks, data preprocessing, data visualization, and data storage are elaborated. In the proposed data platform, a case study of battery state of charge estimation using different machine learning methods is demonstrated, and most of the estimation errors are less than 2.0%, highlighting the effectiveness of the platform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 13667 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Method for Busbar Design of Electric Vehicle Motor Drive

by Yunhao Huang, Puqi Ning, Han Cao and Tao Fan

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040186 - 14 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2827

Abstract

At present, the DC busbar design is one of the bottlenecks restricting the improvement of the power density of motor drives. Therefore, this paper proposes a three-dimensional line probe algorithm, which can realize the automatic routing of laminated busbar in motor drives. The [...] Read more.

At present, the DC busbar design is one of the bottlenecks restricting the improvement of the power density of motor drives. Therefore, this paper proposes a three-dimensional line probe algorithm, which can realize the automatic routing of laminated busbar in motor drives. The specific rules and implementation of this method are introduced in detail in this paper. Finally, an example of busbar design of a vehicle motor drive is given to verify the routing rate and execution speed of the algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 1844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogen Safety Prediction and Analysis of Hydrogen Refueling Station Leakage Accidents and Process Using Multi-Relevance Machine Learning

by Wujian Yang, Jianghao Dong and Yuke Ren

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040185 - 13 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3076

Abstract

Hydrogen energy vehicles are being increasingly widely used. To ensure the safety of hydrogenation stations, research into the detection of hydrogen leaks is required. Offline analysis using data machine learning is achieved using Spark SQL and Spark MLlib technology. In this study, to [...] Read more.

Hydrogen energy vehicles are being increasingly widely used. To ensure the safety of hydrogenation stations, research into the detection of hydrogen leaks is required. Offline analysis using data machine learning is achieved using Spark SQL and Spark MLlib technology. In this study, to determine the safety status of a hydrogen refueling station, we used multiple algorithm models to perform calculation and analysis: a multi-source data association prediction algorithm, a random gradient descent algorithm, a deep neural network optimization algorithm, and other algorithm models. We successfully analyzed the data, including the potential relationships, internal relationships, and operation laws between the data, to detect the safety statuses of hydrogen refueling stations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 4673 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensorless Fault-Tolerant Control of Dual Three-Phase Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor

by Fan Cao, Haifeng Lu, Yonggang Meng and Dawei Gao

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040183 - 11 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2092

Abstract

Dual three-phase permanent magnet synchronous motors (DTPMSM) are used in the steer-by-wire system of electric vehicles that require high reliability. Multiple faults should be considered for the steering system, such as open-circuit faults and speed sensor faults. However, the current speed sensorless control [...] Read more.

Dual three-phase permanent magnet synchronous motors (DTPMSM) are used in the steer-by-wire system of electric vehicles that require high reliability. Multiple faults should be considered for the steering system, such as open-circuit faults and speed sensor faults. However, the current speed sensorless control methods of the dual three-phase motor are mainly derived from the promotion of the three-phase motor. They fail when an open-circuit fault occurs, leading to the failure of fault-tolerant control. Researchers have noticed this problem and proposed many methods, but they are very complicated and computationally intensive. This paper proposes one type of improved model reference adaptive system (MRAS). By adding certain fault-related restraints to the output of the adjustable model, speed sensorless control can automatically fit the open-circuit fault and estimate accurately even if an open-circuit fault occurs, which makes sure the whole system continues to operate. Simulation results are presented that contain normal operation, open-circuit fault operation, fault-tolerant control operation, and the whole process from start to fault-tolerant operation. The results show that no matter what period the motor is in, the improved speed sensor can accurately estimate the motor speed and position. The improved model reference adaptive system is significant for improving the reliability of the motor steering system and ensuring the safety of people and property. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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9 pages, 5979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Testing and Evaluation of the Electric Drive System on the Vehicle Level

by Zhiguo Kong, Wei Zhang and Helin Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040182 - 11 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3225

Abstract

In order to obtain the performance of the electric drive system (EDS) on the vehicle level correctly and effectively, the authors carried out research on the testing and evaluation technology. Firstly, the typical control strategy and its influence and limitations regarding the EDS [...] Read more.

In order to obtain the performance of the electric drive system (EDS) on the vehicle level correctly and effectively, the authors carried out research on the testing and evaluation technology. Firstly, the typical control strategy and its influence and limitations regarding the EDS performance were discussed in detail. Secondly, a test system on four-wheel dynamometers with a high-performance data acquisition and analysis system was introduced. A dedicated test was performed. Further analysis of the results was introduced. It is proved that the method introduced here is feasible and effective, which is beneficial to benchmarking and evaluation of the EDS used in electric vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 4360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Fuzzy Feedforward Control of Fuel Cell Air Supply System

by Jun Cheng, Baitao Zhang, Haoyu Mao and Sichuan Xu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040181 - 9 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2300

Abstract

As an important part of the fuel cell subsystem, the air supply system of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) plays an important role in improving the output performance and durability of fuel cells. It is necessary to control the oxygen excess [...] Read more.

As an important part of the fuel cell subsystem, the air supply system of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) plays an important role in improving the output performance and durability of fuel cells. It is necessary to control the oxygen excess ratio of fuel cell systems in the process of variable load, preventing the oxygen starvation in the loading process and excessive parasitic power consumption caused by oxygen saturation. At this time, the modeling of fuel cell systems and the development of control strategies are critical. The development of a control strategy depends on the construction of the control model. Aiming at the difficulty of air supply system modeling, this paper uses radial basis function (RBF) neural network and state equation method to establish the dynamic model of air supply systems. At the same time, PID, fuzzy logic plus PID (FL + PID), feedforward plus PID (FF + PID), fuzzy feedforward plus fuzzy PID (FF + FLPID) control strategy are proposed to control the oxygen excess ratio of the system. The simulation results show that fuzzy feedforward plus fuzzy PID (FF + FLPID) has the best effect and the oxygen excess ratio can be followed in 1 s. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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9 pages, 1614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Analysis of Highway Electric HDV Platooning Considering Adaptive Downhill Coasting Speed

by Miaomiao Hu and Peter Bauer

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040180 - 7 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1794

Abstract

Increase of non-renewable energy consumption and CO₂ emissions has brought heavy burdens to our planet. Heavy-duty vehicles as a large energy consumer benefit a lot from platooning due to reduced air drag. Comparing to ICE trucks, electric trucks can gain more energy [...] Read more.

Increase of non-renewable energy consumption and CO₂ emissions has brought heavy burdens to our planet. Heavy-duty vehicles as a large energy consumer benefit a lot from platooning due to reduced air drag. Comparing to ICE trucks, electric trucks can gain more energy savings from platooning while also reducing CO₂ emissions. This paper explores the energy consumption of electric HDV platooning under highway situations and proposes an adaptive downhill coasting speed method with regenerative braking. Simulations show that electric HDV platooning can reach at most 33.4% energy savings with our proposed adaptive coasting speed profile. With a sacrifice of 22.2% travel time, the energy savings can be further increased to 49.3%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 693 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Day-Ahead Forecast of Electric Vehicle Charging Demand with Deep Neural Networks

by Gilles Van Kriekinge, Cedric De Cauwer, Nikolaos Sapountzoglou, Thierry Coosemans and Maarten Messagie

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040178 - 3 Oct 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3708

Abstract

The increasing penetration rate of electric vehicles, associated with a growing charging demand, could induce a negative impact on the electric grid, such as higher peak power demand. To support the electric grid, and to anticipate those peaks, a growing interest exists for [...] Read more.

The increasing penetration rate of electric vehicles, associated with a growing charging demand, could induce a negative impact on the electric grid, such as higher peak power demand. To support the electric grid, and to anticipate those peaks, a growing interest exists for forecasting the day-ahead charging demand of electric vehicles. This paper proposes the enhancement of a state-of-the-art deep neural network to forecast the day-ahead charging demand of electric vehicles with a time resolution of 15 min. In particular, new features have been added on the neural network in order to improve the forecasting. The forecaster is applied on an important use case of a local charging site of a hospital. The results show that the mean-absolute error (MAE) and root-mean-square error (RMSE) are respectively reduced by 28.8% and 19.22% thanks to the use of calendar and weather features. The main achievement of this research is the possibility to forecast a high stochastic aggregated EV charging demand on a day-ahead horizon with a MAE lower than 1 kW. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 8249 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Parallel Hybrid Magnet Memory Machines with Different PM Arrangements

by Yixian Wang, Hui Yang, Hao Zheng, Heyun Lin and Shukang Lyu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040177 - 3 Oct 2021

Viewed by 2780

Abstract

This paper presents a comparative analysis of two parallel hybrid magnet memory machines (PHMMMs) with different permanent magnet (PM) arrangements. The proposed machines are both geometrically characterized by a parallel U-shaped hybrid PM configuration and several q-axis magnetic barriers. The configurations and operating [...] Read more.

This paper presents a comparative analysis of two parallel hybrid magnet memory machines (PHMMMs) with different permanent magnet (PM) arrangements. The proposed machines are both geometrically characterized by a parallel U-shaped hybrid PM configuration and several q-axis magnetic barriers. The configurations and operating principles of the investigated machines are introduced firstly. The effect of magnet arrangements on the performance of the proposed machines is then evaluated with a simplified magnetic circuit model. Furthermore, the electromagnetic characteristics of the proposed machines are investigated and compared by the finite-element method (FEM). The experiments on one prototype are carried out to validate the FEM results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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15 pages, 6797 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Static Eccentricity Fault Analysis of Surface-Mounted Permanent Magnet Electromotor with Skewed Slots Based on 2D FEA

by Li Wang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040176 - 2 Oct 2021

Viewed by 1664

Abstract

It is of significance to analyze the performance of eccentric electromotor for the research on the electric vehicle wheel drive system’s operational reliabilities. We developed a fast equivalent algorithm in which the two-dimensional finite element calculation results are translated into three-dimensional calculation results. [...] Read more.

