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Agriculture
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Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production
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Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production

A special issue of Agriculture (ISSN 2077-0472). This special issue belongs to the section "Agricultural Soils".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2021) | Viewed by 65698

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jose L. Gabriel

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
INIA-Departamento de Medio Ambiente y Agronomía, Carretera de la Coruña km.7,5, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: sustainable cropping systems; nitrogen use efficiency; water use efficiency; soil; optical sensors; nitrogen losses; fertilization; cover crops
Dr. Diana Martín-Lammerding

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Finca La Canaleja - Autovía de Aragón A2, km. 36.2, 28800 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
Interests: soil; sustainability; crop production; organic matter; nitrogen

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to announce this Special Issue of Agriculture “Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production". Water and nutrient availability remain, globally, the most limiting crop growth factors. The additional demand for food by the growing population and availability limitations will require that we increase resource use efficiency of water and nutrients for crops. The efficient management of water and nutrients (without underestimating the role of plant genetics) has been identified as crucial for closing the yield gap of main crops. Sustainable intensification of agriculture should rely, therefore, on defining management strategies that increase water and nitrogen use efficiency.

We would like to invite researchers from a large number of countries to submit their papers dealing with water and nutrient management in different agroecosystems with different problems. We welcome original manuscripts, which might help us understand the processes of water movement in the non-saturated zone, nutrient uptake by crops, nutrient loss (e.g., lixiviation, runoff, gas emission); the utilization of new application equipment in the field, proximal/remote sensing implementation, novel approaches, and methodology, and applications of models are also welcome.

Dr. Jose L. Gabriel
Dr. Diana Martín-Lammerding
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • Water management
  • Nutrients loss
  • Lixiviation
  • Inhibitors
  • Nitrogen cycling
  • Diffuse contamination
  • Soil management
  • Crop yield
  • Food security
  • Models
  • Climate change

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Published Papers (19 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 1763 KiB  
Article
Different Mechanized Fertilization Methods in Nutrient Utilization and Summer Maize Yield
by Wensheng Yuan, Yilun Wang, Chengqian Jin, Yugang Feng, Longmei Zhang and Yu Hu
Agriculture 2023, 13(2), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13020310 - 28 Jan 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1922
Abstract
In the production of summer maize, the problems of excessive fertilizer input and low fertilizer utilization rate are common, resulting in the waste of resources and environmental pollution. In order to explore the optimal fertilization mode of summer maize, a field experiment with [...] Read more.
In the production of summer maize, the problems of excessive fertilizer input and low fertilizer utilization rate are common, resulting in the waste of resources and environmental pollution. In order to explore the optimal fertilization mode of summer maize, a field experiment with eight treatments was designed in which sowing and fertilization were carried out by different machines. The effects of the two fertilization methods, i.e., hole fertilization and strip fertilization; two fertilization positions, i.e., side-position fertilization and positive-position fertilization; and two fertilization depths, i.e., 10 cm and 15 cm, on the summer maize yield, plant nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium nutrient accumulation, and aboveground biomass were studied. The results show that different fertilization modes had significant effects on summer maize yield, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium nutrient accumulation, and aboveground biomass. In general, when the strip fertilization method was used, 15 cm deep positive-position fertilization was superior. When the hole fertilization method was used, 15 cm deep side-position fertilization was superior. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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12 pages, 4773 KiB  
Article
Impacts of Nitrogen Fertilizer Application and Mulching on the Morpho-Physiological and Yield-Related Traits in Cotton
by Khalid Hussain, Ayesha Ilyas, Saqib Ali, Irshad Bibi, Qamar Shakil, Muhammad Usman Farid, Zulfiqar Ahmad Saqib, Adnan Habib and Erdoğan Eşref HAKKI
Agriculture 2023, 13(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13010012 - 21 Dec 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2248
Abstract
Cotton is a global cash crop with a significant contribution in the world economy. Optimum nutrient and water supply are most important for sustainable cotton production under warmer and dry environments. Field experiments were carried out to evaluate the cumulative impacts of various [...] Read more.
