Instruments

18 pages, 6210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Studies of Microwave Tubes with Components of Electron–Optical and Electrodynamic Systems Implemented Using Novel 3D Additive Technology

by Mikhail D. Proyavin, Mikhail V. Morozkin, Naum S. Ginzburg, Andrej N. Denisenko, Maxim V. Kamenskiy, Valentina E. Kotomina, Vladimir N. Manuilov, Alexey A. Orlovskiy, Ivan V. Osharin, Nikolay Y. Peskov, Andrei V. Savilov and Vladislav Y. Zaslavsky

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040081 - 14 Dec 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2412

Abstract

Novel additive technology of the Chemical Metallization of Photopolymer-based Structures (CMPS) is under active elaboration currently at the IAP RAS (Nizhny Novgorod). The use of this technology has made it possible to implement components of electron–optical and electrodynamic systems for high-power microwave vacuum [...] Read more.

Novel additive technology of the Chemical Metallization of Photopolymer-based Structures (CMPS) is under active elaboration currently at the IAP RAS (Nizhny Novgorod). The use of this technology has made it possible to implement components of electron–optical and electrodynamic systems for high-power microwave vacuum tubes, such as a gyrotron and a relativistic Cherenkov maser, the design and experimental studies of which are described in this paper. Within the framework of the gyrotron developments, we carried out a simulation of the distribution of the heat load on the collector of high-power technological gyrotron taking into account secondary emission. The prospect of a significant reduction in the maximum power density of the deposited electron beam was shown. The experimental study of the gyrotron collector module manufactured using CMPS technology demonstrated high potential for its further implementation. Recent results of theoretical and experimental studies of a spatially extended Ka-band Cherenkov maser are presented. In this oscillator, the 2D-periodical slow-wave structure made by the proposed technology was applied and a narrow-band generation regime was observed with a sub-GW power level. The design and simulations of a novel selective electrodynamic system for a high-harmonic gyrotron with the planned application of the CMPS technology are discussed. Full article

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17 pages, 10179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring the Beam Energy in Proton Therapy Facilities Using ATLAS IBL Pixel Detectors

by Isabelle Schilling, Claus Maximilian Bäcker, Christian Bäumer, Carina Behrends, Marius Hötting, Jana Hohmann, Kevin Kröninger, Beate Timmermann and Jens Weingarten

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040080 - 29 Nov 2022

Viewed by 2611

Abstract

The accurate measurement of the beam range in the frame of quality assurance (QA) is a requirement for clinical use of a proton therapy machine. Conventionally used detectors mostly estimate the range by measuring the depth dose distribution of the protons. In this [...] Read more.

The accurate measurement of the beam range in the frame of quality assurance (QA) is a requirement for clinical use of a proton therapy machine. Conventionally used detectors mostly estimate the range by measuring the depth dose distribution of the protons. In this paper, we use pixel detectors designed for individual particle tracking in the high-radiation environment of the ATLAS experiment at LHC. The detector measures the deposited energy in the sensor for individual protons. Due to the limited dynamic energy range of the readout chip, several ways to measure the proton energy or range are examined. A staircase phantom is placed on the detector to perform an energy calibration relative to the NIST PSTAR stopping power database. In addition, track length measurements are performed using the detector aligned parallel with the beam axis to investigate the Linear Energy Transfer (LET) per pixel along the trajectory of individual protons. In this proof-of-principle study, we show that this radiation hardness detector can successfully be used to determine the initial proton energy for protons impinging on the sensor with an energy below 44 MeV after the range shifters. It becomes clear that an improvement of the energy resolution of the readout chip is required for clinical use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medical Applications of Particle Physics)

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14 pages, 1308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metrological Characterization of a CO₂ Laser-Based System for Inscribing Long-Period Gratings in Optical Fibers

by Sebastian Valencia-Garzón, Erick Reyes-Vera, Jorge Galvis-Arroyave, Jose P. Montoya and Nelson Gomez-Cardona

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040079 - 27 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2024

Abstract

A CO

_{2}

laser-based system was studied and implemented to produce asymmetric long period fiber gratings (LPFG) with a large attenuation peak, high reproducibility, and high stability. The first half of this study provides a mathematical uncertainty model of the CO

_{2}

laser-based [...] Read more.

A CO

_{2}

laser-based system was studied and implemented to produce asymmetric long period fiber gratings (LPFG) with a large attenuation peak, high reproducibility, and high stability. The first half of this study provides a mathematical uncertainty model of the CO

_{2}

laser-based approach that takes into account various mechanical and thermal effects that impact this production technique. This is the first time that metrological analysis and modeling are performed on the CO

_{2}

laser-based engraving technique. Following that, the engraved system’s quality was assessed using a microscopic approach to confirm mechanical characteristics such as grating period, engraved spot width, and penetration depth, demonstrating that, if the thermal and mechanical components of the overall system are correctly managed, it is feasible to have very low inaccuracy. Lastly, the LPFG performance as temperature and strain sensors was tested, and the findings show that they had good linearity in both circumstances. Thus, the temperature sensor had a maximal sensitivity of 58 pm/°C when measuring temperature changed from 20 to 97 °C, but the strain sensor had sensitivity of 43 pm/

μ ε

when measuring strain variations from 5.59 to 25

μ ε

. As a result, the model and results presented in this paper can be utilized to create a platform for the metrological management of lengths involved in the process of manufacturing LPFGs, devices that are widely employed in the creation of sensors and communications devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Instruments 2021–2022)

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19 pages, 1840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Atmospheric Muon Flux Measurement near Earth’s Equatorial Line

by Cristian Borja, Carlos Ávila, Gerardo Roque and Manuel Sánchez

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040078 - 22 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4341

Abstract

We report measurements of muon flux over the sky of the city of Bogotá at 4°35′56′′ north latitude, 74°04′51′′ west longitude, and an altitude of 2657 m above sea level, carried out with a hodoscope composed of four stations of plastic scintillators located [...] Read more.

