Journal of Composites Science

19 pages, 4219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Composite Structures in Curing Process for Shape Deformations and Shear Stress: Basis for Advanced Optimization

by Niraj Kumbhare, Reza Moheimani and Hamid Dalir

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020063 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5364

Abstract

Identifying residual stresses and the distortions in composite structures during the curing process plays a vital role in coming up with necessary compensations in the dimensions of mold or prototypes and having precise and optimized parts for the manufacturing and assembly of composite [...] Read more.

Identifying residual stresses and the distortions in composite structures during the curing process plays a vital role in coming up with necessary compensations in the dimensions of mold or prototypes and having precise and optimized parts for the manufacturing and assembly of composite structures. This paper presents an investigation into process-induced shape deformations in composite parts and structures, as well as a comparison of the analysis results to finalize design parameters with a minimum of deformation. A Latin hypercube sampling (LHS) method was used to generate the required random points of the input variables. These variables were then executed with the Ansys Composite Cure Simulation (ACCS) tool, which is an advanced tool used to find stress and distortion values using a three-step analysis, including Ansys Composite PrepPost, transient thermal analysis, and static structural analysis. The deformation results were further utilized to find an optimum design to manufacture a complex composite structure with the compensated dimensions. The simulation results of the ACCS tool are expected to be used by common optimization techniques to finalize a prototype design so that it can reduce common manufacturing errors like warpage, spring-in, and distortion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites)

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15 pages, 5960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Printed Hierarchical Honeycombs with Carbon Fiber and Carbon Nanotube Reinforced Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

by Michel Theodor Mansour, Konstantinos Tsongas and Dimitrios Tzetzis

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020062 - 21 Feb 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6141

Abstract

The mechanical properties of Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) 3D printed specimens of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), ABS reinforced with carbon fibers (ABS/CFs) and ABS reinforced with carbon nanotubes (ABS/CNTs) are investigated in this paper using various experimental tests. In particular, the mechanical performance [...] Read more.

The mechanical properties of Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) 3D printed specimens of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), ABS reinforced with carbon fibers (ABS/CFs) and ABS reinforced with carbon nanotubes (ABS/CNTs) are investigated in this paper using various experimental tests. In particular, the mechanical performance of the fabricated specimens was determined by conducting compression and cyclic compression testing, as well as nanoindentation tests. In addition, the design and the manufacturing of hierarchical honeycomb structures are presented using the materials under study. The 3D printed honeycomb structures were examined by uniaxial compressive tests to review the mechanical behavior of such cellular structures. The compressive performance of the hierarchical honeycomb structures was also evaluated with finite element analysis (FEA) in order to extract the stress-strain response of these structures. The results revealed that the 2nd order hierarchy displayed increased stiffness and strength as compared with the 0th and the 1st hierarchies. Furthermore, the addition of carbon fibers in the ABS matrix improved the stiffness, the strength and the hardness of the FFF printed specimens as well as the compression performance of the honeycomb structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Composites)

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15 pages, 4370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermomechanical Multifunctionality in 3D-Printed Polystyrene-Boron Nitride Nanotubes (BNNT) Composites

by Tawakalt Mayowa Akintola, Phong Tran, Rebekah Downes Sweat and Tarik Dickens

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020061 - 20 Feb 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3618

Abstract

In this work, polystyrene (PS) and boron nitrides nanotubes (BNNT) composites were fabricated, prepared, and characterized using modified direct mixing and sonication processes. The polymer composites were extruded into filaments (BNNTs at 10 wt. %) for 3D printing, utilizing the fused deposition modeling [...] Read more.

In this work, polystyrene (PS) and boron nitrides nanotubes (BNNT) composites were fabricated, prepared, and characterized using modified direct mixing and sonication processes. The polymer composites were extruded into filaments (BNNTs at 10 wt. %) for 3D printing, utilizing the fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique to fabricate parts for mechanical and thermal applications. Using a direct mixing process, we found that the thermal conductivity and the mechanical strength of the PS-BNNT composite were respectively four times and two times higher compared to the sonication method. The thermal stability and glass transition temperatures were positively affected. A 2D microstructural mechanical entanglement model captured the exact geometry of the nanotubes using the MultiMechanics software, and the performance of the additive manufactured (AM) PS-BNNT composites part for thermomechanical application was simulated in COMSOL. The modified direct mixing process for PS-BNNT, which affects morphology, proved to be effective in achieving better interfacial bonding, indicating that BNNTs are promising fillers for improving thermal and mechanical properties, and are applicable for thermal management and electronic packaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiscale Analysis of Polymer Nanocomposites)

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12 pages, 2894 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strain Mapping and Damage Tracking in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composites during Dynamic Bending Until Fracture with Quantum Resistive Sensors in Array

by Antoine Lemartinel, Mickaël Castro, Olivier Fouché, Julio-César De Luca and Jean-François Feller

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020060 - 20 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2645

Abstract

The sustained development of wind energies requires a dramatic rising of turbine blade size especially for their off-shore implantation, which requires as well composite materials with higher performances. In this context, the monitoring of the health of these structures appears essential to decrease [...] Read more.