It is of significance to analyze the performance of eccentric electromotor for the research on the electric vehicle wheel drive system’s operational reliabilities. We developed a fast equivalent algorithm in which the two-dimensional finite element calculation results are translated into three-dimensional calculation results. An electromotor with skewed slot was decomposed into straight-slot electromotor units that were series-wound. A prototype electromotor driven by square wave current under healthy and eccentric conditions was calculated, and the computation accuracy of the equivalent algorithm was analyzed. The air-gap magnetic field and induced electromotive force were calculated and contrasted. The study results indicate that the magnetic field distribution and the induced electromotive forces of winding elements with different axis positions were affected transparently by grievous eccentricity, yet the induced electromotive force of one phase winding and average value of torque remained virtually invariable. The reference to reliability analysis of electric vehicle wheel drive system is provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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18 pages, 7526 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Machine-Learning-Based Optimization of Energy Management in a Novel Hybrid Powertrain of Concrete Truck Mixers

by Ying Huang, Fachao Jiang and Haiming Xie

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040175 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2177

Abstract

The new energy of concrete truck mixers is of great significance to achieve energy conservation and emission reduction. Unlike general-purpose vehicles, in addition to driving conditions, upper-mixing system conditions, operation scenarios, and variable loads are the key factors to be considered during the [...] Read more.

The new energy of concrete truck mixers is of great significance to achieve energy conservation and emission reduction. Unlike general-purpose vehicles, in addition to driving conditions, upper-mixing system conditions, operation scenarios, and variable loads are the key factors to be considered during the new energy of concrete truck mixers. This study focuses on the machine-learning-based approximate optimal energy management design for a concrete truck mixer equipped with a novel extended-range powertrain from two aspects: trip information and energy management strategy. Firstly, an optimal control database is constructed, which benefits from a global optimization algorithm with dimension reduction for the constrained time-varying two-point boundary value problems with two control variables, and the driving data analysis through machine learning and data-driven methods. Then, different machine-learning-based driving condition identifiers are constructed and compared. Finally, a vehicle mass and power demand of an upper-part system based novel neural network energy management strategy is designed based on a constructed optimal control database. Simulation results show that the intelligent optimization algorithm based on the ML of trip information and energy management is an appropriate way to solve the online energy management problem of the concrete truck mixer equipped with the proposed novel powertrain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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16 pages, 4244 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Cooperative Braking Control Algorithm Based on Nonlinear Model Prediction

by Liang Chu, Cheng Chang, Di Zhao and Yanwu Xu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040173 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2101

Abstract

To address the coordinated distribution of motor braking and friction braking for the regenerative braking system, a cooperative braking algorithm based on nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) is proposed, with braking energy recovery power, tire slip rate, and motor torque variation as the [...] Read more.

To address the coordinated distribution of motor braking and friction braking for the regenerative braking system, a cooperative braking algorithm based on nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) is proposed, with braking energy recovery power, tire slip rate, and motor torque variation as the optimization objectives, and online optimization of the coordinated distribution of motor braking and friction braking. Using the offline model built in Matlab/Simulink, the cooperative braking algorithm is tested for energy efficiency and braking safety. The results show that when based on World Light Vehicle Test Cycle (WLTC), the energy recovery rate can reach 30.4%, and with a single high braking intensity, the braking safety can still be ensured. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 1444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Wireless Multicoil Charging System for Low-Voltage Electric Vehicle Applications

by Lukas Elbracht, Jannis Noeren and Nejila Parspour

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040172 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1809

Abstract

In order to inductively charge electric vehicles, which are based on a low-voltage drive train, high currents have to be overcome. This work describes a simulative approach to charge 48 V-based electric vehicles wirelessly with high power. A system was designed on the [...] Read more.

In order to inductively charge electric vehicles, which are based on a low-voltage drive train, high currents have to be overcome. This work describes a simulative approach to charge 48 V-based electric vehicles wirelessly with high power. A system was designed on the basis of various boundary conditions and validated by simulation. In order to increase the transmittable power, the system was investigated for an extendable approach and was examined for modularity. In particular, the influences of the secondary coils on each other must be taken into account. Finally, the entire system was evaluated by physical and electrical simulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 21110 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Mechanism Analysis of Skidding Prediction for Electric Vehicle Based on Time-Delay Effect of Force Transmission

by Ying Yang, Xiaoyu Wang and Yangchao Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040171 - 29 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1838

Abstract

The electric vehicle anti-skidding control system is used to ensure the stability of the vehicle under any circumstances. There is a typical feature in most anti-skidding detection methods; the skidding occurs first, and then the detection is performed. For methods that rely on [...] Read more.

The electric vehicle anti-skidding control system is used to ensure the stability of the vehicle under any circumstances. There is a typical feature in most anti-skidding detection methods; the skidding occurs first, and then the detection is performed. For methods that rely on slip rate detection, more accurate vehicle speeds are required, which are often difficult to accurately observe. The previous method was detection and could not do prediction. Skidding prediction can improve driver reaction time and increase safety. Therefore, this paper proposes a prediction method that does not depend on the slip rate. The skidding prediction can be performed by relying on the driving torque, as well as the wheel speed. In this paper, the characteristics of the transmission from the driving force to the friction force in the vehicle model are analyzed. As for the distributed electric vehicle, the slip factor was designed with traction torque and friction force for skidding prediction by its sharp increase before the maximum adhesion point. The variation in the slip factor and time period of skidding are revealed. A multi-information merged prediction model is designed to improve reliability. The co-simulation and experimental verification based on the physical skidding simulation platform are carried out. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 3133 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fault Injection Model of Induction Motor for Stator Interturn Fault Diagnosis Research Based on HILS

by Xuhao Zhang, Kun Han, Hu Cao, Ziying Wang and Ke Huo

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040170 - 29 Sep 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1783

Abstract

Recently, in order to ensure the reliability and safety of trains, online condition monitoring and fault diagnosis of traction induction motors have become active issues in the area of rail transportation. The fault diagnosis algorithm can be developed and debugged in a real-time [...] Read more.

Recently, in order to ensure the reliability and safety of trains, online condition monitoring and fault diagnosis of traction induction motors have become active issues in the area of rail transportation. The fault diagnosis algorithm can be developed and debugged in a real-time environment based on hardware-in-the-loop simulation (HILS). However, the dynamic space model of induction motors with stator interturn short-circuit faults faces the problem that the faulty state and the healthy state are not compatible, which is inconvenient for the HILS. In this paper, a fault injection model is proposed for the first time, which can realize the online switching between the healthy state and the faulty state of the motor. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed model are verified by simulation experiments the based on MATLAB/Simulink and dSPACE HILS platforms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 2026 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Actual Electricity Utility Factor of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles in Typical Chinese Cities Considering Charging Pattern Heterogeneity

by Xu Hao, Yuebo Yuan, Hewu Wang and Yingbo Sun

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040169 - 29 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2406

Abstract

The actual energy saving effect of plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) is usually evaluated by the electricity utility factor (UF) in a standardized charging pattern. To further evaluate the impacts of the charging pattern heterogeneity of PHEV, actual vehicle travel data are adopted to [...] Read more.

The actual energy saving effect of plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) is usually evaluated by the electricity utility factor (UF) in a standardized charging pattern. To further evaluate the impacts of the charging pattern heterogeneity of PHEV, actual vehicle travel data are adopted to classify the charging pattern in seven typical Chinese cities and derive its impacts on actual UF. Additionally, UF curves are fitted as power exponential functions. The result shows that during daily usage, UF can reach over 0.8 for 50 km all-electric-range PHEVs for the 77% frequently charging adopters, while it is as low as 0.1 for the 3% rarely charging adopters. Comprehensive UF values at an actual charging pattern are 0.53 and 0.68 for the 50 km and 80 km all-electric-range PHEVs, and the values are 0.03 and 0.04 smaller than the standard UF, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 1591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smart Charging Needs, Wants and Demands, Charging Experiences and Opinions of EV Drivers

by Baerte de Brey, Lotte Gardien and Ellen Hiep

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040168 - 28 Sep 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2966

Abstract

To reduce emissions of harmful substances (such as CO₂, NO_x and particulate matter) from transportation a fuel transition is essential. Electric transport is one of the most promising options for achieving this. In order to make this new electric transport [...] Read more.

To reduce emissions of harmful substances (such as CO₂, NO_x and particulate matter) from transportation a fuel transition is essential. Electric transport is one of the most promising options for achieving this. In order to make this new electric transport market function efficiently, new interactions between new and existing parties are required. The growth of electric transport increases the peak demand for electricity. This creates a greater mismatch between moments of supply and moments of demand. In other words, EV drivers want to have their car charged before departure, and grid operators need to allocate resources to meet this demand. Flexibility from both players is required. Charging must be further optimised (become “smarter”) to facilitate this flexibility. Smart charging means: controlling and optimising the time and speed of charging. For example, when there is a large supply of solar and wind energy, there is little other demand for electricity and the price for electricity is low. With the contribution of many organisations, the Vereniging Elektrische Rijders (VER) and ElaadNL have jointly investigated the experiences and opinions of electric drivers about the smart charging of electric cars with a broad survey called the “National Charging Research”. In total, more than 1800 Dutch electric drivers took part in this study. Among other things, the research paid attention to the way in which EV drivers charge their electric cars, which bottlenecks they experience (at home and away) and what the experience is with smart charging. The main finding was that many EV drivers are familiar with smart charging. They are willing to apply smart charging, but they want to be in control of their sessions. To give them that control, both insight and transparency are essential. To meet the needs and wants of both EV drivers and grid operators, alignment with the momentum of European legislation is required to avoid a mismatch of energy between moments of supply and demand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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9 pages, 2276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Influence of Collector Microstructure on the Performance of PEM Electrolyzer

by Wenxuan Ji, Sen Wang, Yongwen Sun, Hong Lv, Xiaojun Shen and Cunman Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040165 - 26 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2280

Abstract

The membrane electrode assembly was prepared by a catalyst coated membrane (CCM) with an effective active area of 10 × 10 cm² in this work. Porous titanium plates with different diameters were used as anode collectors to study the polarization curve and [...] Read more.