Cotton is a global cash crop with a significant contribution in the world economy. Optimum nutrient and water supply are most important for sustainable cotton production under warmer and dry environments. Field experiments were carried out to evaluate the cumulative impacts of various nitrogen doses and mulches on sustainable cotton production under semi-arid conditions during 2018 and 2019. Four nitrogen doses; 0, 70, 140, and 210 kg ha−1 and three types of mulch: control (without mulch), natural mulch (5 tons/ha wheat straw), and chemical mulch (methanol (30%). Nitrogen 210 kg ha−1 with natural mulching increased 40.5% gunning out turn, 30.0% fiber length, 31.7% fiber strength, 32.6% fiber fineness, 20.8% fiber uniformity, and 34.0% fiber elongation. Shoot nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, and magnesium contents were maximum where 210 kg ha−1 nitrogen and mulch was applied. Natural mulch reduced the soil temperature as compared to chemical and no mulch conditions. The soil temperature was 0.5 to 1.8 ℃ lower in mulching treatments as compared to the control. Maximum economic yield was around 90% higher in natural mulch with the 210 kg ha−1 nitrogen application. It is concluded that optimum nitrogen application with natural mulch not only enhanced plant growth and development but also induced sustainability in quality cotton production under semi-arid conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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15 pages, 1940 KiB  
Article
Influence of Nitrogen Fertilizer Rate on Yield, Grain Quality and Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Durum Wheat (Triticum durum Desf) under Algerian Semiarid Conditions
by Nadia Boulelouah, Mohamed R. Berbache, Hanane Bedjaoui, Nora Selama and Nazih Y. Rebouh
Agriculture 2022, 12(11), 1937; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12111937 - 17 Nov 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2739
Abstract
Nitrogen fertilizer application is conditioned closely by the amount of rainfall and its distribution. The current study aims at studying the effect of nitrogen (N) application rate on grain yield (GY), grain protein content (GPC), and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of durum wheat [...] Read more.
Nitrogen fertilizer application is conditioned closely by the amount of rainfall and its distribution. The current study aims at studying the effect of nitrogen (N) application rate on grain yield (GY), grain protein content (GPC), and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of durum wheat under Algerian semiarid conditions. Field trials were conducted during two contrasting and successive growing seasons (a dry year = 2016–2017 and a wet year = 2017–2018) on a local variety named Bousselam. A randomized complete block design (RCBD) was used with four replicates. Seven gradual treatments of fertilizer rate were studied: T1 = 0 unity of nitrogen (UN), T2 = 100 UN, T3 = 110 UN, T4 = 120 UN, T5 = 130 UN, T6 = 140 UN, and T7 = 150 UN. Results showed a significant difference between the dry and wet years. Only the GPC was higher in the dry year compared to the wet year having a difference of 2.94%. However, all other studied parameters were higher in the wet year, which resulted in a yield difference of 4.38 t ha−1. In addition, a significant effect of N rate on GY, thousand grain weight (TGW), and GPC was observed. A considerable difference between 120 UN and 150 UN was not noted in both years of study. Furthermore, the agronomic efficiency (AE) increased significantly with rainfall amount achieving a difference of 16.2 kg·kgN−1 between years. Finally, the results showed that using a high N amount led to a decrease in AE. Based on GY, apparent recovery efficiency (ARE), agronomic efficiency (AE), and marginal rate return (MRR) recorded in both years, the nitrogen application rate of 120 UN is recommended to be applied to wheat crops in Algerian semiarid conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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15 pages, 2772 KiB  
Article
Application of the WRF-DSSAT Modeling System for Assessment of the Nitrogen Fertilizer Used for Improving Rice Production in Northern Thailand
by Teerachai Amnuaylojaroen and Pavinee Chanvichit
Agriculture 2022, 12(8), 1213; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12081213 - 12 Aug 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2969
Abstract
The cultivation of rice under irrigation provides fundamental sustenance for nearly half of the world’s population. Rice yields need to increase in order to maintain the rapidly growing population and meet growing food requirements. In this research, we applied the coupled atmospheric–crop model, [...] Read more.
The cultivation of rice under irrigation provides fundamental sustenance for nearly half of the world’s population. Rice yields need to increase in order to maintain the rapidly growing population and meet growing food requirements. In this research, we applied the coupled atmospheric–crop model, which is based on the WRF and CERES-Rice models, to find the appropriate nitrogen fertilizer level for improving rice yield in northern Thailand. The model was conducted from June to December in 2011 and 2015. To evaluate the model’s capability, the output from the model, including meteorological data (i.e., precipitation and temperature) and rice production, was compared to actual observation data. The modeling system showed an acceptable level of output for statistical examination; for example, the R2 values were 0.93, 0.76, and 0.97 for precipitation, temperature, and rice production, respectively. To assess the optimization of the nitrogen fertilizer level, we designed nine experiments: control cases and other cases that were multiplied by a factor of 2–10 times the nitrogen fertilizer levels. The model suggested that we can produce substantial rice yields by increasing nitrogen fertilizer levels by 12 kg/ha. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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12 pages, 9392 KiB  
Article
Variation of Grain Yield, Grain Protein Content and Nitrogen Use Efficiency Components under Different Nitrogen Rates in Mediterranean Durum Wheat Genotypes
by Sawsen Ayadi, Salma Jallouli, Zoubeir Chamekh, Inès Zouari, Simone Landi, Zied Hammami, Fatma Ezzahra Ben Azaiez, Mokhtar Baraket, Sergio Esposito and Youssef Trifa
Agriculture 2022, 12(7), 916; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12070916 - 23 Jun 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2813
Abstract
Nitrogen (N) is a crucial nutrient for plant growth and development. To optimize agricultural environments, N fertilizers represent a critical tool to regulate crop productivity. The improvement of nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) represents a promising tool that may enable cereal production to meet [...] Read more.