The sustained development of wind energies requires a dramatic rising of turbine blade size especially for their off-shore implantation, which requires as well composite materials with higher performances. In this context, the monitoring of the health of these structures appears essential to decrease maintenance costs, and produce a cheaper kwh. Thus, the input of quantum resistive sensors (QRS) arrays, to monitor the strain gradient in area of interest and anticipate damage in the core of composite structures, without compromising their mechanical properties, sounds promising. QRS are nanostructured strain and damage sensors, transducing strain at the nanoscale into a macroscopic resistive signal for a consumption of only some µW. QRS can be positioned on the surface or in the core of the composite material between plies, and this homogeneously as they are made of the same resin as the composite. The embedded QRS had a gauge factor of 3, which was found more than enough to follow the strain from 0.01% to 1.4% at the final failure. The spatial deployment of four QRS in array made possible for the first time the experimental visualization of a strain field comparable to the numerical simulation. QRS proved also to be able to memorize damage accumulation within the sample and thus could be used to attest the mechanical history of composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Composites)

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19 pages, 4752 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Precursors and Reagents for the Development of Alkali-Activated Binders in Ambient Curing Conditions

by Dhruv Sood and Khandaker M. Anwar Hossain

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020059 - 20 Feb 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2878

Abstract

Alkali-activated binders (AABs) are developed through the activation of aluminosilicate-rich materials using alkaline reagents. The characteristics of AABs developed using a novel dry-mixing technique incorporating powder-based reagents/activators are extensively explored. A total of forty-four binder mixes are assessed in terms of their fresh [...] Read more.

Alkali-activated binders (AABs) are developed through the activation of aluminosilicate-rich materials using alkaline reagents. The characteristics of AABs developed using a novel dry-mixing technique incorporating powder-based reagents/activators are extensively explored. A total of forty-four binder mixes are assessed in terms of their fresh and hardened state properties. The influence of mono/binary/ternary combinations of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)/precursors and different types/combinations/dosages of powder-based reagents on the strength and workability properties of different binder mixes are assessed to determine the optimum composition of precursors and the reagents. The binary (55% fly ash class C and 45% ground granulated blast furnace slag) and ternary (25% fly ash class C, 35% fly ash class F and 40% ground granulated blast furnace slag) binders with reagent-2 (calcium hydroxide and sodium sulfate = 2.5:1) exhibited desired workability and 28-day compressive strengths of 56 and 52 MPa, respectively. Microstructural analyses (in terms of SEM/EDS and XRD) revealed the formation of additional calcium aluminosilicate hydrate with sodium or mixed Ca/Na compounds in binary and ternary binders incorporating reagent-2, resulting in higher compressive strength. This research confirms the potential of producing powder-based cement-free green AABs incorporating binary/ternary combinations of SCMs having the desired fresh and hardened state properties under ambient curing conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Journal of Composites Science in 2021)

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18 pages, 8414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical and FEA-Assisted Characterization of Fused Filament Fabricated Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Structures

by Nikolaos Kladovasilakis, Konstantinos Tsongas and Dimitrios Tzetzis

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020058 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 5792

Abstract

This paper investigates the mechanical behavior of additive manufactured Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS) structures, such as Gyroid, Schwarz Diamond and Schwarz Primitive. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) technique was utilized in order to fabricate lattice structures with different relative densities, at 10%, 20% [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the mechanical behavior of additive manufactured Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS) structures, such as Gyroid, Schwarz Diamond and Schwarz Primitive. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) technique was utilized in order to fabricate lattice structures with different relative densities, at 10%, 20% and 30%, using Polylactic acid (PLA). The test specimens were formed by structural TPMS unit cells and they were tested under quasi-static compression. A finite element analysis (FEA) was performed in order to predict their stress-strain behavior and compare with the experimental results. The results revealed that each architecture influences the mechanical properties of the structure differently depending on the impact of size effect. The structures were designed as sandwich structures (with a top and bottom plate) to avoid significant deterioration of the mechanical behavior, due to the size effect and this was achieved at high relative densities. The Schwarz Diamond structure demonstrated the highest mechanical strength compared with the other architectures, while the Gyroid structure also revealed a similar mechanical performance. In addition, Schwarz Primitive structure showed increased energy absorption especially during plastic deformation. The overall results revealed that the integrity of the mechanical properties of the studied TPMS FFF printed structures deteriorates, as the relative density of the structures decreases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Journal of Composites Science in 2021)

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13 pages, 3569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Studies on the Geometrical Design of Spider Webs for Reinforced Composite Structures

by Yohannes Regassa, Hirpa G. Lemu, Belete Sirabizuh and Samuel Rahimeto

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020057 - 14 Feb 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 10254

Abstract

Spider silk is an astonishingly tough biomaterial that consists almost entirely of large proteins. Studying the secrets behind the high strength nature of spider webs is very challenging due to their miniature size. In spite of their complex nature, researchers have always been [...] Read more.

Spider silk is an astonishingly tough biomaterial that consists almost entirely of large proteins. Studying the secrets behind the high strength nature of spider webs is very challenging due to their miniature size. In spite of their complex nature, researchers have always been inspired to mimic Nature for developing new products or enhancing the performance of existing technologies. Accordingly, the spider web can be taken as a model for optimal fiber orientation for composite materials to be used in critical structural applications. In this study an attempt is made to analyze the geometrical characteristics of the web construction building units such as spirals and radials. As a measurement tool, we have used a developed MATLAB algorithm code for measuring the node to node of rings and radials angle of orientation. Spider web image samples were collected randomly from an ecological niche with black background sample collection tools. The study shows that the radial angle of orientation is 12.7 degrees with 5 mm distance for the spirals’ mesh size. The extracted geometrical numeric values from the spider web show moderately skewed statistical data. The study sheds light on spider web utilization to develop an optimized fiber orientation reinforced composite structure for constructing, for instance, shell structures, pressure vessels and fuselage cones for the aviation industry. Full article

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15 pages, 8983 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Analysis of Filament Wound Cylindrical Composite Pressure Vessels Accounting for Variable Dome Contour

by Kumar C. Jois, Marcus Welsh, Thomas Gries and Johannes Sackmann

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020056 - 11 Feb 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6968

Abstract

In this work, the stress distribution along cylindrical composite pressure vessels with different dome geometries is investigated. The dome contours are generated through an integral method based on shell stresses. Here, the influence of each dome contour on the stress distribution at the [...] Read more.