The membrane electrode assembly was prepared by a catalyst coated membrane (CCM) with an effective active area of 10 × 10 cm² in this work. Porous titanium plates with different diameters were used as anode collectors to study the polarization curve and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) of the electrolyzer. The results show that the pore size of a porous titanium plate on the anode side has a significant effect on the performance of the electrolyzer. The best cell performance was obtained when the median diameter of the anode titanium plate was 12.3 um. When the current density is 1 A/cm², the battery voltage is 2.253 V. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 3859 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oil Friction Loss Evaluation of Oil-Immersed Cooling In-Wheel Motor Based on Improved Analytical Method and VOF Model

by Yi Yin, Hui Li and Xuewei Xiang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040164 - 26 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2413

Abstract

Oil-immersed cooling provides an effective cooling scheme for high-power hub motors with compact structure and serious heating problems. However, with this cooling method, some oil friction loss will be generated, making the output torque and efficiency of the motor lower, which limits its [...] Read more.

Oil-immersed cooling provides an effective cooling scheme for high-power hub motors with compact structure and serious heating problems. However, with this cooling method, some oil friction loss will be generated, making the output torque and efficiency of the motor lower, which limits its application in the motor. It is essential to get an exact calculation of the oil friction loss so that it can be reduced in the future research. Firstly, a new method was proposed to improve the accuracy of oil friction loss calculated by an existing analytical method (Kori’s method), while the influence laws of oil-soaked depth and rotation speed on it were explored. Secondly, a three-dimensional transient Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) model based on Volume of Fluid (VOF) was established, considering the actual complex structure and the disorderly mixing of oil and air inside the motor. Finally, the oil friction loss calculated with an improved analytical method and a VOF model was verified by a testing. It was indicated that the VOF model was more precise but more time-consuming. The proposed method has the second highest accuracy but takes less time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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16 pages, 7562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Capacity Estimation Methods of Second-Life Application Batteries

by Linkang Ma, Caiping Zhang, Jinyu Wang, Kairang Wang and Jie Chen

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040163 - 26 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2205

Abstract

For the capacity estimation problem of cells in series-retired battery modules, this paper proposed three different methods from the perspective of data-driven, battery curve matching and recession characteristics for different applications. Firstly, based on the premise that the battery history data are available, [...] Read more.

For the capacity estimation problem of cells in series-retired battery modules, this paper proposed three different methods from the perspective of data-driven, battery curve matching and recession characteristics for different applications. Firstly, based on the premise that the battery history data are available, the features of the IC curve are selected as input for the linear regression models. To avoid multicollinearity among features, we apply a filter-based feature selection method to eliminate redundant features. The results show that the average errors with Multiple Linear Regression are within 1.5%. Secondly, for the situation with a lack of historical operating data, the battery-curve-matching-based method is proposed based on the Dynamic Time Warping algorithm. This method could achieve the curve matching between the reference cell and target cell, and then the curve contraction coefficients can be obtained. The result shows that the method’s average error is 2.34%. Thirdly, whereas the tougher situation is that only part of the battery curve is available, we present a substitute method based on the battery degradation mechanism. This method can estimate most of the battery plant capacity through the partial battery curve. The result shows that the method’s average error is within 2%. Lastly, we contrast the applicability and limitations of every method based on the retired battery test data after deep cycling aging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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15 pages, 3175 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Safety Analysis and Risk Control of Shore-Based Bunkering Operations for Hydrogen Powered Ships

by Yuxiang Feng, Jiaolong Cao, Yufeng Zhang and Ding Jin

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040162 - 26 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3301

Abstract

In order to ensure the safety of shore-based hydrogen bunkering operations, this paper takes a 2000-ton bulk hydrogen powered ship as an example. Firstly, the HAZID method is used to identify the hazards of hydrogen bunkering, then the probability of each scenario is [...] Read more.

In order to ensure the safety of shore-based hydrogen bunkering operations, this paper takes a 2000-ton bulk hydrogen powered ship as an example. Firstly, the HAZID method is used to identify the hazards of hydrogen bunkering, then the probability of each scenario is analyzed, and then the consequences of scenarios with high risk based on FLACS software is simulated. Finally, the personal risk of bunkering operation is evaluated and the bunkering restriction area is defined. The results show that the personal risk of shore-based bunkering operation of hydrogen powered ship is acceptable, but the following risk control measures should be taken: (1) The bunkering restriction area shall be delineated, and only the necessary operators are allowed to enter the area and control the any form of potential ignition source; (2) The hose is the high risk hazards during bunkering. The design form of bunkering arm and bunkering hose is considered to shorten the length of the hose as far as possible; (3) A safe distance between shore-based hydrogenation station and the building outside the station should be guaranteed. The results have a guiding role in effectively reducing the risk of hydrogen bunkering operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 5313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparisons of Real-World Vehicle Energy Efficiency with Dynamometer-Based Ratings and Simulation Models

by Karim Hamza, Kang-Ching Chu, Matthew Favetti, Peter Keene Benoliel, Vaishnavi Karanam, Kenneth P. Laberteaux and Gil Tal

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040161 - 25 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2574

Abstract

Software tools for fuel economy simulations play an important role during design stages of advanced powertrains. However, calibration of vehicle models versus real-world driving data faces challenges owing to inherent variations in vehicle energy efficiency across different driving conditions and different vehicle owners. [...] Read more.

Software tools for fuel economy simulations play an important role during design stages of advanced powertrains. However, calibration of vehicle models versus real-world driving data faces challenges owing to inherent variations in vehicle energy efficiency across different driving conditions and different vehicle owners. This work utilizes datasets of vehicles equipped with OBD/GPS loggers to validate and calibrate FASTSim (software originally developed by NREL) vehicle models. The results show that window-sticker ratings (derived from dynamometer tests) can be reasonably accurate when averaged across many trips by different vehicle owners, but successfully calibrated FASTSim models can have better fidelity. The results in this paper are shown for nine vehicle models, including the following: three battery-electric vehicles (BEVs), four plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), one hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), and one conventional internal combustion engine (CICE) vehicle. The calibrated vehicle models are able to successfully predict the average trip energy intensity within ±3% for an aggregate of trips across multiple vehicle owners, as opposed to within ±10% via window-sticker ratings or baseline FASTSim. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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13 pages, 3914 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Consumption Prediction of Electric Vehicles Based on Digital Twin Technology

by Zhaolong Zhang, Yuan Zou, Teng Zhou, Xudong Zhang and Zhifeng Xu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(4), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040160 - 25 Sep 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4075

Abstract

Digital twinning technology originated in the field of aerospace. The real-time and bidirectional feature of data interaction guarantees its advantages of high accuracy, real-time performance and scalability. In this paper the digital twin technology was introduced to electric vehicle energy consumption research. First, [...] Read more.

Digital twinning technology originated in the field of aerospace. The real-time and bidirectional feature of data interaction guarantees its advantages of high accuracy, real-time performance and scalability. In this paper the digital twin technology was introduced to electric vehicle energy consumption research. First, an energy consumption model of an electric vehicle of BAIC BJEV was established, then the model was optimized and verified through the energy consumption data of the drum test. Based on the data of the vehicle real-time monitoring platform, a digital twin model was built, and it was trained and updated by daily new data. Eventually it can be used to predict and verify the data of vehicle. In this way the prediction of energy consumption of vehicles can be achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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9 pages, 3171 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Performance of Lithium Titanate Oxide Anode Based Battery Module under High Discharge Rates

by Zehui Liu, Yinghui Gao, Hongtao Chen, Chu Wang, Yaohong Sun and Ping Yan

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030158 - 20 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2702

Abstract

A lithium titanate oxide (LTO) anode based battery has high power density, and it is widely applied in transportation and energy storage systems. However, the thermal performance of LTO anode based battery module is seldom studied. In this work, a heat generation theoretical [...] Read more.

A lithium titanate oxide (LTO) anode based battery has high power density, and it is widely applied in transportation and energy storage systems. However, the thermal performance of LTO anode based battery module is seldom studied. In this work, a heat generation theoretical model of the battery is explored. The thermal performance of LTO anode based battery modules under high discharge rates is studied by both experiment and simulation. It is found that the temperature rise of the battery can be estimated accurately with the calculation of the equivalent internal resistance under different discharge rates. In addition, under the same depth of discharge, both the temperature rise and the temperature difference in the battery module increase with the discharge rates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 5004 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Dual-Phase Non-Salient Pole Receiver for EV Dynamic Wireless Power Transfer System

by Fandan Zhao, Jinhai Jiang, Shumei Cui, Chunbo Zhu and C. C. Chan

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030157 - 19 Sep 2021

Viewed by 2050

Abstract

Dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) technology shows a vast development prospect for EV application, with advantages of reducing the demand for battery capacity and improving the user experience. However, the need to improve output performance leads to a challenge in receiver design with [...] Read more.

Dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) technology shows a vast development prospect for EV application, with advantages of reducing the demand for battery capacity and improving the user experience. However, the need to improve output performance leads to a challenge in receiver design with limited space and allowable load on the EV side. In this paper, a design of a dual-phase non-salient pole (NSP) receiver for the EV DWPT system with bipolar transmitter is proposed, aiming at providing a solution to the contradiction between reducing the volume or cost and improving the misalignment tolerance of the receiver. The coupling principle of the proposed receiver is analyzed. The structure parameters are optimized by the finite-element simulation method. Combined with specific design indexes, it is proven by comparison with the existing dual-phase receiver that the proposed receiver is 35.4% smaller in volume and needs 47.0% shorter wires. Moreover, the significant advantage of the proposed dual-phase NSP receiver in misalignment tolerance is verified by simulations and experimental comparisons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 38598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

State of Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy and Backpropagation Neural Network

by Sihan Zhang, Md Sazzad Hosen, Theodoros Kalogiannis, Joeri Van Mierlo and Maitane Berecibar

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030156 - 15 Sep 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3830

Abstract

The global electric vehicle (EV) is expanding enormously, foreseeing a 17.4% increase in compound annual growth rate (CAGR) by the end of 2027. The lithium-ion battery is considered as the most widely used battery technology in EV. The accurate and reliable diagnostic and [...] Read more.