Nitrogen (N) is a crucial nutrient for plant growth and development. To optimize agricultural environments, N fertilizers represent a critical tool to regulate crop productivity. The improvement of nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) represents a promising tool that may enable cereal production to meet future food demand. Wheat reported contrasting behaviors in N utilization showing specific abilities depending on genotype. This study selected two landraces and two improved genotypes from Northern Africa to investigate grain yield (GY), grain protein content (GPC) and NUE. Plants were grown under three levels of N supply: 0, 75, 150 kg N ha−1 and for two consecutive years. Results reported a better NUE (0.40 kg kg N−1) obtained under 150 kg N ha−1, while N utilization efficiency (NUtE) showed a 13% increase using 75 kg N ha−1 compared with 150 kg N ha−1. Under low nitrogen rate (0 N), crop N supply (CNS) and N uptake efficiency (NUpE) were shown as determinant factors for improved genotypes GY (R2 = 0.72), while NUtE represented the most determinant component for GPC in landraces (R2 = 0.92). Multivariate regression models explained the dependence in GPC on NUE, NUpE, and NUtE. In conclusion, our results recognize GPC and NUtE as suitable selection traits to identify durum wheat with higher NUE. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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17 pages, 1101 KiB  
Article
The Application of a Bio-Stabilized Municipal Solid Waste-Based Fertilizer for Buckwheat Production
by Sara Martinez, José Luis Gabriel, Raúl Allende-Montalbán, Raúl San-Juan-Heras and María del Mar Delgado
Agriculture 2022, 12(6), 776; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12060776 - 28 May 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2497
Abstract
In a circular economy framework, waste valorization in crop production promotes sustainability in the agricultural sector. Buckwheat (BW; Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) has promising nutritional and economic value. Its sustainable production can be promoted by applying organic fertilizers. Aimed at determining the effect of [...] Read more.
In a circular economy framework, waste valorization in crop production promotes sustainability in the agricultural sector. Buckwheat (BW; Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) has promising nutritional and economic value. Its sustainable production can be promoted by applying organic fertilizers. Aimed at determining the effect of a bio-stabilized municipal solid waste (MSW) amendment on BW, a greenhouse experiment was performed combining two different soils (clay and sandy) with three previous fertilization treatments (no fertilizer, mineral fertilizer, or MSW fertilizer) from the precedent faba bean crop and three present fertilization treatments (no fertilizer, mineral fertilizer, or MSW fertilizer) from the precedent wheat crop. The present fertilizer treatments followed the same procedure and fertilization rates (7.9 g/kg clay soil and 6.7 g/kg sandy soil of MSW amendment and 0.14 g/kg clay soil and 0.12 g/sandy soil of mineral fertilizer) as the previously fertilized treatments to study the effects on BW crop and soil. Results indicated a positive response of biomass production (on average 34.4 g/plant) and seed yield (on average 10.6 g/plant) to direct organic fertilization, obtaining comparable results with respect to the mineral fertilization treatments. Additionally, organic fertilization significantly enhanced seed quality and nutrient content compared to mineral fertilization, which resulted in a higher chlorophyll content. The findings revealed that the residual effect from the previous bio-stabilized MSW amendment was not sufficient to provide the total nutrients necessary for BW potential growth and biomass production, although slight tendencies toward increase were observed. Soil properties, such as organic matter and nitrogen content, as well as soil nutrient concentrations, were positively affected by organic fertilization, presenting adequate levels of heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, Cr, and Cd). The insights of this study are valuable to determine the effects of reusing waste by-products for BW crop fertilization to reduce or substitute for chemical fertilizers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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18 pages, 3612 KiB  
Article
Nitrate Leaching in Maize (Zea mays L.) and Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Irrigated Cropping Systems under Nitrification Inhibitor and/or Intercropping Effects
by Raúl Allende-Montalbán, Diana Martín-Lammerding, María del Mar Delgado, Miguel A. Porcel and José L. Gabriel
Agriculture 2022, 12(4), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12040478 - 29 Mar 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3197
Abstract
The use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture is currently under high pressure to reduce its environmental impact and improve its currently low efficiency. Nitrification inhibitors and/or intercrops emerged in recent decades as useful tools to combat these problems. The objective of the experiment [...] Read more.