In this work, the stress distribution along cylindrical composite pressure vessels with different dome geometries is investigated. The dome contours are generated through an integral method based on shell stresses. Here, the influence of each dome contour on the stress distribution at the interface of the dome-cylinder is evaluated. At first, the integral formulation for dome curve generation is presented and solved for the different dome contours. An analytical approach for the calculation of the secondary stresses in a cylindrical pressure vessel is introduced. For the analysis, three different cases were investigated: (i) a polymer liner; (ii) a single layer of carbon-epoxy composite wrapped on a polymer liner; and (iii) multilayer carbon-epoxy pressure vessel. Accounting for nonlinear geometry is seen to have an effect on the stress distribution on the pressure vessel, also on the isotropic liner. Significant secondary stresses were observed at the dome-cylinder interface and they reach a maximum at a specific distance from the interface. A discussion on the trend in these stresses is presented. The numerical results are compared with the experimental results of the multilayer pressure vessel. It is observed that the secondary stresses present in the vicinity of the dome-cylinder interface has a significant effect on the failure mechanism, especially for thick walled cylindrical composite pressure vessel. It is critical that these secondary stresses are directly accounted for in the initial design phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Composite Process Modeling and Characterization)

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56 pages, 20189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Use of Molecular Dynamics Simulations for Elucidating Fine Structural, Physico-Chemical and Thermomechanical Properties of Lignocellulosic Systems: Historical and Future Perspectives

by Krishnamurthy Prasad, Mostafa Nikzad, Shammi Sultana Nisha and Igor Sbarski

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020055 - 10 Feb 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4107

Abstract

The use of Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations for predicting subtle structural, thermomechanical and related characteristics of lignocellulosic systems is studied. A historical perspective and the current state of the art are discussed. The use of parameterised MD force fields, scaling up simulations via [...] Read more.

The use of Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations for predicting subtle structural, thermomechanical and related characteristics of lignocellulosic systems is studied. A historical perspective and the current state of the art are discussed. The use of parameterised MD force fields, scaling up simulations via high performance computing and intrinsic molecular mechanisms influencing the mechanical, thermal and chemical characteristics of lignocellulosic systems and how these can be predicted and modelled using MD is shown. Individual discussions on the MD simulations of the lignin, cellulose, lignin-carbohydrate complex (LCC) and how MD can elucidate the role of water on the surface and microstructural characteristics of these lignocellulosic systems is shown. In addition, the use of MD for unearthing molecular mechanisms behind lignin-enzyme interactions during precipitation processes and the deforming/structure weakening brought about by cellulosic interactions in some lignocellulosic systems is both predicted and quantified. MD results from relatively smaller systems comprised of several hundred to a few thousand atoms and massive multi-million atom systems are both discussed. The versatility and effectiveness of MD based on its ability to provide viable predictions from both smaller and massive starting systems is presented in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Journal of Composites Science in 2021)

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17 pages, 12107 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fatigue Life Prediction for Carbon-SMC and Carbon-FRP by Considering Elastic Modulus Degradation

by Yeong Cheol Im, Dong Yeop Kim, Sang Won Lim, Sang Jae Yoon, Chi Hoon Choi and Myung Hyun Kim

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020054 - 10 Feb 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4021

Abstract

In the automotive industry, being lightweight has become an important design factor with the enhancement of environmental regulations. As a result, many studies on the application of composite materials are in progress. Among them, interest in carbon materials, such as carbon sheet molding [...] Read more.

In the automotive industry, being lightweight has become an important design factor with the enhancement of environmental regulations. As a result, many studies on the application of composite materials are in progress. Among them, interest in carbon materials, such as carbon sheet molding compound (C-SMC) and carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP), which have excellent strength and stiffness, is increasing. However, CFRP is a material that makes it difficult to secure economic feasibility due to its relatively high manufacturing costs and limited mass production, despite its excellent mechanical strength and durability. As a result, many studies have been conducted on C-SMC as an alternative carbon composite material that can be easily mass-produced. In this regard, this study intended to conduct a study on evaluating the fatigue strength of C-SMC and CFRP among mechanical properties due to the lack of clear failure criteria for fatigue design. We investigated the tensile and fatigue strengths of C-SMC and CFRP, respectively. In the case of C-SMC, the mechanical strength tests were conducted for two different width conditions to evaluate the cutting effect and the machining methods to assess the effects of the edge conditions. To evaluate the fatigue failure assessment criteria, the stiffness drop and elastic modulus degradation criteria were applied for each fatigue test result from the C-SMC and CFRP. The results confirmed that the rationality of the failure criteria in terms of the stiffness drop and the application of the fatigue life prediction of C-SMC based on elastic modulus degradation demonstrated promising results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Composite Carbon Fibers)

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17 pages, 12279 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Lamination Model for Pressure-Assisted Sintering of Multilayered Porous Structures

by Zhi-He Jin and Corson L. Cramer

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020053 - 9 Feb 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1962

Abstract

This work describes a lamination model for pressure-assisted sintering of thin, multilayered, and porous structures based on the linear viscous constitutive theory of sintering and the classical laminated plate theory of continuum mechanics. A constant out-of-plane normal stress is assumed in the constitutive [...] Read more.