The global electric vehicle (EV) is expanding enormously, foreseeing a 17.4% increase in compound annual growth rate (CAGR) by the end of 2027. The lithium-ion battery is considered as the most widely used battery technology in EV. The accurate and reliable diagnostic and prognostic of battery state guarantees the safe operation of EV and is crucial for durable electric vehicles. Research focusing on lithium-ion battery life degradation has grown more important in recent years. In this study, a model built for state of health (SoH) estimation for the LTO anode-based lithium-ion battery is presented. First, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is used to study the deterioration in battery performance, measurements such as charge transfer resistance and ohmic resistance are analyzed for different operational conditions and selected as key characteristic parameters for the model. Then, the model based on a backpropagation neural network (BPNN) along with the characteristic parameters is trained and validated with a real-life driving profile. The model shows a relatively accurate estimation of SoH with a mean-squared-error (MSE) of 0.002. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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19 pages, 11049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Power Distribution Strategy for an Electric Bus with a Hybrid Energy Storage System

by Yu Zhang, Kai Li, Shumei Cui and Yutian Sun

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030154 - 13 Sep 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2264

Abstract

To address the power distribution problem that occurs in hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) in electric vehicles, a fuzzy control distribution method is proposed in this paper, taking the vehicle demand power; supercapacitor power, P_SC;; and lithium battery power, P_bat [...] Read more.

To address the power distribution problem that occurs in hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) in electric vehicles, a fuzzy control distribution method is proposed in this paper, taking the vehicle demand power; supercapacitor power, P_SC;; and lithium battery power, P_bat, as the inputs and the power distribution factor of the supercapacitor as the output to control the power distribution of the composite energy storage system, in addition to dividing the whole working condition into three time scales, namely, long, medium and short. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive analysis and comparison with typical control methods regarding the energy storage element output power, battery state of charge (SOC) change, energy flow diagram and power frequency. The simulation experiment results show that the proposed strategy is more effective in reducing the peak output power of the power battery, improving the effective power utilization rate of HESS and the effective energy utilization rate. In order to further verify the effectiveness of the control strategy, a pure electric bus power system test bench was built based on similar principles, and a representative time period under the driving conditions of the China city bus (CHTC-B) was selected, involving an acceleration process from 30 to 48 s (process 1), a uniform speed process from 636 to 671 s (process 2) and a regenerative braking process from 1290 to 1304 s (process 3), further verifying the effectiveness and feasibility of the proposed control strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 2812 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Robust Control Design of Active Front-Wheel Steering on Low-Adhesion Road Surfaces

by Chuanwei Zhang, Bo Chang, Jianlong Wang, Shuaitian Li, Rongbo Zhang and Jian Ma

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030153 - 10 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2139

Abstract

In order to improve the stability of vehicle steering on low-adhesion road surfaces, this paper designed a hybrid robust control strategy, H₂/H_∞, for active front-wheel steering (AFS) based on robust control theory. Firstly, we analyzed the influence of the [...] Read more.

In order to improve the stability of vehicle steering on low-adhesion road surfaces, this paper designed a hybrid robust control strategy, H₂/H_∞, for active front-wheel steering (AFS) based on robust control theory. Firstly, we analyzed the influence of the sidewall stiffness and road adhesion coefficient of the tires on vehicle stability, through which we can study the wheel deflection characteristics of low-adhesion roads. Secondly, the reference yaw velocity of the vehicle was calculated using the three-degrees-of-freedom model as the reference model, through which, taking the norm H_∞ as the objective function and the norm H₂ as the limit to control the output, the hybrid robust control strategy H₂/H_∞ of the AFS system on a low-adhesion road surface was developed. Finally, the simulation experiment was carried out by the Simulink/CarSim co-simulation platform and a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) experiment. In this paper, the results show that the AFS control strategy can improve the vehicle handling stability on low-adhesion road surfaces, and the controller has good path tracking performance and robustness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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7 pages, 527 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fuel Selections for Electrified Vehicles: A Well-to-Wheel Analysis

by Yanbiao Feng, Jue Yang and Zuomin Dong

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030151 - 9 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3206

Abstract

Electrified vehicles (xEV), especially the battery electric vehicle (BEV), are burgeoning and growing fast in China, aimed at building a sustainable, carbon-neutral future. This work presents an overview and quantitative comparison of the carbon-neutral vehicles fuel options based on the well-to-wheel (WTW) analysis. [...] Read more.

Electrified vehicles (xEV), especially the battery electric vehicle (BEV), are burgeoning and growing fast in China, aimed at building a sustainable, carbon-neutral future. This work presents an overview and quantitative comparison of the carbon-neutral vehicles fuel options based on the well-to-wheel (WTW) analysis. A more intuitionistic figure demonstrates the fuel options for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and describes the sustainability. Electricity and hydrogen shift the tailpipe emissions to the upstream process, forming larger WTW emissions from a fuel cycle view. The electricity WTW GHG emission reaches as much as twice that of gasoline. However, the high efficiency of the electric drive system improves the WTW emission performance from a vehicle view, making the lowest WTW emission of BEV. The fuel options’ technical and environmental perspectives are presented. Finally, long-term carbon-neutral vehicle development is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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17 pages, 4319 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Anti-Skid Control Strategy for Four-Wheel Independent Drive Electric Vehicle

by Chuanwei Zhang, Jian Ma, Bo Chang and Jianlong Wang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030150 - 8 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2357

Abstract

Four-wheel independent drive electric vehicles have become the latest development trend of electric vehicles due to their simple structure and high control accuracy. Aiming at the sliding problem of four-wheel independent driving electric vehicles in the driving process, a driving anti-skid control strategy [...] Read more.

Four-wheel independent drive electric vehicles have become the latest development trend of electric vehicles due to their simple structure and high control accuracy. Aiming at the sliding problem of four-wheel independent driving electric vehicles in the driving process, a driving anti-skid control strategy is designed. The strategy includes two contents: (1) a road recognition module that tracks the best slip rate in real time; (2) a slip rate control module that uses fuzzy PID control. Then, based on Carsim and MATLAB/Simulink, the vehicle dynamics model, tire model and driving anti-skid control model are established. A simulation of the driving anti-skid control algorithm is carried out to verify the feasibility of the control strategy. Finally, based on the built-up dSPACE semi-physical experimental simulation platform, the verification was carried out, and the test and simulation results were compared to verify the effective feasibility of the driving anti-skid control strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 1743 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Collaborative Design for Uneven Physical Structures of Multi-Layers in PEMFC

by Qinwen Yang, Shujun Chen, Gang Xiao and Lexi Li

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030148 - 8 Sep 2021

Viewed by 1986

Abstract

A collaborative design for the uneven distributions of a flow channel, gas diffusion layer porosity and catalyst layer porosity are newly proposed to improve the utilization ratio of the membrane electrode assembly of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell. The effects of the [...] Read more.

A collaborative design for the uneven distributions of a flow channel, gas diffusion layer porosity and catalyst layer porosity are newly proposed to improve the utilization ratio of the membrane electrode assembly of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell. The effects of the uneven design of the rib width and of the uneven porosity parameters of the cathode and anode gas diffusion layer and catalyst layer on the fuel cell performance were studied in detail. Numerical simulations were designed and implemented for validation. The results show that the fuel cell performance could be improved through the collaborative design of uneven distributions for different layers. The rib width gradually decreasing and the porosity of the cathode gas diffusion layer and the cathode catalyst layer gradually increasing along the fluid flow direction would contribute to a better design compared to the regular even design. The new uneven design can make the fuel penetrate into the catalyst layer in time to participate in the reaction, improve the utilization rate of the membrane electrode assembly, and greatly improve the performance of the fuel cell. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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15 pages, 4737 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Multi-Period Hydrogen Refueling Station Location Model in Jiading District

by Qianhui Zheng, Hong Lv, Wei Zhou and Cunman Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030146 - 6 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2699

Abstract

The construction of hydrogen refueling stations is an important part of the promotion of fuel cell vehicles. In this paper, a multi-period hydrogen refueling station location model is presented that can be applied to the planning and construction of hydrogen infrastructures. Based on [...] Read more.

The construction of hydrogen refueling stations is an important part of the promotion of fuel cell vehicles. In this paper, a multi-period hydrogen refueling station location model is presented that can be applied to the planning and construction of hydrogen infrastructures. Based on the hydrogen demand of fuel cell passenger cars and commercial vehicles, the model calculates the hydrogen demand of each zone by a weighting method according to population, economic level and education level. Then, the hydrogen demand of each period is calculated using the generalized Bass diffusion model. Finally, the set covering model is improved to determine the locations of the stations. The new model is applied to the scientific planning of hydrogen refueling stations in Jiading District, Shanghai; the construction location and sequence of hydrogen refueling stations in each period are given, and the growth trend of hydrogen demand and the promoting effect of hydrogen refueling stations are analyzed. The model adopted in this model is then compared with the other two kinds of node-based hydrogen refueling station location models that have previously been proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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9 pages, 1873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calendar Ageing Model for Li-Ion Batteries Using Transfer Learning Methods

by Markel Azkue, Mattin Lucu, Egoitz Martinez-Laserna and Iosu Aizpuru

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030145 - 6 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3082

Abstract

Getting accurate lifetime predictions for a particular cell chemistry remains a challenging process, largely dependent on time and cost-intensive experimental battery testing. This paper proposes a transfer learning (TL) method to develop LIB ageing models, which allow for the leveraging of experimental laboratory [...] Read more.

Getting accurate lifetime predictions for a particular cell chemistry remains a challenging process, largely dependent on time and cost-intensive experimental battery testing. This paper proposes a transfer learning (TL) method to develop LIB ageing models, which allow for the leveraging of experimental laboratory testing data previously obtained for a different cell technology. The TL method is implemented through Neural Networks models, using LiNiMnCoO₂/C laboratory ageing data as a baseline model. The obtained TL model achieves an 1.01% overall error for a broad range of operating conditions, using for retraining only two experimental ageing tests of LiFePO₄/C cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 2311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Operating Cost Economy of Battery-Swapping Heavy-Duty Truck in China

by Xiaoyuan Wu, Pengyu Liu and Xinbao Lu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030144 - 4 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4491

Abstract

In recent years, battery-swapping heavy-duty trucks have seen rapid growth in China. Summarizing from the practical experiences gained in this development, and starting from market research and analysis of the most typical city of application case, Beijing, we aim to achieve the following: [...] Read more.