The use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture is currently under high pressure to reduce its environmental impact and improve its currently low efficiency. Nitrification inhibitors and/or intercrops emerged in recent decades as useful tools to combat these problems. The objective of the experiment is to study the effect of these techniques on the yield, the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and N leaching in a maize–wheat rotation. Six treatments were studied, combining the use of ammonium nitrate sulfate (ASN) alone or with a nitrification inhibitor (DMPSA or 3,4-dimethylpyrazole succinic acid) and the use or absence of vetch (Vicia sativa L.) as an intercrop. The results showed that fertilized treatments did not show significant differences in crop development, but the use of DMPSA delayed the nitrate (NO3−) availability and reduced N leaching losses (average N leaching reductions around 25% after maize harvest). On the other hand, the use of vetch as an intercrop helped to reduce the negative effects of N deficiency and, at the same time, increased the concentration of N in the soil during the following crop harvest (4.5 kg N ha−1 on average after wheat harvest) and reduced losses due to leaching (average N leaching reductions around 14% after the maize–wheat season). The combination of both techniques (DMPSA and vetch intercrop) at the same time presented a synergic effect and greatly improved the environmental impact of the irrigated maize–wheat system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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16 pages, 1522 KiB  
Article
Effects of the Rapid Construction of a High-Quality Plough Layer Based on Woody Peat in a Newly Reclaimed Cultivated Land Area
by Sicheng Zhang, Rui Zhao, Kening Wu, Qin Huang and Long Kang
Agriculture 2022, 12(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12010031 - 28 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2244
Abstract
To implement the balance system of cultivated land in occupation and supplement and to adhere to the principle of “supplement the occupied cultivated land of high quality with the one bearing same quality”, in the thesis, a field experiment was conducted to study [...] Read more.
To implement the balance system of cultivated land in occupation and supplement and to adhere to the principle of “supplement the occupied cultivated land of high quality with the one bearing same quality”, in the thesis, a field experiment was conducted to study the effects of woody peat on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties of the plough layer and its crop yield. Furthermore, the correlation between soil indexes and crop yield under the best fertilization mode through the addition of the natural material of woody peat instead of lengthy cultivation of the plough layer to rapidly construct a high-quality plough layer and solve the practical problem that the natural endowment of newly reclaimed cultivated land is far less than the occupied high-quality cultivated land was explored. The land remediation project of Fuping County, Hebei Province, was taken as the experimental area, and the five most representative and effective datasets were selected and studied. The results demonstrated that the addition of woody peat and rotten straw could reduce soil particle size and bulk density and alleviate soil viscosity and acidification. An increase in soil organic matter, soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC), alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium and a decrease in the heavy metal content were also observed. The results indicated that the application of woody peat achieved the expected effect of the rapid construction of a high-quality plough layer. The best mode of fertilization was A2, which provided a good reference for the rapid construction of a high-quality plough layer in the future. The analysis of the correlation between soil indexes and crop yield illustrated that the organic matter content, soil available nutrients, and crop yield had a significant positive correlation; the organic matter content and soil available nutrients showed the same tendency, which suggests that soil organic matter content and soil fertility level are closely related and that soil fertility plays a decisive role in crop yield under the same external conditions. Woody peat exerted an eminent influence on the organic matter content and soil available nutrients to determine the change in crop yield, which provides a reliable basis for future research on land improvement projects to increase crop yield. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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16 pages, 1882 KiB  
Article
Valorization of a Bio-Stabilized Municipal Solid Waste Amendment for Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) Fertilization
by Sara Martinez, Sara Sánchez-Moreno, Jose Luis Gabriel, Cristina Álvarez and Maria del Mar Delgado
Agriculture 2021, 11(11), 1109; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11111109 - 6 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3515
Abstract
The valorization of municipal solid waste (MSW) can serve as an organic amendment in agriculture while reducing solid waste accumulation in the environment. This research aimed to evaluate the valorization of a bio-stabilized MSW amendment for the production of faba bean (Vicia [...] Read more.
The valorization of municipal solid waste (MSW) can serve as an organic amendment in agriculture while reducing solid waste accumulation in the environment. This research aimed to evaluate the valorization of a bio-stabilized MSW amendment for the production of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) crop. For this purpose, biomass production and growth, as well as, seed yield and seed components, seed nutrient accumulation, plant pigments, soil properties, and microorganisms were evaluated in comparison with faba bean mineral fertilization in a greenhouse experiment. The results demonstrated that the bio-stabilized MSW amendment achieved similar biomass production, plant growth, seed yield, nitrogen and protein content, and pigment content as the mineral fertilization treatment. On the other hand, the organic fertilization did not exhibit significant effects on the yield components number of pods per plant, and number of seeds per pod, and nutrient accumulation in seeds with respect to mineral and control treatments in both soils. Sandy and clay soil properties were improved in the organic treatments in comparison with the control soils by increasing soil organic carbon, nitrogen, and other soil nutrients, and providing a suitable pH for faba bean growth. Additionally, biological activity was favored by applying this source of organic fertilizer, enriching the nematode community. Reusing bio-stabilized MSW for agronomical purposes can add value to this waste product, serving as an effective alternative to mineral fertilizers in faba bean cultivation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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18 pages, 3559 KiB  
Article
A Comparison of IPCC Guidelines and Allocation Methods to Estimate the Environmental Impact of Barley Production in the Basque Country through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
by Óscar del Hierro, Patricia Gallejones, Gerardo Besga, Ainara Artetxe and Carlos Garbisu
Agriculture 2021, 11(10), 1005; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11101005 - 14 Oct 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4171
Abstract
This study aimed to estimate the environmental impact of barley production in the Basque Country, Northern Spain, using cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, as well as to assess how methodological choices (i.e., the use of IPCC 2019 Guidelines versus allocation methods) can [...] Read more.