This work describes a lamination model for pressure-assisted sintering of thin, multilayered, and porous structures based on the linear viscous constitutive theory of sintering and the classical laminated plate theory of continuum mechanics. A constant out-of-plane normal stress is assumed in the constitutive relation. The lamination relations between the force/moment resultants and the strain/curvature rates are presented. Numerical simulations were performed for a symmetric tri-layer laminate consisting of a 10% gadolinia doped ceria (Ce_0.9Gd_0.1O_1.95-δ) composite structure, where porous layers were adhered to the top and bottom of a denser layer under uniaxially-applied pressures and the sinter forging conditions. The numerical results show that, compared with free sintering, the applied pressure can significantly reduce the sintering time required to achieve given layer thicknesses and porosities. Unlike free sintering, which results in a monotonic decrease of the laminate in-plane dimension, pressure-assisted sintering may produce an in-plane dimension increase or decrease, depending on the applied pressure and sintering time. Finally, the individual layers in the laminate exhibit different stress characteristics under pressure-assisted sintering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Journal of Composites Science in 2020)

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17 pages, 4891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dielectric Constant Enhancement with Low Dielectric Loss Growth in Graphene Oxide/Mica/Polypropylene Composites

by Chao-Yu Lee and Chia-Wei Chang

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020052 - 8 Feb 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4887

Abstract

Polypropylene has been widely used as dielectric material in organic thin-film capacitors due to their high breakdown strength, low dielectric loss and self-healing capability. However, polypropylene’s energy density is relatively low. Increasing the energy density of polypropylene by adding materials with a high [...] Read more.

Polypropylene has been widely used as dielectric material in organic thin-film capacitors due to their high breakdown strength, low dielectric loss and self-healing capability. However, polypropylene’s energy density is relatively low. Increasing the energy density of polypropylene by adding materials with a high dielectric constant is commonly used. Still, it often leads to an increase in dielectric loss, lower dielectric strength and other shortcomings. In this study, a thin 2D platelet of mica/graphene oxide composite material was made from exfoliated mica as a substrate and attached by graphene oxide. The mica/graphene oxide platelets were added to polypropylene to make a plastic dielectric composite. The non-conductive flat inorganic additive can increase the dielectric constant and dielectric strength of the composite without increasing dielectric loss. The tiny mica/graphene oxide platelets can significantly improve the dielectric properties of polypropylene. The results show that by adding a small amount (less than 1 wt%) mica/graphene oxide, the relative dielectric constant of polypropylene can increase to more than 3.7 without causing an increase in dielectric loss and the dielectric strength of polypropylene can also enhance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Graphene Oxide Composites)

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17 pages, 2709 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Working Principles of a Multifunctional Bondline with Disbond Stopping and Health Monitoring Features for Composite Structures

by Julian Steinmetz, Thomas Löbel, Oliver Völkerink, Christian Hühne, Michael Sinapius, Chresten von der Heide and Andreas Dietzel

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020051 - 7 Feb 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2992

Abstract

In comparison to bolted joints, structural bonds are the desirable joining method for light-weight composite structures. To achieve a broad implementation of this technology in safety critical structures, the issues of structural bonds due to their complex and often unpredictable failure mechanisms have [...] Read more.

In comparison to bolted joints, structural bonds are the desirable joining method for light-weight composite structures. To achieve a broad implementation of this technology in safety critical structures, the issues of structural bonds due to their complex and often unpredictable failure mechanisms have to be overcome. The proposed multifunctional bondline approach aims at solving this by adding two safety mechanisms to structural bondlines. These are a design feature for limiting damages to a certain size and a structural health monitoring system for damage detection. The key question is whether or not the implementation of both safety features without deteriorating the strength in comparison to a healthy conventional bondline is possible. In previous studies on the hybrid bondline, a design feature for damage limitations in bondlines by means of disbond stopping features was already developed. Thus, the approach to evolve the hybrid bondline to a multifunctional one is followed. A thorough analysis of the shear stress and tensile strain distribution within the hybrid bondline demonstrates the feasibility to access the status of the bondline by monitoring either of these quantities. Moreover, the results indicate that it is sufficient to place sensors within the disbond stopping feature only and not throughout the entire bondline. Based on these findings, the three main working principles of the multifunctional are stated. Finally, two initial concepts for a novel multifunctional disbond arrest feature are derived for testing the fundamental hypothesis that the integration of micro sensors into the disbond stopping feature only enables the crack arrest and the health monitoring functions, while reaching the mechanical strength of a conventional healthy epoxy bondline. This work therefore provides the fundamentals for future investigations in the scope of the multifunctional bondline. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Multi-functional Composites and Metamaterials)

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18 pages, 4743 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Monitoring Method and Melt Flow Behavior in Compression Molding Process Using Thermoplastic Sheets Reinforced with Discontinuous Long-Fibers

by Masatoshi Kobayashi

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020050 - 6 Feb 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3164

Abstract

In compression molding using glass-fiber-mat-reinforced thermoplastic (GMT) sheets, a slightly longer compression waiting time from sheet placement on a lower mold to the start of sheet compression by an upper mold can cause incomplete filling due to a decrease in the sheet temperature. [...] Read more.