In recent years, battery-swapping heavy-duty trucks have seen rapid growth in China. Summarizing from the practical experiences gained in this development, and starting from market research and analysis of the most typical city of application case, Beijing, we aim to achieve the following: (ⅰ) Establish an operating cost model for battery-swapping heavy-duty trucks throughout a full operation cycle from the perspective of a heavy-duty truck freight transport capacity operator, based on four key cost dimensions, including transportation equipment, operation and maintenance, environmental protection compensation, and battery recycling compensation. (ⅱ) Calculate and compare the operating cost economy of battery-swapping heavy-duty trucks and other types of heavy-duty truck under different energy supplement modes, including charging, hydrogenation, and diesel. (ⅲ) Propose suggestions for faster and more successful heavy-duty truck electrification. The results indicate that battery-swapping heavy-duty trucks have good cost economy in a full operation cycle under specific scenario, and their economy will be improved with the popularization of battery-swapping stations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 2149 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recognition and Diagnosis Method of Accelerated Aging of Lithium-Ion Battery Based on Logistic Regression

by Naipeng Zou, Caiping Zhang, Yubin Wang and Linjing Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030143 - 3 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2055

Abstract

Aiming at the accelerated aging problem that may occur during the use of high specific energy lithium-ion batteries, this article proposes a method to judge the accelerated aging of lithium-ion batteries. Taking the IC curve and DV curve as the starting point, the [...] Read more.

Aiming at the accelerated aging problem that may occur during the use of high specific energy lithium-ion batteries, this article proposes a method to judge the accelerated aging of lithium-ion batteries. Taking the IC curve and DV curve as the starting point, the complete characteristic curve of the new battery is used as a comparison benchmark, and the battery characteristic curves of different aging stages are compared and analyzed, and the parameters that have obvious changes before and after the accelerated aging of the battery are extracted as the characteristics that the battery has accelerated aging. It is important to establish the relevant characteristic parameter matrix, and use the logistic regression method to train the accelerating aging model of the battery to realize the diagnosis of accelerating aging fault. In view of the fact that lithium batteries rarely undergo a complete charging process, the characteristic parameter sets established in this paper are based on the IC curve and the DV curve in the 15–75% SOC range, which have certain practicability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 2859 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Driving Style Recognition Model Based on NEV High-Frequency Big Data and Joint Distribution Feature Parameters

by Lina Xia and Zejun Kang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030142 - 2 Sep 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2335

Abstract

With the promotion and financial subsidies of the new energy vehicle (NEV), the NEV industry of China has developed rapidly in recent years. However, compared with traditional fuel vehicles, the technological maturity of the NEV is still insufficient, and there are still many [...] Read more.

With the promotion and financial subsidies of the new energy vehicle (NEV), the NEV industry of China has developed rapidly in recent years. However, compared with traditional fuel vehicles, the technological maturity of the NEV is still insufficient, and there are still many problems that need to be solved in the R&D and operation stages. Among them, energy consumption and driving range are particularly concerning, and are closely related to the driving style of the driver. Therefore, the accurate identification of the driving style can provide support for the research of energy consumption. Based on the NEV high-frequency big data collected by the vehicle-mounted terminal, we extract the feature parameter set that can reflect the precise spatiotemporal changes in driving behavior, use the principal component analysis method (PCA) to optimize the feature parameter set, realize the automatic driving style classification using a K-means algorithm, and build a driving style recognition model through a neural network algorithm. The result of this paper shows that the model can automatically classify driving styles based on the actual driving data of NEV users, and that the recognition accuracy can reach 96.8%. The research on driving style recognition in this paper has a certain reference value for the development and upgrade of NEV products and the improvement of safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 5241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Desktop Wide Range Wireless Power Transfer Based on High Frequency Electric Field

by Xiyou Chen, Zhe Wang, Zhengying Lang, Tao Li and Chen Qi

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030141 - 2 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2084

Abstract

This paper proposes a desktop wireless power transfer system that can wirelessly supply power to electrical equipment in a certain space above the aluminum foil using only a high-frequency electric field. Compared with other wireless power supply systems, this system has a smaller [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a desktop wireless power transfer system that can wirelessly supply power to electrical equipment in a certain space above the aluminum foil using only a high-frequency electric field. Compared with other wireless power supply systems, this system has a smaller power receiving device and a wider power supply range, which is convenient for wireless power supply of portable electrical equipment and low-power electric vehicles. The power receiving device of the system is only the size of a mobile phone, and the power supply range can reach 1.2 m². This article introduces the system design, electromagnetic field simulation and experiment of the desktop wireless power transfer system. The experimental results show that by using a mobile phone-sized receiving device to connect a light bulb and a fan, multiple loads can simultaneously receive power in a specific space above the desktop power supply. In addition, people can hold the power receiving device for wireless charging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 1846 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Coil Identification Algorithm of Wireless Power Transfer System Based on Magnetic Field Features

by Feng Wen, Chen Han, Qiang Li, Zhoujian Chu, Wenhan Zhao, Shuqi Wu, Xiang Zhang and Wenjie Pei

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030140 - 1 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2372

Abstract

In the practical application of wireless power transfer (WPT), the identification of the secondary coil and the analysis of the space magnetic field of the coil will affect the matching scheme of the coil, which will further affect the performance of energy transmission. [...] Read more.

In the practical application of wireless power transfer (WPT), the identification of the secondary coil and the analysis of the space magnetic field of the coil will affect the matching scheme of the coil, which will further affect the performance of energy transmission. At present, the establishment of the coil space magnetic field model mainly adopts the finite element method (FEM). The accuracy of the results is limited by the computer performance and the specific settings during calculation, which usually takes a long time. Additionally, it can only analyze and establish the space magnetic field of the coil with specific parameters. Especially when the coil structure and parameters change, it is difficult to quickly establish the spatial magnetic field. This paper presents a secondary side coil identification method of a wireless charging system based on the magnetic field cloud image characteristics. The image feature extraction algorithm is used to extract features of a certain height magnetic field cloud image of an unknown structure type coil obtained by FEM. Further, by matching with the characteristics of the magnetic field cloud image of the known coil, the identification of the unknown coil structure type is realized. The effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed method is verified by an example. This algorithm is helpful to extract the characteristics of the coil space magnetic field, and can establish coil space magnetic field models with different structure types and different coil parameters combined with deep learning to guide the matching scheme of the primary and secondary coils, and realize efficient energy transmission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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13 pages, 5219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On-Board Liquid Hydrogen Cold Energy Utilization System for a Heavy-Duty Fuel Cell Hybrid Truck

by Mingye Yang, Song Hu, Fuyuan Yang, Liangfei Xu, Yu Bu and Dian Yuan

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030136 - 27 Aug 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5742

Abstract

In this paper, a kind of on-board liquid hydrogen (LH₂) cold energy utilization system for a heavy-duty fuel cell hybrid truck is proposed. Through this system, the cold energy of LH₂ is used for cooling the inlet air of a [...] Read more.

In this paper, a kind of on-board liquid hydrogen (LH₂) cold energy utilization system for a heavy-duty fuel cell hybrid truck is proposed. Through this system, the cold energy of LH₂ is used for cooling the inlet air of a compressor and the coolant of the accessories cooling system, sequentially, to reduce the parasitic power, including the air compressor, water pump, and radiator fan power. To estimate the cold energy utilization ratio and parasitic power saving capabilities of this system, a model based on AMESim software was established and simulated under different ambient temperatures and fuel cell stack loads. The simulation results show that cold energy utilization ratio can keep at a high level except under extremely low ambient temperature and light load. Compared to the original LH₂ system without cold energy utilization, the total parasitic power consumption can be saved by up to 15% (namely 1.8 kW). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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19 pages, 20743 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Intelligent Networked Car-Hailing System Based on the Multi Sensor Fusion and UWB Positioning Technology under Complex Scenes Condition

by Zhi Wang, Liguo Zang, Yiming Tang, Yehui Shen and Zhenxuan Wu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030135 - 27 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2494

Abstract

In order to solve the problems of difficulty and long times to pick up cars in complex traffic scenes, this paper proposes an intelligent networked car-hailing system in complex scenes based on multi sensor fusion and Ultra-Wide-Band (UWB) technology. UWB positioning technology is [...] Read more.

In order to solve the problems of difficulty and long times to pick up cars in complex traffic scenes, this paper proposes an intelligent networked car-hailing system in complex scenes based on multi sensor fusion and Ultra-Wide-Band (UWB) technology. UWB positioning technology is adopted in the system, and the positioning data is optimized by the untraceable Kalman filter algorithm. Based on the environment perception technology of multi sensor fusion, such as machine vision and laser radar technology, an anti-collision warning algorithm was proposed in the process of car-hailing, which improved the safety factor of car-hailing. When the owner enters the parking lot, the intelligent vehicle can automatically locate the owner’s position and drive to the owner without human intervention, which provides a new idea for the development of intelligent networked vehicles and effectively improves the navigation accuracy and intelligence of intelligent vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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7 pages, 2362 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lattice Boltzmann Method Study on Liquid Water Dynamic inside Gas Diffusion Layer with Porosity Distribution

by Mingyang Yang, Aimin Du, Jinling Liu and Sichuan Xu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030133 - 25 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2114

Abstract

The gas diffusion layer (GDL) plays an important role in the mass transfer process during proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) operation. However, the GDL porosity distribution, which has often been ignored in the previous works, influences the mass transfer significantly. In this [...] Read more.

The gas diffusion layer (GDL) plays an important role in the mass transfer process during proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) operation. However, the GDL porosity distribution, which has often been ignored in the previous works, influences the mass transfer significantly. In this paper, a 2D lattice Boltzmann method model is employed to simulate the liquid water transport process in the real GDL (considered porosity distribution) and the ideal GDL (ignore porous distribution), respectively. It was found that the liquid water transport in the real GDL will be significantly affected by the local low porosity area. In the real GDL, a liquid water saturation threshold can be noticed when the contact angle is about 118°. The GDL porosity distribution shows a stronger influence on liquid dynamic than hydrophobicity, which needs to be considered in future GDL modelling and design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 2963 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Objective Optimization Design of Permanent Magnet Torque Motor

by Jiawei Chai, Tianyi Zhao and Xianguo Gui

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030131 - 22 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2674

Abstract

Permanent magnet torque motor (PMTM) is widely used in aerospace, computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools, and industrial robots with many advantages such as high torque density, strong overload capacity, and low torque ripple. With the upgrading of industrial manufacturing, the requirements for [...] Read more.