This study aimed to estimate the environmental impact of barley production in the Basque Country, Northern Spain, using cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, as well as to assess how methodological choices (i.e., the use of IPCC 2019 Guidelines versus allocation methods) can influence such estimation. The production of mineral fertiliser and the direct emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) resulting from the application of nitrogen (N) fertiliser were identified as the two main contributors (40% and 30% of all greenhouse gas emissions, respectively) to the environmental impact of barley production. Pertaining to GHG emissions themselves, the use of calcium ammonium nitrate fertiliser was found to be the main contributor. Therefore, the optimization of N fertiliser application was established as a key process to reduce the environmental impact of barley production. The fertiliser-related release of N and phosphorous (P) to the environment was the main contributor to particulate matter formation, terrestrial acidification, and terrestrial and marine eutrophication. The incorporation of environmental data on NH3, NOx, NO3−, and PO43− to the LCA led to a more accurate estimation of barley production impact. A sensitivity analysis showed that the use of economic allocation, compared to mass allocation, increased the estimation of climate change-related impact by 80%. In turn, the application of the IPCC 2019 Refinement Guidelines increased this estimation by a factor of 1.12 and 0.86 in wet regions and decreased in dry regions, respectively. Our results emphasise the importance of the choice of methodology, adapted to the specific case under study, when estimating the environmental impact of food production systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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20 pages, 4527 KiB  
Article
Irrigation with Treated Wastewater as an Alternative Nutrient Source (for Crop): Numerical Simulation
by Eva Hyánková, Michal Kriška Dunajský, Ondřej Zedník, Ondřej Chaloupka and Miroslava Pumprlová Němcová
Agriculture 2021, 11(10), 946; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11100946 - 29 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2742
Abstract
From a global perspective, drought is a well-known manifestation of climate change. The search for alternative sources of water also brings uncertainties and risks, for example, in relation to wastewater irrigation. We asked ourselves whether and how supplemental irrigation with pre-treated wastewater would [...] Read more.
From a global perspective, drought is a well-known manifestation of climate change. The search for alternative sources of water also brings uncertainties and risks, for example, in relation to wastewater irrigation. We asked ourselves whether and how supplemental irrigation with pre-treated wastewater would affect the subsoil or groundwater quality. We constructed semi-operational models that were loaded with wastewater in a controlled manner over three years of observations. Ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N) pollution is one of the monitored parameters in wastewater discharge. In specific situations and under strict operating conditions, it can be assumed that ammonia nitrogen may not be a significant problem for groundwater. Already at a depth of 0.5 m below ground level, the average nitrogen levels are below 0.02 mg/L at an irrigation rate of approximately 15.5 mm/day. When monitoring total phosphorus (TP), these values are reduced with more variability—depending on the plant species at the surface, ranging from 0.17 to 0.95 mg/L. The measured values are used to calibrate the numerical model, or to determine the reaction parameters that enter the governing equation to describe the distribution of the solution in the soil environment. The results show an acceptable compliance between the model and real measurements, it will be possible to use them in practice for the design of wastewater irrigation systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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21 pages, 17931 KiB  
Article
Nitrogen Fertilizer Efficiency Determined by the 15N Dilution Technique in Maize Followed or Not by a Cover Crop in Mediterranean Chile
by Osvaldo Salazar, Renato Diaz, Adriana Nario, Ximena Videla, María Alonso-Ayuso and Miguel Quemada
Agriculture 2021, 11(8), 721; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11080721 - 29 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3338
Abstract
Nitrogen (N) in a maize crop is a determining yield factor, but its negative impact on the environment is also known. Therefore, it is necessary to propose mitigation strategies that allow an improvement in the N fertilizer efficiency (NFE), such as the use [...] Read more.