We report measurements of muon flux over the sky of the city of Bogotá at 4°35′56′′ north latitude, 74°04′51′′ west longitude, and an altitude of 2657 m above sea level, carried out with a hodoscope composed of four stations of plastic scintillators located equidistant over a distance of 4.8 m. Measurements were taken at different zenith (θ) angles within the range

{1.5}^{°} \leq θ \leq 90^{°}

, the muon flux data is statistically consistent with a

\cos^{2} θ

dependence, with a

χ^{2}

per degree of freedom near unity. If instead, we fit to a

\cos^{n} θ

we obtain

n = 2.145 \pm 0.046

with a lower

χ^{2}

per degree of freedom. Integrating the muon flux distribution as a function of the zenith angle over the solid angle of the upper Earth’s hemisphere allows an estimation of the atmospheric vertical muon rate at the altitude and latitude of Bogota obtaining a value of

255.1 \pm 5.8

m^{- 2} s^{- 1}

. This estimate is consistent with an independent direct measurement of the vertical muon flux with all detectors stacked horizontally. These measurements play a key role in the further development of detectors, aimed to perform muon imaging of Monserrate Hill, located in Bogotá, where the detectors will be placed at similar locations to those used in the present study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muography, Applications in Cosmic-Ray Muon Imaging)

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11 pages, 1612 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Muography for Inspection of Civil Structures

by Subhendu Das, Sridhar Tripathy, Priyanka Jagga, Purba Bhattacharya, Nayana Majumdar and Supratik Mukhopadhyay

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040077 - 18 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3175

Abstract

Aging infrastructure is a threatening issue throughout the world. Long exposure to oxygen and moisture causes premature corrosion of reinforced concrete structures leading to the collapse of the structures. As a consequence, real-time monitoring of civil structures for rust becomes critical in avoiding [...] Read more.

Aging infrastructure is a threatening issue throughout the world. Long exposure to oxygen and moisture causes premature corrosion of reinforced concrete structures leading to the collapse of the structures. As a consequence, real-time monitoring of civil structures for rust becomes critical in avoiding mishaps. Muon scattering tomography is a non-destructive, non-invasive technique which has shown impressive results in 3D imaging of civil structures. This paper explores the application of advanced machine learning techniques in identifying a rusted reinforced concrete rebar using muon scattering tomography. To achieve this, we have simulated the performance of an imaging prototype setup, designed to carry out muon scattering tomography, to precisely measure the rust percentage in a rusted rebar. We have produced a 2D image based on the projected 3D scattering vertices of the muons and used the scattering vertex density and average deviation angle per pixel as the distinguishing parameter for the analysis. A filtering algorithm, namely the Pattern Recognition Method, has been employed to eliminate background noise. Since this problem boils down to whether or not the material being analyzed is rust, i.e., a classification problem, we have adopted the well-known machine learning algorithm Support Vector Machine to identify rust in the rusted reinforced cement concrete structure. It was observed that the trained model could easily identify 30% of rust in the structure with a nominal exposure of 30 days within a small error range of 7.3%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muography, Applications in Cosmic-Ray Muon Imaging)

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14 pages, 7340 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Thermal Sublimation Generator of ^131mXe

by Karolina Kulesz, Nikolay Azaryan, Mikołaj Baranowski, Mateusz Jerzy Chojnacki, Ulli Köster, Razvan Lica, Sorin Gabriel Pascu, Renaud Blaise Jolivet and Magdalena Kowalska

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040076 - 16 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1997

Abstract

Stable and unstable isotopes of the heavy noble gas xenon find use in various medical applications. However, apart from

^{133}

Xe, used for Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography, radioactive isotopes of xenon are currently complicated to obtain in small quantities. With the GAMMA-MRI [...] Read more.

Stable and unstable isotopes of the heavy noble gas xenon find use in various medical applications. However, apart from

^{133}

Xe, used for Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography, radioactive isotopes of xenon are currently complicated to obtain in small quantities. With the GAMMA-MRI project in mind, we investigated a thermal sublimation generator of the long-lived excited state (isomer)

^{131 m}

Xe. This production method utilized the decay of

^{131}

I, obtained commercially from a hospital supplier in the form of Na

^{131}

I powder. Heat treatments of the Na

^{131}

I powder and cryogenic trapping of released

^{131 m}

Xe allowed us to collect up to 88% of the produced xenon. Our method provides an isomeric mixture of

^{131 m}

Xe and

^{131}

Xe. With improvements in scalability and chemical purification, this method could be a cost-effective source of

^{131 m}

Xe for small-scale experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medical Applications of Particle Physics)

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12 pages, 9110 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The CALICE SiW ECAL Technological Prototype—Status and Outlook

by Roman Pöschl

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040075 - 14 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1798

Abstract

The next generation of collider detectors will make full use of Particle Flow Algorithms, requiring high-precision tracking and full imaging calorimeters. The latter, thanks to granularity improvements by two to three orders of magnitude compared to existing devices, have been developed during the [...] Read more.

The next generation of collider detectors will make full use of Particle Flow Algorithms, requiring high-precision tracking and full imaging calorimeters. The latter, thanks to granularity improvements by two to three orders of magnitude compared to existing devices, have been developed during the past 15 years by the CALICE collaboration and are now reaching maturity. This contribution will focus on the commissioning of a 15-layer prototype of a highly granular silicon–tungsten electromagnetic calorimeter that comprises 15,360 readout cells. The prototype was exposed in November 2021 and March 2022 to beam tests at DESY and in June 2022 to a beam test at the SPS at CERN. The test at CERN has been carried out in combination with the CALICE Analogue Hadron Calorimeter. The contribution will give a general overview of the prototype and will highlight technical developments necessary for its construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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17 pages, 7022 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gaseous Detectors for Field Applications: Quality Control, Thermal and Mechanical Stability

by Ádám Gera, Gábor Nyitrai, Gergely Surányi, Gergő Hamar and Dezső Varga

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040074 - 10 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1956

Abstract

A cosmic muon imaging system is essentially a particle tracking detector as known from experimental High Energy Physics. The Multiwire Proportional Chamber (MWPC) once revolutionized this field of science, and as such it is a viable choice as the core element of an [...] Read more.