Permanent magnet torque motor (PMTM) is widely used in aerospace, computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools, and industrial robots with many advantages such as high torque density, strong overload capacity, and low torque ripple. With the upgrading of industrial manufacturing, the requirements for the performance of torque motors have become more stringent. At present, how to achieve high output torque and low torque ripple has become a research hotspot of torque motors. In the optimization process, it is necessary to increase the output torque while the torque ripple can be reduced, and it is difficult to get a good result with the single-objective optimization. In this paper, a multi-objective optimization method based on the combination of design parameter stratification and support vector machine (SVM) is proposed. By analyzing the causes of torque ripple, the output torque, efficiency, cogging torque, and total harmonic distortion (THD) of back electromotive force (EMF) are selected as the optimization objectives. In order to solve the coupling problem between the motor parameters, the calculation formula of Pearson correlation coefficient is used to analyze the relationship between the design parameters and the optimization objectives, and the design parameters are layered ac-cording to the sensitivity. In order to shorten the optimization cycle of the motor, SVM is used as a fitting method of the mathematical model. The performance between initial and optimal motors is compared, and it can be found that the optimized motor has a higher torque and lower torque ripple. The simulation results verify the effectiveness of the proposed optimization method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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9 pages, 1907 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insulation Monitoring of Dynamic Wireless Charging Network Based on BP Neural Network

by Feng Wen, Wenjie Pei, Qiang Li, Zhoujian Chu, Wenhan Zhao, Shuqi Wu, Xiang Zhang and Chen Han

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030129 - 21 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2197

Abstract

The transmission cable and power conversion device need to be buried underground for dynamic wireless charging of an expressway, so cable insulation deterioration caused by aging and corrosion may occur. This paper presents an on-line insulation monitoring method based on BP neural network [...] Read more.

The transmission cable and power conversion device need to be buried underground for dynamic wireless charging of an expressway, so cable insulation deterioration caused by aging and corrosion may occur. This paper presents an on-line insulation monitoring method based on BP neural network for dynamic wireless charging network. The sampling signal expression of the injection signal is derived, and the feasibility of this method is verified by experiments, which effectively overcomes the problem of large calculation error of insulation resistance when the cable capacitance to ground is large. The experimental results indicate that the error of the proposed method is less than 9%, which can meet the needs of insulation monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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13 pages, 1989 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Stability Control of Vehicle Tire Blowout Based on Run-Flat Tire

by Xingyu Wang, Liguo Zang, Zhi Wang, Fen Lin and Zhendong Zhao

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030128 - 21 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3622

Abstract

In order to study the stability of a vehicle with inserts supporting run-flat tires after blowout, a run-flat tire model suitable for the conditions of a blowout tire was established. The unsteady nonlinear tire foundation model was constructed using Simulink, and the model [...] Read more.

In order to study the stability of a vehicle with inserts supporting run-flat tires after blowout, a run-flat tire model suitable for the conditions of a blowout tire was established. The unsteady nonlinear tire foundation model was constructed using Simulink, and the model was modified according to the discrete curve of tire mechanical properties under steady conditions. The improved tire blowout model was imported into the Carsim vehicle model to complete the construction of the co-simulation platform. CarSim was used to simulate the tire blowout of front and rear wheels under straight driving condition, and the control strategy of differential braking was adopted. The results show that the improved run-flat tire model can be applied to tire blowout simulation, and the performance of inserts supporting run-flat tires is superior to that of normal tires after tire blowout. This study has reference significance for run-flat tire performance optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 4155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Electromagnetic-Radiated Emission of Multi-in-One Electric Drive System

by Ruoxi Tan, Shangbin Ye, Cheng Yu, Chenghao Deng and Anjian Zhou

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030127 - 21 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2556

Abstract

The strong electromagnetic interference produced by the electric drive system is the main factor that leads to the strong radiated emission of electric vehicles. It is very important to study the influence of the electric drive system on vehicle-radiated emission by taking the [...] Read more.

The strong electromagnetic interference produced by the electric drive system is the main factor that leads to the strong radiated emission of electric vehicles. It is very important to study the influence of the electric drive system on vehicle-radiated emission by taking the common-mode current of the electric drive system as the interference source. In this paper, the conducted emission model of the electric drive system is proposed, and the common-mode current is calculated by this model. The influence of filter on the common-mode interference current of HVDC cables is calculated and analyzed, and then the radiating antenna effect model of HVDC cables is established. Based on this, a vehicle-level radiated emission simulation model including an electric drive system and DC cables was established. The effectiveness of the conducted emission model was verified by experiments. The effects of different shielding structures on the shielding efficiency of HVDC cables were compared. Quantitative guidance for EMI suppression design of multi-in-one electric drive system design can be provided by the model in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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18 pages, 5268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electronic Differential System Based on Adaptive SMC Combined with QP for 4WID Electric Vehicles

by Wenjun Zhang, Zhuxing Liu and Qingzhang Chen

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030126 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3300

Abstract

This study investigates an adaptive differential control system for 4WID (4-wheel-independent-drive) electric vehicles. The novel adaptive system will maneuver the independently operating hub motors without the help of any conventional steering mechanism. The control system consists of a hierarchical structure to confront the [...] Read more.

This study investigates an adaptive differential control system for 4WID (4-wheel-independent-drive) electric vehicles. The novel adaptive system will maneuver the independently operating hub motors without the help of any conventional steering mechanism. The control system consists of a hierarchical structure to confront the vehicle stability condition, which includes a novel SMC (sliding mode control) with a fuzzy algorithm parameter modification to achieve the required virtual control signal at the top level, and a quadratic programming-based torque allocation algorithm at the bottom-level controller. The proposed controller was tested through Simulink/Carsim simulation and experiments. All the test cases showed the advantages of the proposed method over some of the currently existing 4WID control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 4405 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Dimensional Analysis of Load Characteristics of Electrical Vehicles Based on Power Supply Side Data and Unsupervised Learning Method

by Ziqi Zhang, Xueliang Huang, Hongen Ding, Zhenya Ji, Zhong Chen, Jiang Tian and Shan Gao

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030125 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2180

Abstract

This study set out to extract the charging characteristics of an electrical vehicle (EV) from massive real operating data. Firstly, an unsupervised learning method based on self-organizing map (SOM) is developed to deal with the power supply side data of various charging operators. [...] Read more.

This study set out to extract the charging characteristics of an electrical vehicle (EV) from massive real operating data. Firstly, an unsupervised learning method based on self-organizing map (SOM) is developed to deal with the power supply side data of various charging operators. Secondly, a multi-dimensional evaluation index system is constructed for charging operation and vehicle-to-grid (V2G). Finally, according to more than five million pieces of charging operating data collected over a period of two years, the charging load composition and characteristics under different charging station types, daily types and weather conditions are analyzed. The results show that bus, high-way, and urban public charging loads are different in concentration and regulation flexibility, however, they all have the potential to synergy with power grid and cooperate with renewable energy. Especially in an urban area, more than 37 GWh of photovoltaic (PV) power can be consumed by smart charging at the current penetration rate of EVs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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9 pages, 32993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Constructing Supports–Network with N–TiO₂ Nanofibres for Highly Efficient Hydrogen–Production of PEM Electrolyzer

by Sen Wang, Hong Lv, Yongwen Sun, Wenxuan Ji, Xiaojun Shen and Cunman Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030124 - 17 Aug 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2226

Abstract

Hydrogen production with a proton exchange membrane (PEM)electrolyzer utilized with renewable energy power is considered to be an efficient and clean green technique, but the poor oxygen evolution performance results in high energy consumption and low efficiency. In this work, a strategy is [...] Read more.

Hydrogen production with a proton exchange membrane (PEM)electrolyzer utilized with renewable energy power is considered to be an efficient and clean green technique, but the poor oxygen evolution performance results in high energy consumption and low efficiency. In this work, a strategy is reported for the construction of a support network of the anodic catalyst layer to simultaneously ameliorate its sluggish reaction kinetics and mass transport in order to realize highly efficient hydrogen production of the PEM electrolyzer. After in situ synthesis of IrO₂ nanoparticles on N–doped TiO₂ nanofibers, the as–prepared IrO₂/N–TiO₂ electrode shows substantially enhanced Ir utilization and accelerated mass transport, consequently decreasing the corresponding cell potential of 107 mV relative to pure IrO₂ at 2 A cm⁻². The enhanced activity of IrO₂/N–TiO₂ could be due to the fact that the N–TiO₂ nanofiber support can form a porous network, endowing IrO₂/N–TiO₂ with a large reactive contact interface and favorable mass transfer characters. The strategy in this work supplies a pathway to develop high–efficiency interfacial reaction materials for diverse applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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18 pages, 3081 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Online Parameters Identification and State of Charge Estimation for Lithium-Ion Battery Using Adaptive Cubature Kalman Filter

by Wei Li, Maji Luo, Yaqian Tan and Xiangyu Cui

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030123 - 17 Aug 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3390

Abstract

The state of charge (SOC) of a lithium-ion battery plays a key role in ensuring the charge and discharge energy control strategy, and SOC estimation is the core part of the battery management system for safe and efficient driving of electric vehicles. In [...] Read more.

The state of charge (SOC) of a lithium-ion battery plays a key role in ensuring the charge and discharge energy control strategy, and SOC estimation is the core part of the battery management system for safe and efficient driving of electric vehicles. In this paper, a model-based SOC estimation strategy based on the Adaptive Cubature Kalman filter (ACKF) is studied for lithium-ion batteries. In the present study, the dual polarization (DP) model is employed for SOC estimation and the vector forgetting factor recursive least squares (VRLS) method is utilized for model parameter online identification. The ACKF is then designed to estimate the battery’s SOC. Finally, the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule and Dynamic Stress Test are utilized to evaluate the performance of the proposed method by comparing with results obtained using the extended Kalman filter (EKF) and the cubature Kalman filter (CKF) algorithms. The simulation and experimental results show that the proposed ACKF algorithm combined with VRLS-based model identification is a promising SOC estimation approach. The proposed algorithm is found to provide more accurate SOC estimation with satisfying stability than the extended EKF and CKF algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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15 pages, 6822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Stage Multi-Period Coordinated Load Restoration Strategy for Distribution Network Based on Intelligent Route Recommendation of Electric Vehicles

by Su Su, Cunhao Wei, Zening Li and Dong Xia

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030121 - 14 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2650

Abstract

To cope with the frequent blackouts in recent years and improve the resilience of the distribution network, a two-stage multi-period coordinated load restoration strategy for the distribution network based on intelligent route recommendation of electric vehicles (EVs) is proposed. The first stage of [...] Read more.