Nitrogen (N) in a maize crop is a determining yield factor, but its negative impact on the environment is also known. Therefore, it is necessary to propose mitigation strategies that allow an improvement in the N fertilizer efficiency (NFE), such as the use of cover crops (CC) and the adjustment of the fertilizer dose. The objective of the study was to determine NFE using 15N isotopic techniques and nitrate (NO3−) leaching in a maize–fallow versus a maize–CC rotation with optimal and excessive doses of N in the Mediterranean area of Chile. The treatments were a combination of crop rotation (maize–fallow versus maize–CC of Lolium multiflorum) with the optimal dose of N (250 kg ha−1) or excessive dose (400 kg ha−1). We found that the optimal dose of maize–CC rotation contributed to reducing the losses of N by leaching and improving the NFE. Using the optimal dose decreased the dissolved inorganic N (DIN) emission intensity by 50% compared to the excessive doses. Even if grain yield was higher (19 t ha−1) when applying the excessive N dose, the NFE (28%) was lower than when applying the optimal dose (40%). In the maize–CC rotation with optimal dose, yield was 17 Mg ha−1. The excessive N dose generated higher DIN content at the end of the maize season (177 kg N ha−1). In conclusion, replacing the traditional autumn–winter fallow in the maize monoculture with a CC with optimal N dose contributed to improving NFE and reducing N leaching in a Mediterranean agricultural system. Consequently, it is a strategy to consider as it has positive advantages in soil and N management, helping to reduce diffuse pollution of surface and groundwater bodies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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16 pages, 2883 KiB  
Article
Organic Amendment vs. Mineral Fertilization under Minimum Tillage: Changes in Soil Nutrients, Soil Organic Matter, Biological Properties and Yield after 10 Years
by Diana Martín-Lammerding, José L. Gabriel, Encarnación Zambrana, Inés Santín-Montanyá and José L. Tenorio
Agriculture 2021, 11(8), 700; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11080700 - 26 Jul 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4356
Abstract
Conservation tillage is recognized as a sustainable management practice, however its combination with organic residues application still constitutes a challenge in some areas. A field trial was established in a semiarid agro-ecosystem to study the effects of different crop nutrient sources under minimum [...] Read more.
Conservation tillage is recognized as a sustainable management practice, however its combination with organic residues application still constitutes a challenge in some areas. A field trial was established in a semiarid agro-ecosystem to study the effects of different crop nutrient sources under minimum tillage (MT). Application of organic amendments at the beginning of a five-year crop rotation (ORG treatment) was evaluated and compared to the control plot where wheat was continuously grown with traditional mineral fertilization (MIN treatment). In addition to wheat yield and biomass, several soil properties were measured (pH, soil nutrients (i.e., Olsen P, exchangeable K, and mineral N), soil organic matter (i.e., C, N, C/N ratio), potentially mineralizable nitrogen, total microbial activity and heavy metals) throughout the 10-year study. The wheat yield was significantly higher under the ORG treatment than under the MIN, although climatic conditions (e.g., rainfall) exerted a great influence too. The organic amendments increased soil nutrients content mainly right after their application but the levels were adequate for the whole crop rotation. Plots under organic amendment application did not accumulate significantly more soil organic matter than those mineral-fertilized, probably due to the low protective capacity of coarse-textured soils. The application of organic amendments under MT resulted in a promising management agro-ecosystem compared to the mineral fertilized because crop nutrients came from organic wastes, no herbicides were applied while the yields were higher. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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17 pages, 4228 KiB  
Article
Urease Inhibitors Effects on the Nitrogen Use Efficiency in a Maize–Wheat Rotation with or without Water Deficit
by Raúl Allende-Montalbán, Diana Martín-Lammerding, María del Mar Delgado, Miguel A. Porcel and José L. Gabriel
Agriculture 2021, 11(7), 684; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11070684 - 20 Jul 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5443
Abstract
The use of urease inhibitors in irrigated systems decreases both soil ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3−) availability, and, thus, could be an easy tool to reduce N loss due to ammonia volatilization and NO3− leaching. [...] Read more.
The use of urease inhibitors in irrigated systems decreases both soil ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3−) availability, and, thus, could be an easy tool to reduce N loss due to ammonia volatilization and NO3− leaching. The main goal of this experiment was to assess the effect of urease inhibitors on N use efficiency, N losses, and their economic impact in a maize-wheat field experiment. In this study, 10 treatments were compared, combining the urea fertilizer with or without urease inhibitor, applied in one or two dressings, and under optimal or sub-optimal irrigation. A single application of urease inhibitor (IN1d), coupled with the conventional urea, helped to reduce the nitrate leaching risk both during the maize period (even when compared to the two dressing treatment) and after harvest. In addition, this improvement was achieved together with an increase in economic benefit, even when compared with the application of the same amount of regular urea split into two dressings. Under low water availability systems, the benefits of applying urease inhibitors increased with respect to the application of regular urea, making this technique a very promising strategy for adaptation to climate change in arid and semiarid regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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10 pages, 1985 KiB  
Article
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Addition to Soil Improves Seed Yield, Foliar Stomatal Conductance, and the Photosynthetic Response of Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.)
by Esmaeil Zangani, Kamran Afsahi, Farid Shekari, Eileen Mac Sweeney and Andrea Mastinu
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060483 - 24 May 2021
Cited by 53 | Viewed by 4425
Abstract
The effects of nitrogen and phosphorus levels on the physiological traits, yield, and seed yield of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.), were studied in a farm research project of Zanjan University. Three levels of nitrogen (0, 100, and 200 kg/ha) and three levels [...] Read more.