A cosmic muon imaging system is essentially a particle tracking detector as known from experimental High Energy Physics. The Multiwire Proportional Chamber (MWPC) once revolutionized this field of science, and as such it is a viable choice as the core element of an imaging system. Long term construction and operation experience was gathered from a Japanese–Hungarian collaboration that gave rise to the MWPC-based Muon Observatory System (MMOS), and is being used in Japan at the Sakurajima volcano. The present paper attempts to draw conclusions on the thermal and mechanical limits of the system, based on controlled measurements and detailed simulations. High temperature behavior and effects of thermal cycling and conditioning are presented, which appear to consistently allow one to propose quality control criteria. Regarding mechanical stability, the relation between gluing quality (tensile strength) and expected stress from vibration (during transportation) determines the safety factor to avoid damages. Both of these are presented and quantified in the paper using a conservative and austere approach, with mechanical simulations validated with experimental modal testing data. One can conclude that mechanical stress during industrial standard air freight shipping conditions is nearly a factor of three below the calculated maximum stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muography, Applications in Cosmic-Ray Muon Imaging)

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16 pages, 5225 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lessons Learned from the Module Production for the First CMS Silicon Tracker

by Alan Honma

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040073 - 9 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1659

Abstract

A personal view of some of the more important lessons learned from the module production for the CMS silicon tracker. This work took place from about 2002–2005. The focus is on areas where I had strong personal involvement; therefore, the tasks of hybrid [...] Read more.

A personal view of some of the more important lessons learned from the module production for the CMS silicon tracker. This work took place from about 2002–2005. The focus is on areas where I had strong personal involvement; therefore, the tasks of hybrid production, hybrid assembly, and the wire bonding of modules and hybrids are emphasized. This article will first give a general description of the silicon tracker project and how the module production was organized. Then, there will be description of several of the key issues or problems during the production and how they were resolved. Some recommendations for future similar large-scale productions will be given. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicon Tracking Detectors: Lessons Learned from Past Productions, and Technologies for Future Application)

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9 pages, 1846 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design, Construction and Characterization of Sealed Tube Medium Power CO₂ Laser System

by Muddasir Naeem, Tayyab Imran, Mukhtar Hussain and Arshad Saleem Bhatti

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040072 - 2 Nov 2022

Viewed by 3518

Abstract

A low-cost medium-power carbon dioxide (CO₂) laser system is designed, constructed, and characterized to produce coherent, monochromatic laser radiation in the infrared region. The laser cavity is simulated and designed by using ZEMAX optic studio. A switch-mode high-tension pump source is [...] Read more.

A low-cost medium-power carbon dioxide (CO₂) laser system is designed, constructed, and characterized to produce coherent, monochromatic laser radiation in the infrared region. The laser cavity is simulated and designed by using ZEMAX optic studio. A switch-mode high-tension pump source is designed and constructed using a flyback transformer and simulated using NI Multisim to study the voltage behavior at different node points. A prototype cooling system/chiller is designed and built using thermo-electric coolers (TEC) to remove the excess heat produced during laser action. Various parameters, such as pumping mechanism, chiller stability, efficiency, output power, and current at different applied voltages, are studied. The chiller efficiency at different output powers of the laser is analyzed, which clearly shows that the chiller’s cooling rate is good enough to compensate for the heat generated by the laser system. The center wavelength of the carbon dioxide laser is 10.6 μm with an FWHM of 1.2 nm simulated in the ZEMAX optic studio. The output beam penetration through salt rock (NaCl), wood, and acrylic sheet (PMMA) at various output powers is analyzed to measure the penetration depth rate of the CO₂ laser. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonic Devices Instrumentation and Applications II)

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10 pages, 11479 KiB

Open AccessArticle

L1 Triggering on High-Granularity Information at the HL-LHC

by Louis Portalès

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040071 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1675

Abstract

The CMS collaboration is building a high-granularity calorimeter (HGCAL) for the endcap regions as part of its planned upgrade for the High-Luminosity LHC. The calorimetric data will form part of the Level-1 trigger (hardware) of the CMS experiment, reducing the event rate from [...] Read more.

The CMS collaboration is building a high-granularity calorimeter (HGCAL) for the endcap regions as part of its planned upgrade for the High-Luminosity LHC. The calorimetric data will form part of the Level-1 trigger (hardware) of the CMS experiment, reducing the event rate from the nominal 40 MHz to 750 kHz with a decision time (latency) of 12.5 microseconds. In addition to basic tracking information, which will also be available in the Level-1 trigger system, the use of particle-flow techniques will be facilitated as part of the trigger system. Around 1-million “trigger channels” are read at 40 MHz from the HGCAL, presenting a significant challenge in terms of data manipulation and processing for the trigger system: the trigger data volumes will be an order of magnitude above those currently handled at CMS. In addition, the high luminosity will result in an average of 140 (or more) interactions per bunch crossing that produce a huge background rate in the forward region and these will need to be efficiently rejected by the trigger algorithms. Furthermore, the reconstruction of particle clusters used for particle flow in high hit-rate events presents a complex computational problem associated with the trigger. We present the status of the trigger architecture and design, as well as the algorithmic concepts needed in order to tackle these major issues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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6 pages, 3312 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Test-Beam Results of the FoCal-H Demonstrator Prototype

by Radoslav Simeonov

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040070 - 27 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1733

Abstract

The forward calorimeter (FoCal) of ALICE, planned to be operational for LHC Run 4, will cover the pseudorapidity range 3.4

\leq η \leq

5.8 allowing to probe the unexplored region of Bjorken-x down to

10^{- 6}

. The hadronic section of the [...] Read more.