To cope with the frequent blackouts in recent years and improve the resilience of the distribution network, a two-stage multi-period coordinated load restoration strategy for the distribution network based on intelligent route recommendation of electric vehicles (EVs) is proposed. The first stage of the model aims at maximizing the weighted power supply time of load, minimizing the total network loss, optimizing the output of each power supply source at each time period, and determining the optimal charging station assignment scheme for schedulable EVs. The second stage is based on the optimal charging station assignment scheme for EV determined in the first stage, with the shortest total time for all EVs to reach the designated charging stations as the objective and determining the optimal travel route of each EV. The model dispatches the idle EVs during blackout as a flexible power supply resource, realizing the multi-period coordination output of multiple sources and recommending the routes for EVs to reach the designated charging stations to optimize the restoration effect of critical loads. The methods of piecewise linearization, second-order conic relaxation (SOCR) and the Dijkstra algorithm are applied to ensure the feasibility and accuracy of the model. Finally, by comparing the proposed strategy with two different single-stage strategies, the effect of these three strategies on the critical load’s restoration and the operation status of the distribution network is further analyzed, which verifies the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 7669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Production Forecast of China’s New Energy Passenger Vehicles in 2021–2023 under the Compliance of Dual-Credit Policy

by Li Lv and Xi Li

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030119 - 13 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5166

Abstract

The corporate average fuel consumption (CAFC) and new energy vehicle (NEV) credit policy (2021–2023) was officially released in June 2020. As a mandatory regulation for automobile manufacturers to produce new energy vehicles, its impact on the output of new [...] Read more.

The corporate average fuel consumption (CAFC) and new energy vehicle (NEV) credit policy (2021–2023) was officially released in June 2020. As a mandatory regulation for automobile manufacturers to produce new energy vehicles, its impact on the output of new energy vehicles needs to be systematically evaluated. In this study, we build an enterprise policy compliance model to simulate the dual-credit policy requirements for the production of new energy vehicles from 2021 to 2023 under different scenarios. The results show that the production of new energy vehicles from 2021 to 2023 is required to reach 1.78 to 3.97 million under different scenarios. Three factors, i.e., switching from New Europe Driving Cycle (NEDC) to World Light Vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP) fuel consumption improvement of conventional vehicles, and credit per new energy vehicle, have a more significant impact on the new energy vehicle production than others. Under the minimum guarantee scenario, a 10% change in the above three factors will lead to a 2.5%, 1.5%, and 0.5% reduction in the production requirement for new energy vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 6226 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of Hydrogen Leakage from Fuel Cell Vehicle in an Outdoor Parking Garage

by Yahao Shen, Tao Zheng, Hong Lv, Wei Zhou and Cunman Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030118 - 12 Aug 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4237

Abstract

It is significant to assess the hydrogen safety of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) in parking garages with a rapidly increased number of FCVs. In the present work, a Flame Acceleration Simulator (FLACS), a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) module using finite element calculation, was [...] Read more.

It is significant to assess the hydrogen safety of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) in parking garages with a rapidly increased number of FCVs. In the present work, a Flame Acceleration Simulator (FLACS), a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) module using finite element calculation, was utilized to predict the dispersion process of flammable hydrogen clouds, which was performed by hydrogen leakage from a fuel cell vehicle in an outdoor parking garage. The effect of leakage diameter (2 mm, 3 mm, and 4 mm) and parking configurations (vertical and parallel parking) on the formation of flammable clouds with a range of 4–75% by volume was considered. The emission was assumed to be directed downwards from a Thermally Activated Pressure Relief Device (TPRD) of a 70 MPa storage tank. The results show that the 0.7 m parking space stipulated by the current regulations is less than the safety space of fuel cell vehicles. Compared with a vertical parking configuration, it is safer to park FCVs in parallel. It was also shown that release through a large TPRD orifice should be avoided, as the proportion of the larger hydrogen concentration in the whole flammable domain is prone to more accidental severe consequences, such as overpressure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 1800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation on the Operating Characteristics of Flat-Plate CLPHP for PEMFC Cooling

by Yuyang Li, Guofeng Chang and Wang Zhao

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030116 - 11 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2554

Abstract

Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) generates electricity through hydrogen and oxygen chemical reaction with the generation of much heat. According to the working temperature of PEMFC, the thermal resistance and internal relative pressure change of the flat-plate micro closed-loop pulsating heat pipe [...] Read more.

Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) generates electricity through hydrogen and oxygen chemical reaction with the generation of much heat. According to the working temperature of PEMFC, the thermal resistance and internal relative pressure change of the flat-plate micro closed-loop pulsating heat pipe (CLPHP) are tested and analyzed at different filling ratios, vacuum degrees, and inclination angles, whose working medium is binary methanol-deionized water with a mass ratio of 5:1. The experiment results show that the higher the vacuum degree is, the better the startup and heat transfer performance of CLPHP become; the thermal resistance is less sensitive to inclination angle except for horizontal placement; the 40% volume-filling ratio can effectively avoid dry-out at high temperature. When 80 °C is the ideal working temperature of PEMFC, the thermal resistance of CLPHP is 0.093°C/W; the heat transfer heat flux is 1.59 W/cm², and the temperature fluctuation is small. Therefore, flat-plate CLPHP has great application potential for PEMFC cooling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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18 pages, 4270 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Pressure Control Algorithm of Regenerative Braking System for Highly Automated Driving Vehicles

by Liang Chu, Yanwu Xu, Di Zhao and Cheng Chang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030112 - 10 Aug 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3060

Abstract

Conclusive evidence has demonstrated the critical importance of highly automated driving systems and regenerative braking systems in improving driving safety and economy. However, the traditional regenerative braking system cannot be applied to highly automated driving vehicles. Therefore, this paper proposes a fully decoupled [...] Read more.

Conclusive evidence has demonstrated the critical importance of highly automated driving systems and regenerative braking systems in improving driving safety and economy. However, the traditional regenerative braking system cannot be applied to highly automated driving vehicles. Therefore, this paper proposes a fully decoupled regenerative braking system for highly automated driving vehicles, which has two working modes: conventional braking and redundant braking. Aimed at the above two working modes, this paper respectively proposes the pressure control algorithm, based on P-V characteristics, and the pressure control algorithm, based on the overflow characteristics of the solenoid valve. AMESim is utilized as the simulation platform, and then is co-simulated with MATLAB/Simulink, which is embedded with the control algorithm. The simulation results show the feasibility and effectiveness of the regenerative braking system and the pressure control algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 11371 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Improved Modulation Method for Suppressing High Frequency Common-Mode Voltage in SiC Motor Drive System

by Hui Li, Aibo Zhang and Xuewei Xiang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030111 - 8 Aug 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2356

Abstract

High-frequency common-mode voltage generated by inverters causes severe negative effects, particularly in silicon carbide (SiC) Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)-driven motors. Additionally, common suppression strategies would increase hardware expenses or sacrifice the switching speed of SiC devices. This article proposes an improved no-zero vector [...] Read more.

High-frequency common-mode voltage generated by inverters causes severe negative effects, particularly in silicon carbide (SiC) Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)-driven motors. Additionally, common suppression strategies would increase hardware expenses or sacrifice the switching speed of SiC devices. This article proposes an improved no-zero vector modulation strategy to suppress high-frequency common-mode voltage without increasing the cost of hardware. In this method, only nonzero vectors are utilized to reduce common-mode voltage. Firstly, the influence of different switching states on the characteristics of SiC MOSFETs has been studied by double-pulse tests, which explains why zero vectors will cause more serious voltage oscillations. Secondly, common-mode voltage suppression failure caused by the high-frequency dead zone effect has been analyzed in detail. Based on traditional Active Zero State Pulse Width Modulation (AZSPWM), complementary device conduction logic and dead-zone compensation methods are proposed. In switching moments, different turn-on logic is selected to ensure that only one switch acts, and different dead zone compensation methods are selected to deal with the common-mode suppression failure, which effectively avoids high-frequency common-mode voltage spikes. Finally, simulation and experimental results verify that the improved modulation algorithm can effectively suppress high-frequency common-mode voltage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 3054 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Inlet Gas Relative Humidity on Performance Characteristics of PEMFC Operating at Elevated Temperature

by Yiming Xu, Guofeng Chang, Jienan Zhang, Yuyang Li and Sichuan Xu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030110 - 7 Aug 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3035

Abstract

Raising the operating temperature is considered to be an effective method to improve the output performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). In this paper, the effects of inlet relative humidity in the anode (RHa) and cathode (RHc) on the polarization curve [...] Read more.

Raising the operating temperature is considered to be an effective method to improve the output performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). In this paper, the effects of inlet relative humidity in the anode (RHa) and cathode (RHc) on the polarization curve and impedance spectra of a single rotating serpentine PEMFC were investigated by experimental method at the operating temperature of 90 °C. It was found that the output performance is the smallest in the high RH case (RHa90%/RHc90%) due to the largest mass transfer resistance. However, the ohmic resistance in the dry case (RHa50%/RHc50%) is the highest, and it shows better output performance at more than 1.0 A/cm² because of the lowest mass transfer resistance. The impact of the changes in the RHa value on the polarization curve is more apparent than that of the RHc changes at high current density. The largest power density can be attained and the efficiency can reach 24.4% when the RHa is 90% and RHc is 50%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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13 pages, 2155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dual Closed-Loops Capacity Evolution Prediction for Energy Storage Batteries Integrated with Coupled Electrochemical Model

by Bowen Xu, Tao Sun, Shuoqi Wang, Yifan Wei, Xuebing Han and Yuejiu Zheng

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030109 - 7 Aug 2021

Viewed by 2396

Abstract

The health assessment for energy storage batteries matters in the context of carbon neutrality. Dual closed-loops capacity framework integrated with a reduced-order electrochemical model including triple side reactions is put forward, realizing parameter correction for health evaluation. Simplified microgrid aging experiment is formulated [...] Read more.