The effects of nitrogen and phosphorus levels on the physiological traits, yield, and seed yield of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.), were studied in a farm research project of Zanjan University. Three levels of nitrogen (0, 100, and 200 kg/ha) and three levels of phosphorus (0, 75, and 150 kg/ha) were considered. The results showed that an increase in nitrogen level caused an increase in the leaf chlorophyll content so that the application of 200 kg/ha of nitrogen increased the chlorophyll content of the leaves until the mid-grain filling stage. Nitrogen application lowered leaf stomatal conductance in the early flowering stage whereas the stomatal conductance was increased during the late flowering stage. Nitrogen application (100 and 200 kg/ha) also increased the quantum yield of photosystem II. On the other hand, with the application of 150 kg/ha and 75 kg/ha of phosphorus, the leaf stomatal conductance and the quantum yield of photosystem II in the early flowering stage increased respectively. The results showed that the application of 200 kg/ha of nitrogen and 75 kg/ha of phosphorus significantly increased seed and oil yield compared to the control. In addition, the number of siliques per plant and the weight of 1000 seeds showed an increasing trend that was affected by nitrogen and phosphorus levels. This study demonstrated that nitrogen enhanced the chlorophyll content, leaf area, and consequently, the quantum yield of photosystem II. Nitrogen also augmented the seed filling duration, seed yield, and oil yield by increasing gas exchange. As a result, the application of 100 kg/ha of nitrogen together with 75 kg/ha phosphorus showed the greatest effect on the qualitative and quantitative yield of rapeseed. However, the application of 200 kg/ha of nitrogen alone or in combination with different levels of phosphorus did not significantly increase many of the studied traits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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18 pages, 2332 KiB  
Article
Integral Assessment of Organic Fertilization on a Camelina sativa Rotation under Mediterranean Conditions
by Sara Martinez, Jose Luis Gabriel, Sergio Alvarez, Anibal Capuano and Maria del Mar Delgado
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040355 - 15 Apr 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3483
Abstract
The goal of this study was to provide quantitative agronomic data and environmental performance through a life cycle assessment of camelina in a crop rotation. For this purpose, camelina [Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz] was included in a crop rotation (camelina-barley [Hordeum [...] Read more.
The goal of this study was to provide quantitative agronomic data and environmental performance through a life cycle assessment of camelina in a crop rotation. For this purpose, camelina [Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz] was included in a crop rotation (camelina-barley [Hordeum vulgare (L.)]-camelina) fertilized with two organic fertilizers (dewatered sludge and composted sludge) during three growing seasons (2015–2018). Three treatments were considered in this experimental study of 0.018 ha: (1) Fertilization with composted sludge (15 t ha−1), (2) fertilization with dewatered sludge (35 t ha−1), and (3) control treatment without fertilization. Results showed that camelina’s yield was affected by climatic conditions, ranging from 0.9 to 1.4 t ha−1 in the first season (2015/2016) and the third season (2017/2018 and did not present significant differences between treatments. The yield components with a positive response to organic fertilization were number of silicles, number of seeds per plant, and thousand-seed weight, with an average increase compared to the control of 23.7%, 16.5%, and 18.5%, respectively. A negative correlation was observed between organic fertilization and total fat content, contrary to the increase in protein content observed with organic fertilization. The environmental assessment of this crop rotation revealed that fertilization and transport were the main hotspots. Despite the undesirable weather limitations, this study showed a positive response of camelina’s yield components and seed quality to organic fertilization. By applying these organic fertilizers, it may be possible to obtain favorable camelina yields and promote waste valorization. To minimize the environmental impacts of this crop rotation with camelina, the main recommendations could be to reduce the distances between the dewatering and composting sites and the field and optimize fertilization rates. Further research is needed to determine the application of these organic fertilizers in the long term. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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9 pages, 1216 KiB  
Article
Efficacy of Irrigation Interval after Anthesis on Grain Quality, Alkali Digestion, and Gel Consistency of Rice
by Ramin Rayee, Tran Dang Xuan, Tran Dang Khanh, Hoang-Dung Tran and Kakar Kifayatullah
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040325 - 7 Apr 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3904
Abstract
The management of amylose and protein contents and cooking quality are the main challenges in rice macronutrients and quality improvement. This experiment was conducted to examine the rice grain quality, alkali digestion, and gel consistency responses to irrigation interval after anthesis. Three rice [...] Read more.