In compression molding using glass-fiber-mat-reinforced thermoplastic (GMT) sheets, a slightly longer compression waiting time from sheet placement on a lower mold to the start of sheet compression by an upper mold can cause incomplete filling due to a decrease in the sheet temperature. However, precise measurement techniques for compression waiting time have not been sufficiently established. A monitoring system was produced that includes pressure—temperature sensors mounted in a compression mold that can simultaneously measure the pressure and temperature of one local surface. Two types of distance sensors were also used to measure upper mold motion widely and precisely. Determination of compression waiting time was attempted by measuring the moment when the lower mold temperature slightly increases in response to contact with the melted GMT sheet and the moment when the melt pressure increases in response to compression by an upper mold. The results showed that compression waiting time could be precisely calculated using the profile data obtained. Moreover, it was also possible to observe the melt pressure overshoot that occurs depending on sheet stacking patterns and mold cavity shape, although in some cases, the overshoot was not observed. In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that the system is effective in monitoring the compression molding process widely and precisely. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Composite Process Modeling and Characterization)

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19 pages, 8168 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement in Interply Toughness of BMI Composites Using Micro-Thin Films

by Eldho Mathew, Sunil Chandrakant Joshi and Periyasamy Manikandan

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020049 - 4 Feb 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2754

Abstract

Nowadays, laminated composites are widely used in the aerospace sector. All laminates have interply/interlaminar interfaces even if they are made using automated processes. The interfaces act as the areas of weaknesses and the potential crack initiation regions. Hence, any enhancement in the crack [...] Read more.

Nowadays, laminated composites are widely used in the aerospace sector. All laminates have interply/interlaminar interfaces even if they are made using automated processes. The interfaces act as the areas of weaknesses and the potential crack initiation regions. Hence, any enhancement in the crack initiation and propagation resistance is always sought after. Usage of polymeric thin films is one of the promising and viable ways to achieve this. It is also easy to incorporate micro-thin films into any automation process. In the present study, different customized thin films that are compatible with Glass/BMI composites are fabricated. Fracture toughness tests in Mode I (opening mode), Mode II (sliding mode) and Mixed Mode I/II are conducted respectively using Double Cantilever Beam (DCB), End Notch Flexure (ENF) and Mixed Mode Bending (MMB) test specimens. This paper discusses the manufacturing of compatible micro-thin films. The various challenges faced during the manufacturing and incorporation of thin films are presented. The results of the various fracture toughness tests are examined. Mechanisms through which the different films help in resisting the crack initiation and propagation are deliberated and discussed. The incorporation of this technique in Automated Fiber Placement (AFP) is also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Journal of Composites Science in 2021)

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12 pages, 4035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Preparation and Properties of TPS/PBSA/PLA Biodegradable Composites

by Yuxuan Wang, Yuke Zhong, Qifeng Shi and Sen Guo

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020048 - 4 Feb 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3005

Abstract

Thermoplastic starch/butyl glycol ester copolymer/polylactic acid (TPS/PBSA/PLA) biodegradable composites were prepared by melt-mixing. The structure, microstructure, mechanical properties and heat resistance of the TPS/PBSA/PLA composites were studied by Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), tensile test and thermogravimetry tests, respectively. The [...] Read more.

Thermoplastic starch/butyl glycol ester copolymer/polylactic acid (TPS/PBSA/PLA) biodegradable composites were prepared by melt-mixing. The structure, microstructure, mechanical properties and heat resistance of the TPS/PBSA/PLA composites were studied by Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), tensile test and thermogravimetry tests, respectively. The results showed that PBSA or PLA could bind to TPS by hydrogen bonding. SEM analysis showed that the composite represents an excellent dispersion and satisfied two-phase compatibility when the PLA, TPS and PBSA blended by a mass ration of 10, 30, and 60. The mechanical properties and the heat resistance of TPS/PBSA/PLA composite were improved by adding PLA with content less than 10%, according to the testing results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Applications)

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2 pages, 195 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for the Special Issue on Characterization and Modelling of Composites

by Stelios K. Georgantzinos

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020047 - 3 Feb 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1687

Abstract

The papers published in this Special Issue of the Journal of Composites Science will give the composite engineer and scientist insight into what the existing challenges are in the characterization and modelling for the composites field, and how these challenges are being addressed [...] Read more.

The papers published in this Special Issue of the Journal of Composites Science will give the composite engineer and scientist insight into what the existing challenges are in the characterization and modelling for the composites field, and how these challenges are being addressed by the research community [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization and Modelling of Composites)

19 pages, 16820 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Removal of Pb(II) Ions from Aqueous Solution Using Modified Starch

by O. H. P. Gunawardene, C. A. Gunathilake, A. P. S. M. Amaraweera, N. M. L. Fernando, A. Manipura, W. A. Manamperi, K. M. A. K. Kulatunga, S. M. Rajapaksha, A. Gamage, R. S. Dassanayake, B. G. N. D. Weerasekara, P. N. K. Fernando, C. A. N. Fernando and J. A. S. C. Jayasinghe

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020046 - 3 Feb 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3855

Abstract

In this study, two types of modified cassava starch samples (MCS and MWS) prepared from commercially available native cassava starch (NCS) and native cassava starch extracted using the wet method (NWS) were investigated for the removal of Pb(II) ions from aqueous solutions. MCS [...] Read more.