The forward calorimeter (FoCal) of ALICE, planned to be operational for LHC Run 4, will cover the pseudorapidity range 3.4

\leq η \leq

5.8 allowing to probe the unexplored region of Bjorken-x down to

10^{- 6}

. The hadronic section of the FoCal (FoCal-H) will be based on copper capillary tubes and scintillating fibers inside, with light read out by silicon photomultipliers (SiPM). A “proof of concept” demonstration prototype was built and tested in the H6 beamline at the CERN SPS in the beginning of October, 2021, exposing it to an unseparated charged particle beam with energy in the interval 20 GeV–80 GeV. The design of the prototype as well as the results of the energy reconstruction are presented and the validation with a GEANT4-based simulation is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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7 pages, 1369 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Study of Virtual Frisch Grid CdZnTeSe Detectors

by Utpal N. Roy, Giuseppe S. Camarda, Yonggang Cui and Ralph B. James

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040069 - 26 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1826

Abstract

Nuclear detectors for x-ray and gamma-ray spectroscopy and imaging are a vital tool in many homeland security, medical imaging, astrophysics and other applications. Most of these applications require room-temperature operation due to the operational constraints imposed by a cryogenic cooling system. CdZnTe (CZT) [...] Read more.

Nuclear detectors for x-ray and gamma-ray spectroscopy and imaging are a vital tool in many homeland security, medical imaging, astrophysics and other applications. Most of these applications require room-temperature operation due to the operational constraints imposed by a cryogenic cooling system. CdZnTe (CZT) has been the main material with the desired detection properties, and CZT crystals have been used commercially for three decades. However, CdZnTe still suffers from long-standing issues of high densities of performance-limiting intrinsic defects such as Te inclusions and networks of dislocation walls (sub-grain boundaries). A recently invented new quaternary material CdZnTeSe showed excellent material properties for radiation detection. The material was found to be free from dislocation networks, possess reduced Te inclusions, and have better compositional homogeneity. Virtual Frisch grid detectors were fabricated from crystals taken from a CdZnTeSe ingot that was grown by the traveling heater method. The detectors were fabricated from an as-grown ingot, bypassing the post-growth annealing process commonly practiced for industrial-grade CZT. The performances of the detectors were studied with different Frisch grid lengths using an amplifier shaping time ranging from 1–6 µs. The detectors showed high-quality spectroscopic performance with an as-measured energy resolution of ~1.1% at 662 keV for an optimum Frisch grid length of 3 mm. The charge collection was observed to enhance for longer Frisch grids. Full article

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12 pages, 10288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mu2e Crystal Calorimeter Readout Electronics: Design and Characterisation

by Nikolay Atanov, Vladimir Baranov, Leo Borrel, Caterina Bloise, Julian Budagov, Sergio Ceravolo, Franco Cervelli, Francesco Colao, Marco Cordelli, Giovanni Corradi, Yuri Davydov, Stefano Di Falco, Eleonora Diociaiuti, Simone Donati, Bertrand Echenard, Carlo Ferrari, Antonio Gioiosa, Simona Giovannella, Valerio Giusti, Vladimir Glagolev, Francesco Grancagnolo, Dariush Hampai, Fabio Happacher, David Hitlin, Matteo Martini, Sophie Middleton, Stefano Miscetti, Luca Morescalchi, Daniele Paesani, Daniele Pasciuto, Elena Pedreschi, Frank Porter, Fabrizio Raffaelli, Alessandro Saputi, Ivano Sarra, Franco Spinella, Alessandra Taffara, Anna Maria Zanetti and Ren-Yuan Zhu Show full author list Hide full author list

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040068 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2075

Abstract

The Mu2e experiment at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory will search for the charged-lepton flavour-violating neutrinoless conversion of negative muons into electrons in the Coulomb field of an Al nucleus. The conversion electron with a monoenergetic 104.967 MeV signature will be identified by a [...] Read more.

The Mu2e experiment at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory will search for the charged-lepton flavour-violating neutrinoless conversion of negative muons into electrons in the Coulomb field of an Al nucleus. The conversion electron with a monoenergetic 104.967 MeV signature will be identified by a complementary measurement carried out by a high-resolution tracker and an electromagnetic calorimeter, improving by four orders of magnitude the current single-event sensitivity. The calorimeter—composed of 1348 pure CsI crystals arranged in two annular disks—has a high granularity, 10% energy resolution and 500 ps timing resolution for 100 MeV electrons. The readout, based on large-area UV-extended SiPMs, features a fully custom readout chain, from the analogue front-end electronics to the digitisation boards. The readout electronics design was validated for operation in vacuum and under magnetic fields. An extensive radiation hardness certification campaign certified the FEE design for doses up to 100 krad and 10

^{12}

n

_{1 MeVeq}

/cm

^{2}

and for single-event effects. A final vertical slice test on the final readout chain was carried out with cosmic rays on a large-scale calorimeter prototype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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9 pages, 2890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Ultrafast Lu₂O₃:Yb Ceramics for Future HEP Applications

by Chen Hu, Liyuan Zhang, Ren-Yuan Zhu, Lakshmi Soundara Pandian, Yimin Wang and Jarek Glodo

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040067 - 18 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1800

Abstract

Inorganic scintillators activated by charge transfer luminescence Yb³⁺ are considered promising ultrafast material to break the ps timing barrier for future high energy physics applications. Inorganic scintillators in ceramic form are potentially more cost-effective than crystals because of their lower fabrication temperature [...] Read more.

Inorganic scintillators activated by charge transfer luminescence Yb³⁺ are considered promising ultrafast material to break the ps timing barrier for future high energy physics applications. Inorganic scintillators in ceramic form are potentially more cost-effective than crystals because of their lower fabrication temperature and no need for aftergrowth mechanical processing. This paper reports an investigation on Lu₂O₃:Yb and Lu_2xY_2(1−x)O₃:Yb scintillating ceramic samples fabricated by Radiation Monitoring Devices Inc. All samples show X-ray excited luminescence peaked at 370 nm. Ultrafast decay time of 1.1 ns was observed by using a microchannel plate-photomultiplier tube-based test bench at Caltech. Considering its intrinsic high density (9.4 g/cm³), Lu₂O₃:Yb ceramics are promising for future time of fight application for high energy physics experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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23 pages, 44483 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Secondary Particles as a Complement to Muon Scattering Measurements

by Maximilian Pérez Prada, Sarah Barnes and Maurice Stephan

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040066 - 18 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2503

Abstract

Cosmic ray tomography is an emerging imaging technique utilizing an ambient source of radiation. One common tomography method is based on the measurement of muons scattered by the examined objects, which allows the reconstruction and discrimination of materials with different properties. From the [...] Read more.