The management of amylose and protein contents and cooking quality are the main challenges in rice macronutrients and quality improvement. This experiment was conducted to examine the rice grain quality, alkali digestion, and gel consistency responses to irrigation interval after anthesis. Three rice varieties (K1, K3, and K4) were subjected to different irrigation intervals (1, 2, and 3 d) after anthesis. The findings of this study showed that the protein content was markedly increased from 6.53–6.63% to 9.93–10.16%, whilst the amylose content was decreased significantly from 22.00–22.43% to 16.33–17.56% under stressed treatments at irrigation intervals, whilst the quantity of fatty acids was not affected. The 3-d irrigation interval recorded the highest protein content but the lowest amylose value. In addition, this treatment shows lower gelatinization temperature, but it is negatively associated with hard gel consistency under irrigation interval. This study highlights that the water management following a 3-d irrigation interval from anthesis is a useful and simple treatment to improve rice nutrients and grain cooking quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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12 pages, 1505 KiB  
Article
Magnesium Supplementation Alters Leaf Metabolic Pathways for Higher Flavor Quality of Oolong Tea
by Jiuliang Xu, Liangquan Wu, Bingxin Tong, Jiaxu Yin, Zican Huang, Wei Li and Xuexian Li
Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020120 - 2 Feb 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3285
Abstract
Oolong tea, one of the most famous tea beverages in China, contains specialized metabolites contributing to rich flavors and human health. Accumulation patterns of such metabolites and underlying regulatory mechanisms significantly vary under different growth conditions. To optimize quality and yield while minimizing [...] Read more.
Oolong tea, one of the most famous tea beverages in China, contains specialized metabolites contributing to rich flavors and human health. Accumulation patterns of such metabolites and underlying regulatory mechanisms significantly vary under different growth conditions. To optimize quality and yield while minimizing environmental effects, three treatments were designed in this study: Conventional fertilization, optimized fertilization, and optimized fertilization supplemented with magnesium (Mg). We investigated the yield, taste quality, primary and secondary metabolites of oolong tea, and found that a substantial reduction in chemical fertilizers (nutrient optimization by reducing 43% N, 58% P2O5 and 55% K2O) did not affect the tea yield in this study. Interestingly, Mg fertilization is an important factor influencing amino acid and sugar accumulation in oolong tea, resulting in higher concentrations of total free amino acids and a lower ratio of tea polyphenols (TP) to free amino acids (FAA). Gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS) and liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) combined multivariate analyses revealed distinct features of metabolite accumulation in leaves of three different treatments, as indicated by 34 differentially accumulated characteristic compounds. The levels of serine, aspartic acid, isoleucine, phenylalanine, theanine, and proline were reduced by fertilizer optimization and increased by Mg supplementation. Mg particularly promoted theanine accumulation favoring a stronger umami taste of oolong tea, while decreasing astringency and bitter metabolites. Thus, Mg application paves a new path for tea quality improvement in Southern China where Mg deficiency in the soil is a frequent limiting factor for crop production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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14 pages, 1682 KiB  
Article
Potassium and Nitrogen Fertilization vs. Trace Element Content of Maize (Zea mays L.)
by Mirosław Wyszkowski and Marzena S. Brodowska
Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020096 - 24 Jan 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3526
Abstract
This research was conducted to study the impact of potassium and nitrogen fertilizers on the trace element content of maize (Zea mays L.). Higher doses of potassium fertilizer led to a linear increase in cadmium, lead, nickel, zinc, and manganese content, and [...] Read more.
This research was conducted to study the impact of potassium and nitrogen fertilizers on the trace element content of maize (Zea mays L.). Higher doses of potassium fertilizer led to a linear increase in cadmium, lead, nickel, zinc, and manganese content, and to lower Fe:Zn and Fe:Mn ratios. Moreover, cobalt level increased in maize upon the lower doses and decreased upon the higher doses of potassium. The impact of potassium fertilizer on the levels of other elements (iron and chromium) in maize was determined by the fertilizer dose and, in particular, by the supply of additional nitrogen. Potassium fertilization led to a higher bioconcentration (BCFactor) of most of the trace elements in the aerial parts of maize. Nitrogen fertilization led to increased contents of manganese and iron, increased Fe:Zn and Fe:Mn ratios, and decreased contents of cadmium, lead, nickel, and cobalt in maize. Compared with potassium, nitrogen fertilization produced less consistent changes in bioconcentration factors for trace elements in the aerial parts of maize. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)
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