In this study, two types of modified cassava starch samples (MCS and MWS) prepared from commercially available native cassava starch (NCS) and native cassava starch extracted using the wet method (NWS) were investigated for the removal of Pb(II) ions from aqueous solutions. MCS and MWS samples were synthesized under acidic conditions using Pluronic 123 as the structure-directing agent and tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) as the chemical modifying agent. Modified starch samples were characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and a nitrogen (N₂) gas adsorption–desorption analyser. MCS and MWS showed enhanced thermal stabilities upon acid hydrolysis and chemical modification. The effects of contact time and initial Pb(II) concentration were studied through batch adsorption experiments. Adsorption kinetics followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The equilibrium adsorption data were analysed and compared by the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption models. The coefficient correlation (R²) was employed as a measure of the fit. The Langmuir model fitted well with equilibrium adsorption data, giving a maximum Pb(II) adsorption capacity of 370.37 and 294.12 mg/g for MWS and MCS, respectively. Modified samples exhibited a higher desorption efficiency of over 97%. This study demonstrated that modified starch could be utilized for Pb(II) removal from industrial wastewater. Full article

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10 pages, 3674 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation of Residual Stresses in Welded Thermoplastic CFRP Structures

by Lukas Nagel, Alexander Herwig, Carsten Schmidt and Peter Horst

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020045 - 2 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3424

Abstract

Using thermoplastics as the matrix in carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) offers the possibility to make use of welded joints, which results in weight savings compared to conventional joining methods using mechanical fasteners. In this paper, the resulting temperature distribution in the material due [...] Read more.

Using thermoplastics as the matrix in carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) offers the possibility to make use of welded joints, which results in weight savings compared to conventional joining methods using mechanical fasteners. In this paper, the resulting temperature distribution in the material due to resistance welding is investigated by transient finite element (FE) simulations. To examine the effects on the component structure, a numerical modeling approach is created, which allows determining the residual stresses caused by the welding process. It is shown that the area of the structure, especially near the joining zone, is highly affected by the process, especially in terms of residual stresses. In particular, the stresses perpendicular to the fiber direction show failure relevant values up to a maximum of 221 MPa, which might lead to the formation of microcracks in the matrix. In turn, that is assumed to be critical in terms of the fatigue of welded composite structures. Thus, the suggested modeling approach provides residual stresses that can be used to determine their effects on the strength, structural stability, and fatigue of such composite structures. In a subsequent step, these findings could play an important role in the design process of thermoplastic composite structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites and Fibers)

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13 pages, 2068 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coffee Silverskin as a Multifunctional Waste Filler for High-Density Polyethylene Green Composites

by Aleksander Hejna, Mateusz Barczewski, Paulina Kosmela, Olga Mysiukiewicz and Anton Kuzmin

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020044 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 3847

Abstract

This work aims to describe the coffee silverskin effect as a lignocellulosic waste filler for high-density polyethylene (HDPE) composites development. The main task was to determine various modification effects resulting from the complex chemical composition of coffee silverskin containing compounds with potential antioxidative [...] Read more.

This work aims to describe the coffee silverskin effect as a lignocellulosic waste filler for high-density polyethylene (HDPE) composites development. The main task was to determine various modification effects resulting from the complex chemical composition of coffee silverskin containing compounds with potential antioxidative properties, including caffeine, polyphenols, tannins, or melanoidins. The processing, thermal, physicochemical, and thermomechanical properties of the HDPE-based composites with different filler content (1–20 wt%) were evaluated. Comprehensively realized thermomechanical analysis revealed the filler’s reinforcing effects on the HDPE matrix while defining problems with obtaining adequate adhesion in the interfacial area. At the same time, studies have shown a very beneficial effect of the silverskin addition on the thermal properties of composites, that even the smallest addition allows for a significant increase in the thermooxidative resistance of HDPE composites assessed using the oxidation induction time from 20 min for HDPE up to 140 min for the composites with 20 wt% of the filler. The obtained research results allow classifying the coffee silverskin waste filler, not only as a filler intended for the production of composites with a high degree of filling but also as an additive that significantly changes the properties of polyethylene in the case of using low concentrations. This can have a very beneficial impact on the development of novel wood polymer (WPC) and natural fiber composites (NFC). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood-Polymer Composites)

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12 pages, 3304 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Role of Hybrid Nano-Zinc Oxide and Cellulose Nanocrystals on the Mechanical, Thermal, and Flammability Properties of Poly (Lactic Acid) Polymer

by Dilpreet S. Bajwa, Jamileh Shojaeiarani, Joshua D. Liaw and Sreekala G. Bajwa

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020043 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 3486

Abstract

Biopolymers with universal accessibility and inherent biodegradability can offer an appealing sustainable platform to supersede petroleum-based polymers. In this research, a hybrid system derived from cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles was added into poly (lactic acid) (PLA) to improve its [...] Read more.