Cosmic ray tomography is an emerging imaging technique utilizing an ambient source of radiation. One common tomography method is based on the measurement of muons scattered by the examined objects, which allows the reconstruction and discrimination of materials with different properties. From the interaction of air shower particles induced through cosmic rays with the material to be scanned, secondary particles, predominantly photons, neutrons and electrons, can be produced, which carry complementary information about the objects and their materials. However, this information is currently not fully exploited or only studied in coincidence with the incoming air shower particles. Therefore, this work presents a novel approach utilizing only the information from secondary particles to reconstruct and discriminate objects made out of a variety of materials. It also includes a detailed analysis of the kinematics of secondary particles and their dependency on material characteristics. In addition, a reconstruction algorithm to produce 3D maps of the examined volume from the measurement of secondary particles is introduced. This results in a successful reconstruction and differentiation of objects in various geometrical compositions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muography, Applications in Cosmic-Ray Muon Imaging)

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11 pages, 479 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a Large Calorimeter Based on Lyso Crystals for Future High Energy Physics

by Patrick Schwendimann, Andrea Gurgone and Angela Papa

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040065 - 18 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1767

Abstract

The state-of-the-art research at the intensity frontier of particle physics aims to find evidence for new physics beyond the Standard Model by searching for faint signals in a vast amount of background. To this end, detectors with excellent resolution in all kinematic variables [...] Read more.

The state-of-the-art research at the intensity frontier of particle physics aims to find evidence for new physics beyond the Standard Model by searching for faint signals in a vast amount of background. To this end, detectors with excellent resolution in all kinematic variables are required. For future calorimeters, a very promising material is LYSO, due to its short radiation length, fast decay time and good light yield. In this article, the simulation of a calorimeter assembled from multiple large LYSO crystals is presented. Although there is still a long way to go before crystals of that size can be produced, the results suggest an energy resolution of 1%, a position resolution around 5 mm and a time resolution of about 30 ps for photons and positrons with an energy of 55 MeV. These results would put such a calorimeter at the technology forefront in precision particle physics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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7 pages, 1725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The CMS Level-1 Calorimeter Trigger for the HL-LHC

by Piyush Kumar and Bhawna Gomber

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040064 - 17 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1668

Abstract

The High-Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) provides an opportunity for a pioneering physics program to harness an integrated luminosity of 4000

{fb}^{- 1}

of ten years of operations. This large volume of collision data will help in high precision measurements of the Standard Model [...] Read more.

The High-Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) provides an opportunity for a pioneering physics program to harness an integrated luminosity of 4000

{fb}^{- 1}

of ten years of operations. This large volume of collision data will help in high precision measurements of the Standard Model (SM) and the search for new and rare physics phenomena. The harsh environment of 200 proton–proton interactions poses a substantial challenge in the collection of these large datasets. The HL-LHC CMS Level-1 (L1) trigger, including the calorimeter trigger, will receive a massive upgrade to tackle the challenge of a high-bandwidth and high pileup environment. The L1 trigger is planned to handle a very high bandwidth (∼63 Tb/s) with an output rate of 750 kHz, and the desired latency budget is 12.5

μ

s. The calorimeter trigger aims to process the high-granular information from the new end-cap detector called the high-granularity calorimeter (HGCAL) and the barrel calorimeter. The HL-LHC trigger prototyped boards are equipped with large modern-day FPGAs and high-speed optical links (∼28 Gb/s), which helps in the parallel and rapid computation of the calorimeter trigger algorithms. This article discusses the proposed design and expected performance of the upgraded CMS Level-1 calorimeter trigger system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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5 pages, 2231 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Design of an Electromagnetic Calorimeter Prototype for a Future Muon Collider

by Daniele Paesani, Alessandro Saputi and Ivano Sarra

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040063 - 14 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1418

Abstract

Measurement of physics processes at new energy frontier experiments requires excellent spatial, time, and energy resolutions to resolve the structure of collimated high-energy jets. In a future Muon Collider, beam-induced backgrounds (BIB) represent the main challenge in the design of the detectors and [...] Read more.

Measurement of physics processes at new energy frontier experiments requires excellent spatial, time, and energy resolutions to resolve the structure of collimated high-energy jets. In a future Muon Collider, beam-induced backgrounds (BIB) represent the main challenge in the design of the detectors and of the event reconstruction algorithms. The technology and the design of the calorimeters should be chosen to reduce the effect of the BIB, while keeping good physics performance. Several requirements can be inferred: (i) high granularity to reduce the overlap of BIB particles in the same calorimeter cell; (ii) excellent timing (of the order of 100 ps) to reduce the out-of-time component of the BIB; (iii) longitudinal segmentation to distinguish the signal showers from the fake showers produced by the BIB. Moreover, the calorimeter should operate in a very harsh radiation environment, withstanding yearly a neutron flux of 10

^{14}

n1MeV/cm² and a dose of 100 krad. Our proposal consists of a semi-homogeneous electromagnetic calorimeter based on Lead Fluoride Crystals (PbF2) readout by surface-mount UV-extended Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs): the Crilin calorimeter. In this paper, we report the mechanical design for the development of a small-scale prototype, consisting of 2 layers of 3 × 3 crystals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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8 pages, 3986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crilin: A Semi-Homogeneous Calorimeter for a Future Muon Collider

by Sergio Ceravolo, Francesco Colao, Camilla Curatolo, Elisa Di Meco, Eleonora Diociaiuti, Donatella Lucchesi, Daniele Paesani, Nadia Pastrone, Gianantonio Pezzullo, Alessandro Saputi, Ivano Sarra, Lorenzo Sestini and Diego Tagnani

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040062 - 11 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1927

Abstract

Calorimeters, as other detectors, have to face the increasing performance demands of the new energy frontier experiments. For a future Muon Collider the main challenge is given by the Beam Induced Background that may pose limitations to the physics performance. However, it is [...] Read more.