The health assessment for energy storage batteries matters in the context of carbon neutrality. Dual closed-loops capacity framework integrated with a reduced-order electrochemical model including triple side reactions is put forward, realizing parameter correction for health evaluation. Simplified microgrid aging experiment is formulated to test the closed-loop matching between the aging mechanism and electrochemical model relying on incremental capacity analysis. In addition, taking into account the future degradation prediction for energy storage system, the reliable capacity output afterwards acts as references for closed-loop parameter updating in empirical model to predict degradation evolution. The framework proposed implements the closed-loop dynamic updating for aging parameters with ideal error within 2%, making up for the lack of aging mechanism interpretation of accustomed empirical or data-driven black box model in the field of energy storage batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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14 pages, 4607 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Fast Lithium-Ion Battery Impedance and SOC Estimation Method Based on Two-Stage PI Observer

by Tao Chen, Mengmeng Huo, Xiaolong Yang and Rui Wen

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030108 - 6 Aug 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3016

Abstract

Due to the complex changes in battery state, the accurate and fast estimation of battery state of charge (SOC) is still a great challenge. Here, a fast estimation method of battery impedance and SOC based on a multi-level PI observer is proposed. The [...] Read more.

Due to the complex changes in battery state, the accurate and fast estimation of battery state of charge (SOC) is still a great challenge. Here, a fast estimation method of battery impedance and SOC based on a multi-level PI observer is proposed. The observer model reflects the change of the battery state characteristics through the dynamic impedance, and then the system compensation factor is added to the observer to dynamically adjust the parameters of the battery model. The effectiveness of the algorithm is verified by the compound dynamic stress test (DST) experiment. The results show that the introduction of the compensation factor enables the system to tolerate a certain degree of impedance fluctuation and capacity attenuation and the maximum SOC estimation error can be kept within 2%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 2908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Optimal Control Algorithm with Reduced DC-Bus Current Fluctuation for Multiple Charging Modes of Electric Vehicle Charging Station

by Tao Chen, Peng Fu, Xiaojiao Chen, Sheng Dou, Liansheng Huang, Shiying He and Zhengshang Wang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030107 - 6 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2236

Abstract

This paper presents a systematic structure and a control strategy for the electric vehicle charging station. The system uses a three-phase three-level neutral point clamped (NPC) rectifier to drive multiple three-phase three-level NPC converters to provide electric energy for electric vehicles. This topology [...] Read more.

This paper presents a systematic structure and a control strategy for the electric vehicle charging station. The system uses a three-phase three-level neutral point clamped (NPC) rectifier to drive multiple three-phase three-level NPC converters to provide electric energy for electric vehicles. This topology can realize the single-phase AC mode, three-phase AC mode, and DC mode by adding some switches to meet different charging requirements. In the case of multiple electric vehicles charging simultaneously, a system optimization control algorithm is adopted to minimize DC-bus current fluctuation by analyzing and reconstructing the DC-bus current in various charging modes. This algorithm uses the genetic algorithm (ga) as the core of computing and reduces the number of change parameter variables within a limited range. The DC-bus current fluctuation is still minimal. The charging station system structure and the proposed system-level optimization control algorithm can improve the DC-side current stability through model calculation and simulation verification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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13 pages, 1267 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling of Humidity Dynamics for Open-Cathode Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

by Fengxiang Chen, Liming Zhang and Jieran Jiao

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030106 - 4 Aug 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2933

Abstract

The durability and output performance of a fuel cell is highly influenced by the internal humidity, while in most developed models of open-cathode proton exchange membrane fuel cells (OC-PEMFC) the internal water content is viewed as a fixed value. Based on mass and [...] Read more.

The durability and output performance of a fuel cell is highly influenced by the internal humidity, while in most developed models of open-cathode proton exchange membrane fuel cells (OC-PEMFC) the internal water content is viewed as a fixed value. Based on mass and energy conservation law, mass transport theory and electrochemistry principles, the model of humidity dynamics for OC-PEMFC is established in Simulink^® environment, including the electrochemical model, mass flow model and thermal model. In the mass flow model, the water retention property and oxygen transfer characteristics of the gas diffusion layer is modelled. The simulation indicates that the internal humidity of OC-PEMFC varies with stack temperature and operating conditions, which has a significant influence on stack efficiency and output performance. In order to maintain a good internal humidity state during operation, this model can be used to determine the optimal stack temperature and for the design of a proper control strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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11 pages, 3733 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Ejector Test Platform Design and Ejector Test Analysis

by Fengxiang Chen, Mingtao Hou, Jianhui Li, Yaowang Pei and Yangyang Wang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030103 - 29 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3243

Abstract

The hydrogen recirculation system is essential to the performance of the fuel cell system; the ejector device plays an important role in the hydrogen recirculation system. In this paper, a test platform which can simulate the fuel cell anode system is integrated for [...] Read more.

The hydrogen recirculation system is essential to the performance of the fuel cell system; the ejector device plays an important role in the hydrogen recirculation system. In this paper, a test platform which can simulate the fuel cell anode system is integrated for ejector performance testing. Based on the ejector test platform, an ejector device was tested under different operating conditions. The design of the ejector test platform, the test method and test process are introduced in detail. The test results of the ejector are compared with the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation results of different turbulence models. The results show that the standard k-e model is more accurate than other turbulence models at small and medium flow rates. At a large flow rate, the realizable k-e model has a higher simulation accuracy than other turbulence models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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10 pages, 25840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of Corrosion Resistance and Electrical Conductivity of Stainless Steel 316L Bipolar Plate by Pickling and Passivation

by Yu Leng, Daijun Yang, Pingwen Ming, Bing Li and Cunman Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030101 - 28 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3715

Abstract

Corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity of stainless steel bipolar plate remains a big challenge while it has been regarded as the most promising candidate for proton exchange membrane fuel cell. The purpose of this paper is to study the effects of pickling and [...] Read more.

Corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity of stainless steel bipolar plate remains a big challenge while it has been regarded as the most promising candidate for proton exchange membrane fuel cell. The purpose of this paper is to study the effects of pickling and passivation by sulfuric acid and a mixture of nitric and fluoric acids, respectively, on corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity of stainless steel 316L (SS316L) bipolar plate. First, pickling of the specimens of SS316L is performed in a 15 wt.% H₂SO₄. Afterwards, the specimens are passivated in a mixture of 12 wt.% HF and 4 wt.% HNO₃. Electrochemical and interfacial conductivity tests are conducted to examine the change in corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity of SS316L. Finally, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) reveal the evolution of surface morphology, chemical composition and surface conductivity. The results show that the corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity of SS316L could be improved significantly by pickling and passivation. The increase in Cr:Fe ratio as well as a more uniform surface with higher conductivity is the main reason for the improvement of corrosion resistance and interfacial conductivity of SS316L. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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12 pages, 8003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Carrier Frequency Modulation Based on Rotor Position to Reduce Sideband Vibro-Acoustics in PMSM Used by Electric Vehicles

by Zizhen Qiu, Yong Chen, Xiaozhe Lin, Haiquan Cheng, Yang Kang and Xu Liu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030100 - 22 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2683

Abstract

In the permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) drive system, the unwilling and ear-piercing vibro-acoustics caused by high-frequency sideband harmonics becomes unacceptable in electric vehicle applications. In this paper, a modified space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) technique implemented with a hybrid carrier frequency [...] Read more.

In the permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) drive system, the unwilling and ear-piercing vibro-acoustics caused by high-frequency sideband harmonics becomes unacceptable in electric vehicle applications. In this paper, a modified space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) technique implemented with a hybrid carrier frequency modulation (HCFM) is provided to reduce the sideband current harmonic components and vibro-acoustic responses. The principle and implementation of the proposed HCFM technique are firstly presented in which the fixed carrier frequency is improved with the sawtooth and random signal-based coupling modulation based on the rotor position. The analytical derivations with the power spectral density method are also proposed. For verification, the experiment tests are conducted on a prototype 12/10 PMSM and microcontroller unit. The effectiveness of the HCFM technique can hence be confirmed considering the sideband vibro-acoustics reduction operated more effectively than that in a conventional random PWM. The proposed approach may provide a new route in noise-cancelling and electromagnetic compatibility for the electric drive powertrain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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Review

Jump to: Research

19 pages, 3569 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of the Hydrogen Permeability of the Liner Material of Type IV On-Board Hydrogen Storage Tank

by Ying Su, Hong Lv, Wei Zhou and Cunman Zhang

World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12(3), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12030130 - 22 Aug 2021

Cited by 52 | Viewed by 17396

Abstract

The hydrogen storage tank is a key parameter of the hydrogen storage system in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs), as its safety determines the commercialization of HFCVs. Compared with other types, the type IV hydrogen storage tank which consists of a polymer liner [...] Read more.

The hydrogen storage tank is a key parameter of the hydrogen storage system in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs), as its safety determines the commercialization of HFCVs. Compared with other types, the type IV hydrogen storage tank which consists of a polymer liner has the advantages of low cost, lightweight, and low storage energy consumption, but meanwhile, higher hydrogen permeability. A detailed review of the existing research on hydrogen permeability of the liner material of type IV hydrogen storage tanks can improve the understanding of the hydrogen permeation mechanism and provide references for following-up researchers and research on the safety of HFCVs. The process of hydrogen permeation and test methods are firstly discussed in detail. This paper then analyzes the factors that affect the process of hydrogen permeation and the barrier mechanism of the liner material and summarizes the prediction models of gas permeation. In addition to the above analysis and comments, future research on the permeability of the liner material of the type IV hydrogen storage tank is prospected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Intelligent E-Mobility—Selected Papers from The 34th International Electric Vehicles Symposium and Exhibition (Nanjing, China))

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