Biopolymers with universal accessibility and inherent biodegradability can offer an appealing sustainable platform to supersede petroleum-based polymers. In this research, a hybrid system derived from cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles was added into poly (lactic acid) (PLA) to improve its mechanical, thermal, and flame resistance properties. The ZnO-overlaid CNCs were prepared via the solvent casting method and added to PLA through the melt-blending extrusion process. The composite properties were evaluated using SEM, a dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA), FTIR TGA, and horizontal burning tests. The results demonstrated that the incorporation of 1.5% nano-CNC-overlaid ZnO nanoparticles into PLA enhanced the mechanical and thermal characteristics and the flame resistance of the PLA matrix. Oxidative combustion of CNC-ZnO promoted char formation and flame reduction. The shielding effect from the ZnO-CNC blend served as an insulator and resulted in noncontinuous burning, which increased the fire retardancy of nanocomposites. By contrast, the addition of ZnO into PLA accelerated the polymer degradation at higher temperature and shifted the maximum degradation to lower temperature in comparison with pure PLA. For PLA composites reinforced by ZnO, the storage modulus decreased with ZnO content possibly due to the scissoring effect of ZnO in the PLA matrix, which resulted in lower molecular weight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanocomposite Materials for Drug Development and Biomedical Applications, Volume II)

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16 pages, 8674 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interactions of Cd²⁺, Co²⁺ and MoO₄²⁻ Ions with Crushed Concrete Fines

by Victoria K. Elmes and Nichola J. Coleman

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020042 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2174

Abstract

Construction and demolition activities generate approximately two thirds of the world’s waste, with concrete-based demolition material accounting for the largest proportion. Primary aggregates are recovered and reused, although the cement-rich fine fraction is underutilised. In this study, single metal batch sorption experiments confirmed [...] Read more.

Construction and demolition activities generate approximately two thirds of the world’s waste, with concrete-based demolition material accounting for the largest proportion. Primary aggregates are recovered and reused, although the cement-rich fine fraction is underutilised. In this study, single metal batch sorption experiments confirmed that crushed concrete fines (CCF) are an effective sorbent for the maximum exclusion of 45.2 mg g⁻¹ Cd²⁺, 38.4 mg g⁻¹ Co²⁺ and 56.0 mg g⁻¹ MoO₄²⁻ ions from aqueous media. The principal mechanisms of sorption were determined, by scanning electron microscopy of the metal-laden CCF, to be co-precipitation with Ca²⁺ ions released from the cement to form solubility limiting phases. The removal of Co²⁺ and MoO₄²⁻ ions followed a zero-order reaction and that of Cd²⁺ was best described by a pseudo-second-order model. The Langmuir model provided the most appropriate description of the steady state immobilisation of Cd²⁺ and Co²⁺, whereas the removal of MoO₄²⁻ conformed to the Freundlich isotherm. Long equilibration times (>120 h), loose floc formation and high pH are likely to limit the use of CCF in many conventional wastewater treatment applications; although, these properties could be usefully exploited in reactive barriers for the management of contaminated soils, sediments and groundwater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Journal of Composites Science in 2020)

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32 pages, 1514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Assessment of Thick Nanocomposite Plates’ Behavior under the Influence of Carbon Nanotubes Agglomeration

by Débora S. Craveiro and Maria A. R. Loja

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020041 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2788

Abstract

The influence assessment of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) agglomeration on CNT-reinforced composite (CNTRC) thick plates’ behavior is the main aim of the present work. CNTs are known to agglomerate into clusters even for relatively low volume fractions, which imposes the need to characterize the [...] Read more.

The influence assessment of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) agglomeration on CNT-reinforced composite (CNTRC) thick plates’ behavior is the main aim of the present work. CNTs are known to agglomerate into clusters even for relatively low volume fractions, which imposes the need to characterize the effects this may introduce in structures behavior, also knowing that recent works have concluded that neglecting agglomeration phenomenon may lead to an overestimation of the mechanical properties of nanocomposites. Hence, it matters to understand how the arising of these clusters may affect the static and free vibrational behaviors of low side-to-thickness nanocomposite plates. To this purpose, the nanocomposite plate properties’ estimation is performed by using the two-parameter model of agglomeration based on the Eshelby–Mori–Tanaka approach, while for behavioral analyses one considers a Higher-order Shear Deformation Theory (HSDT) based on the displacement field of Kant, implemented through the finite element method. The analyses developed consider a set of parametric studies involving the assessment of the influence of side-to-side ratios, side-to-thickness ratios, boundary conditions, and CNTs’ distributions along the thickness. The results obtained allow concluding that the transverse deflections and fundamental frequencies of these structures are significantly influenced by the CNTs’ agglomeration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Polymer Nanocomposites)

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11 pages, 3672 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Model Calibration and Data Set Determination Considering the Local Micro-Structure for Short Fiber Reinforced Polymers

by Andreas Primetzhofer, Gabriel Stadler, Gerald Pinter and Florian Grün

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020040 - 27 Jan 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2870

Abstract

To ensure the usability of parts made of fiber-reinforced polymers, a lifetime assessment has to be made in an early stage of the development process. To describe the whole life cycle of these parts, continuous simulation chains can be used. From production to [...] Read more.

To ensure the usability of parts made of fiber-reinforced polymers, a lifetime assessment has to be made in an early stage of the development process. To describe the whole life cycle of these parts, continuous simulation chains can be used. From production to the end of the service life, all influences are mapped virtually. The later material strength is already given after the manufacturing process due to the process dependent fiber alignment. To be able to describe this fiber orientation within the lifetime assessment, this paper presents an approach for model calibration and data set determination to consider the local micro-structure. Therefore, quasi-static and cyclic tests were performed on specimens with longitudinal and transversal fiber orientation. A supplementary failure analysis provides additional information about the local micro-structure. The local fiber orientation is determined with µCT (micro computer tomography)-measurements, correlated to the extraction positions of the specimen, and implemented in a dataset. With an attached lifetime calculation on a demonstrator, a major influence of the local micro-structure on the calculation results can be shown. Therefore, it is indispensable to consider the local fiber orientation in the data set determination of short fiber reinforced polymers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Composite Process Modeling and Characterization)

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12 pages, 25437 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact Damage Detection in Composite Beams by Analysis of Non-Linearity under Pulse Excitation

by Gabriela Loi, Maria Cristina Porcu and Francesco Aymerich

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020039 - 26 Jan 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2420

Abstract

To detect the presence of damage, many structural health monitoring techniques exploit the nonlinear features that typically affect the otherwise linear dynamic response of structural components with internal defects. One of them is the Scaling Subtraction Method (SSM), which evaluates nonlinear features of [...] Read more.