Calorimeters, as other detectors, have to face the increasing performance demands of the new energy frontier experiments. For a future Muon Collider the main challenge is given by the Beam Induced Background that may pose limitations to the physics performance. However, it is possible to reduce the BIB impact by exploiting some of its characteristics by ensuring high granularity, excellent timing, longitudinal segmentation and good energy resolution. The proposed design, the Crilin calorimeter, is an alternative semi-homogeneous ECAL barrel for the Muon Collider based on Lead Fluoride Crystals (PbF

_{2}

) with a surface-mount UV-extended Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs) readout with an optimized design for a future Muon Collider. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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17 pages, 8426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polarimetry for ³He Ion Beams from Laser–Plasma Interactions

by Chuan Zheng, Pavel Fedorets, Ralf Engels, Chrysovalantis Kannis, Ilhan Engin, Sören Möller, Robert Swaczyna, Herbert Feilbach, Harald Glückler, Manfred Lennartz, Heinz Pfeifer, Johannes Pfennings, Claus M. Schneider, Norbert Schnitzler, Helmut Soltner and Markus Büscher

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040061 - 10 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1773

Abstract

We present a compact polarimeter for

^{3}

He ions with special emphasis on the analysis of short-pulsed beams accelerated during laser–plasma interactions. We discuss the specific boundary conditions for the polarimeter, such as the properties of laser-driven ion beams, the selection of the [...] Read more.

We present a compact polarimeter for

^{3}

He ions with special emphasis on the analysis of short-pulsed beams accelerated during laser–plasma interactions. We discuss the specific boundary conditions for the polarimeter, such as the properties of laser-driven ion beams, the selection of the polarization-sensitive reaction in the polarimeter, the representation of the analyzing-power contour map, the choice of the detector material used for particle identification, as well as the production procedure of the required deuterated foil-targets. The assembled polarimeter has been tested using a tandem accelerator delivering unpolarized

^{3}

He ion beams, demonstrating good performance in the few-MeV range. The statistical accuracy and the deduced figure-of-merit of the polarimetry are discussed, including the count-rate requirement and the lower limit of accuracy for beam-polarization measurements at a laser-based ion source. Full article

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12 pages, 16137 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Mu2e Crystal Calorimeter: An Overview

by Nikolay Atanov, Vladimir Baranov, Leo Borrel, Caterina Bloise, Julian Budagov, Sergio Ceravolo, Franco Cervelli, Francesco Colao, Marco Cordelli, Giovanni Corradi, Yuri Davydov, Stefano Di Falco, Eleonora Diociaiuti, Simone Donati, Bertrand Echenard, Carlo Ferrari, Antonio Gioiosa, Simona Giovannella, Valerio Giusti, Vladimir Glagolev, Francesco Grancagnolo, Dariush Hampai, Fabio Happacher, David Hitlin, Matteo Martini, Sophie Middleton, Stefano Miscetti, Luca Morescalchi, Daniele Paesani, Daniele Pasciuto, Elena Pedreschi, Frank Porter, Fabrizio Raffaelli, Alessandro Saputi, Ivano Sarra, Franco Spinella, Alessandra Taffara, Anna Maria Zanetti and Ren Yuan Zhu Show full author list Hide full author list

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040060 - 9 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2233

Abstract

The Mu2e experiment at Fermilab will search for the standard model-forbidden, charged lepton flavour-violating conversion of a negative muon into an electron in the field of an aluminium nucleus. The distinctive signal signature is represented by a mono-energetic electron with an energy near [...] Read more.

The Mu2e experiment at Fermilab will search for the standard model-forbidden, charged lepton flavour-violating conversion of a negative muon into an electron in the field of an aluminium nucleus. The distinctive signal signature is represented by a mono-energetic electron with an energy near the muon’s rest mass. The experiment aims to improve the current single-event sensitivity by four orders of magnitude by means of a high-intensity pulsed muon beam and a high-precision tracking system. The electromagnetic calorimeter complements the tracker by providing high rejection power in muon to electron identification and a seed for track reconstruction while working in vacuum in presence of a 1 T axial magnetic field and in a harsh radiation environment. For 100 MeV electrons, the calorimeter should achieve: (a) a time resolution better than 0.5 ns, (b) an energy resolution <10%, and (c) a position resolution of 1 cm. The calorimeter design consists of two disks, each loaded with 674 undoped CsI crystals read out by two large-area arrays of UV-extended SiPMs and custom analogue and digital electronics. We describe here the status of construction for all calorimeter components and the performance measurements conducted on the large-sized prototype with electron beams and minimum ionizing particles at a cosmic ray test stand. A discussion of the calorimeter’s engineering aspects and the on-going assembly is also reported. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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9 pages, 45842 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SiPMs for Dual-Readout Calorimetry

by Romualdo Santoro

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040059 - 8 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1828

Abstract

A new fibre-sampling dual-readout calorimeter prototype has been qualified on beam at two facilities (DESY and CERN) using electrons from 1 to 100 GeV. The prototype was designed to almost fully contain electromagnetic showers and a central module (highly granular readout) was equipped [...] Read more.