To detect the presence of damage, many structural health monitoring techniques exploit the nonlinear features that typically affect the otherwise linear dynamic response of structural components with internal defects. One of them is the Scaling Subtraction Method (SSM), which evaluates nonlinear features of the response to a high-amplitude harmonic excitation by subtracting a scaled reference signal. Originally tested on granular materials, the SSM was shown to be effective for composite materials as well. However, the dependence of the technique efficiency on the testing frequency, usually selected among the natural frequencies of the system, may limit its application in practice. This paper investigates the feasibility of applying the SSM through a broadband impulsive excitation, which would avoid the need of a preliminary modal analysis and address the issue of the proper selection of the excitation frequency. A laminated composite beam was tested in intact and damaged conditions under both scaled harmonic excitations of different frequency and broadband impulsive signals of scaled amplitude. Two damage indicators working on the frequency domain were introduced. The results showed a good sensitivity of the SSM to the presence and level of impact damage in composite beams when applied through a broadband impulsive excitation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Journal of Composites Science in 2020)

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5 pages, 216 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Acknowledgment to Reviewers of Journal of Composites Science in 2020

by Journal of Composites Science Editorial Office

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020038 - 25 Jan 2021

Viewed by 1570

Abstract

Peer review is the driving force of journal development, and reviewers are gatekeepers who ensure that the Journal of Composites Science maintains high standards for the quality of its published papers [...] Full article

13 pages, 3374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydroxyapatite-Based Magnetic Bionanocomposite as Pharmaceuticals Carriers in Chitosan Scaffolds

by Anderson Valério Chaves, Rafael Melo Freire, Victor Pinheiro Feitosa, Nágila Maria Pontes Silva Ricardo, Juliano Casagrande Denardin, Davino Machado Andrade Neto and Pierre Basílio Almeida Fechine

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020037 - 21 Jan 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3234

Abstract

Hydroxyapatite (HA) is a bioceramic very similar to the mineral component of bones and teeth. It is well established that osteoblasts grow better onto HA-coated metals than on metals alone. Herein, the preparation of a new system consisting of magnetite (Fe₃O [...] Read more.

Hydroxyapatite (HA) is a bioceramic very similar to the mineral component of bones and teeth. It is well established that osteoblasts grow better onto HA-coated metals than on metals alone. Herein, the preparation of a new system consisting of magnetite (Fe₃O₄) and HA functionalized with oleic acid and simvastatin (SIMV), and incorporated in chitosan (CHI) scaffolds, was undertaken. HA was synthesized by the hydrothermal method, while Fe₃O₄ was synthesized by co-precipitation. The polymer matrix was obtained using a 2% CHI solution, and allowed to stir for 2 h. The final material was freeze-dried to produce scaffolds. The magnetic properties remained unchanged after the formation of the composite, as well as after the preparation of the scaffolds, maintaining the superparamagnetism. CHI scaffolds were analyzed by scanning electronic spectroscopy (SEM) and showed a high porosity, with very evident cavities, which provides the functionality of bone growth support during the remineralization process in possible regions affected by bone tissue losses. The synthesized composite showed an average particle size between 15 and 23 nm for particles (HA and Fe₃O₄). The scaffolds showed considerable porosity, which is important for the performance of various functions of the tissue structure. Moreover, the addition of simvastatin in the system can promote bone formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Journal of Composites Science in 2021)

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25 pages, 5495 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Introduction to Macroscopic Optimal Design in the Mechanics of Composite Materials and Structures

by Aleksander Muc

J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020036 - 20 Jan 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3090

Abstract

The main goal of building composite materials and structures is to provide appropriate a priori controlled physico-chemical properties. For this purpose, a strengthening is introduced that can bear loads higher than those borne by isotropic materials, improve creep resistance, etc. Composite materials can [...] Read more.

The main goal of building composite materials and structures is to provide appropriate a priori controlled physico-chemical properties. For this purpose, a strengthening is introduced that can bear loads higher than those borne by isotropic materials, improve creep resistance, etc. Composite materials can be designed in a different fashion to meet specific properties requirements.Nevertheless, it is necessary to be careful about the orientation, placement and sizes of different types of reinforcement. These issues should be solved by optimization, which, however, requires the construction of appropriate models. In the present paper we intend to discuss formulations of kinematic and constitutive relations and the possible application of homogenization methods. Then, 2D relations for multilayered composite plates and cylindrical shells are derived with the use of the Euler–Lagrange equations, through the application of the symbolic package Mathematica. The introduced form of the First-Ply-Failure criteria demonstrates the non-uniqueness in solutions and complications in searching for the global macroscopic optimal solutions. The information presented to readers is enriched by adding selected review papers, surveys and monographs in the area of composite structures. Full article

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J. Compos. Sci., Volume 5, Issue 2 (February 2021) – 28 articles

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