A new fibre-sampling dual-readout calorimeter prototype has been qualified on beam at two facilities (DESY and CERN) using electrons from 1 to 100 GeV. The prototype was designed to almost fully contain electromagnetic showers and a central module (highly granular readout) was equipped with 320 Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs) spaced by 2 mm and individually read out. The test beams performed in 2021, allowed to qualify the readout boards used to operate the SiPMs, to define the calibration procedure and to measure the light yield for scintillating and Cherenkov signals produced by the shower development. This paper reports the first results obtained with the highly granular readout and discusses the ongoing R&D to address some open questions concerning the mechanical integration and the scalable readout scheme that will allow to build and operate the next prototype designed for hadronic showers containment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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6 pages, 1077 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Enhanced Proton Tracking with ASTRA Using Calorimetry and Deep Learning

by César Jesús-Valls, Marc Granado-González, Thorsten Lux, Tony Price and Federico Sánchez

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040058 - 8 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1578

Abstract

Recently, we proposed a novel range detector concept named ASTRA. ASTRA is optimized to accurately measure (better than 1%) the residual energy of protons with kinetic energies in the range from tens to a few hundred MeVs at a very high rate of [...] Read more.

Recently, we proposed a novel range detector concept named ASTRA. ASTRA is optimized to accurately measure (better than 1%) the residual energy of protons with kinetic energies in the range from tens to a few hundred MeVs at a very high rate of

O (

100 MHz). These combined performances are aimed at achieving fast and high-quality proton Computerized Tomography (pCT), which is crucial to correctly assessing treatment planning in proton beam therapy. Despite being a range telescope, ASTRA is also a calorimeter, opening the door to enhanced tracking possibilities based on deep learning. Here, we review the ASTRA concept, and we study an alternative tracking method that exploits calorimetry. In particular, we study the potential of ASTRA to deal with pile-up protons by means of a novel tracking method based on semantic segmentation, a deep learning network architecture that performs classification at the pixel level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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9 pages, 3345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hadron-Induced Radiation Damage in Fast Heavy Inorganic Scintillators

by Chen Hu, Fan Yang, Liyuan Zhang, Ren-Yuan Zhu, Jon Kapustinsky, Xuan Li, Michael Mocko, Ron Nelson, Steve Wender and Zhehui Wang

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040057 - 5 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1550

Abstract

Fast and heavy inorganic scintillators with suitable radiation tolerance are required to face the challenges presented at future hadron colliders of high energy and intensity. Up to 5 GGy and 5 × 10¹⁸ n_eq/cm² of one-MeV-equivalent neutron fluence is [...] Read more.

Fast and heavy inorganic scintillators with suitable radiation tolerance are required to face the challenges presented at future hadron colliders of high energy and intensity. Up to 5 GGy and 5 × 10¹⁸ n_eq/cm² of one-MeV-equivalent neutron fluence is expected by the forward calorimeter at the Future Hadron Circular Collider. This paper reports the results of an investigation of proton- and neutron-induced radiation damage in various fast and heavy inorganic scintillators, such as LYSO:Ce crystals, LuAG:Ce ceramics, and BaF₂ crystals. The experiments were carried out at the Blue Room with 800 MeV proton fluence up to 3.0 × 10¹⁵ p/cm² and at the East Port with one MeV equivalent neutron fluence up to 9.2 × 10¹⁵ n_eq/cm², respectively, at the Los Alamos Neutron Science Center. Experiments were also carried out at the CERN PS-IRRAD proton facility with 24 GeV proton fluence up to 8.2 × 10¹⁵ p/cm². Research and development will continue to develop LuAG:Ce ceramics and BaF₂:Y crystals with improved optical quality, F/T ratio, and radiation hardness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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7 pages, 2389 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the Composition of Toluene-Based Liquid Scintillator

by Dmitriy Beznosko, Elijah Holloway and Alexander Iakovlev

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040056 - 2 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1565

Abstract

Scintillators in general and organic liquid scintillator specifically are widely used as a medium for the detection of charged particles for numerous applications in science, medicine, engineering, and other areas. The composition of the scintillator affects not only its direct performance characteristics, but [...] Read more.

Scintillators in general and organic liquid scintillator specifically are widely used as a medium for the detection of charged particles for numerous applications in science, medicine, engineering, and other areas. The composition of the scintillator affects not only its direct performance characteristics, but also the overall cost. Optimization of this composition provides the ability to design particle detectors with an optimized light yield and emission spectra of the detection medium while optimizing the expenses at the same time. This article describes work on toluene-based liquid scintillator component optimization, where PPO is used as a fluor and POPOP as a shifter. The light yield vs. concentration and the changes in the output spectra will be presented. The empirical fit of the output spectrum using the measured contributions of the components is discussed. Further plans include the light attenuation measurements for different compositions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Instruments 2021–2022)

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6 pages, 1157 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Noble Liquid Calorimetry for FCC-ee

by Nicolas Morange

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040055 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1357

Abstract

Noble liquid calorimeters have been successfully used in particle physics experiments for decades. The project presented in this article is that of a new noble liquid calorimeter concept, where a novel design allows us to fulfil the stringent requirements on calorimetry of the [...] Read more.

Noble liquid calorimeters have been successfully used in particle physics experiments for decades. The project presented in this article is that of a new noble liquid calorimeter concept, where a novel design allows us to fulfil the stringent requirements on calorimetry of the physics programme of the electron-positron Future Circular Collider at CERN. High granularity is achieved through the design of specific readout electrodes and high-density cryostat feedthroughs. Excellent performance can be reached through new very light cryostat design and low electronics noise. Preliminary promising performance is achieved in simulations, and ideas for further R&D opportunities are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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12 pages, 2544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Upgrade of ATLAS Hadronic Tile Calorimeter for the High-Luminosity LHC

by Pavel Starovoitov

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040054 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1539

Abstract

The Tile Calorimeter (TileCal) is a sampling hadronic calorimeter covering the central region of the ATLAS experiment, with steel as the absorber and plastic scintillators as the active medium. The High-Luminosity phase of the LHC, delivering five times the LHC’s nominal instantaneous luminosity, [...] Read more.

The Tile Calorimeter (TileCal) is a sampling hadronic calorimeter covering the central region of the ATLAS experiment, with steel as the absorber and plastic scintillators as the active medium. The High-Luminosity phase of the LHC, delivering five times the LHC’s nominal instantaneous luminosity, is expected to begin in 2029. TileCal will require new electronics to meet the requirements of a 1 MHz trigger, higher ambient radiation, and to ensure better performance under high pile-up conditions. Both the on- and off-detector TileCal electronics will be replaced during the shut-down of 2026–2028. The photomultiplier tube (PMT) signals from every TileCal cell will be digitized and sent directly to the back-end electronics, where the signals are reconstructed, stored, and sent to the first level of the trigger at a rate of 40 MHz. This will provide better precision in the calorimeter signals used by the trigger system and will allow the development of more complex trigger algorithms. The modular front-end electronics feature radiation-tolerant, commercial, off-the-shelf components and a redundant design to maintain system performance in case of single points of failure. The timing, control, and communication interface with the off-detector electronics is implemented with modern Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and high-speed fiber optic links running up to 9.6 Gb/s. The TileCal upgrade program has included extensive R&D and test beam studies. A Demonstrator module with reverse compatibility with respect to the existing system was inserted in ATLAS in August 2019 for testing in actual detector conditions. The ongoing developments for on- and off-detector systems, together with expected performance characteristics and results of test-beam campaigns with the electronics prototypes, will be discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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10 pages, 14557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Crystal Light Yield Non-Proportionality on a Typical Calorimetric Space Experiment: Beam Test Measurements and Monte Carlo Simulations

by Lorenzo Pacini, Oscar Adriani, Eugenio Berti, Pietro Betti, Gabriele Bigongiari, Lorenzo Bonechi, Massimo Bongi, Sergio Bottai, Paolo Brogi, Guido Castellini, Caterina Checchia, Raffaello D’Alessandro, Sebastiano Detti, Noemi Finetti, Paolo Maestro, Pier Simone Marrocchesi, Nicola Mori, Miriam Olmi, Paolo Papini, Claudia Poggiali, Sergio Ricciarini, Piero Spillantini, Oleksandr Starodubtsev, Francesco Stolzi, Alessio Tiberio and Elena Vannuccini Show full author list Hide full author list

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040053 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1650

Abstract

Calorimetric space experiments were employed for the direct measurements of cosmic-ray spectra above the TeV region. According to several theoretical models and recent measurements, relevant features in both electron and nucleus fluxes are expected. Unfortunately, sizable disagreements among the current results of different [...] Read more.

Calorimetric space experiments were employed for the direct measurements of cosmic-ray spectra above the TeV region. According to several theoretical models and recent measurements, relevant features in both electron and nucleus fluxes are expected. Unfortunately, sizable disagreements among the current results of different space calorimeters exist. In order to improve the accuracy of future experiments, it is fundamental to understand the reasons of these discrepancies, especially since they are not compatible with the quoted experimental errors. A few articles of different collaborations suggest that a systematic error of a few percentage points related to the energy-scale calibration could explain these differences. In this work, we analyze the impact of the nonproportionality of the light yield of scintillating crystals on the energy scale of typical calorimeters. Space calorimeters are usually calibrated by employing minimal ionizing particles (MIPs), e.g., nonshowering proton or helium nuclei, which feature different ionization density distributions with respect to particles included in showers. By using the experimental data obtained by the CaloCube collaboration and a minimalist model of the light yield as a function of the ionization density, several scintillating crystals (BGO, CsI(Tl), LYSO, YAP, YAG and BaF2) are characterized. Then, the response of a few crystals is implemented inside the Monte Carlo simulation of a space calorimeter to check the energy deposited by electromagnetic and hadronic showers. The results of this work show that the energy scale obtained by MIP calibration could be affected by sizable systematic errors if the nonproportionality of scintillation light is not properly taken into account. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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10 pages, 1838 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tracker-in-Calorimeter (TIC) Project: A Calorimetric New Solution for Space Experiments

by Gabriele Bigongiari, Oscar Adriani, Giovanni Ambrosi, Philipp Azzarello, Andrea Basti, Eugenio Berti, Bruna Bertucci, Lorenzo Bonechi, Massimo Bongi, Sergio Bottai, Mirko Brianzi, Paolo Brogi, Guido Castellini, Enrico Catanzani, Caterina Checchia, Raffaello D’Alessandro, Sebastiano Detti, Matteo Duranti, Noemi Finetti, Valerio Formato, Maria Ionica, Paolo Maestro, Fernando Maletta, Pier Simone Marrocchesi, Nicola Mori, Lorenzo Pacini, Paolo Papini, Sergio Bruno Ricciarini, Gianluigi Silvestre, Piero Spillantini, Oleksandr Starodubtsev, Francesco Stolzi, Jung Eun Suh, Arta Sulaj, Alessio Tiberio and Elena Vannuccini Show full author list Hide full author list

Instruments 2022, 6(4), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040052 - 26 Sep 2022

Viewed by 1362

Abstract

A space-based detector dedicated to measurements of

γ

-rays and charged particles has to achieve a balance between different instrumental requirements. A good angular resolution is necessary for the

γ

-rays, whereas an excellent geometric factor is needed for the charged particles. The [...] Read more.

A space-based detector dedicated to measurements of

γ

-rays and charged particles has to achieve a balance between different instrumental requirements. A good angular resolution is necessary for the

γ

-rays, whereas an excellent geometric factor is needed for the charged particles. The tracking reference technique of

γ

-ray physics is based on a pair-conversion telescope made of passive material (e.g., tungsten) coupled with sensitive layers (e.g., silicon microstrip). However, this kind of detector has a limited acceptance because of the large lever arm between the active layers, needed to improve the track reconstruction capability. Moreover, the passive material can induce fragmentation of nuclei, thus worsening charge reconstruction performances. The Tracker-In-Calorimeter (TIC) project aims to solve all these drawbacks. In the TIC proposal, the silicon sensors are moved inside a highly-segmented isotropic calorimeter with a couple of external scintillators dedicated to charge reconstruction. In principle, this configuration has a good geometrical factor, and the angle of the

γ

-rays can be precisely reconstructed from the lateral profile of the electromagnetic shower sampled, at different depths in the calorimeter, by silicon strips. The effectiveness of this approach has been studied with Monte Carlo simulations and validated with beam test data of a small prototype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022))

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