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AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 May 2022) | Viewed by 120861

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Enrico Vezzetti

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Department of Management and Production Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Turin, Italy
Interests: product lifecycle management; product design and development; human–machine interaction; human–machine interface; human–computer interaction; computer-aided design; extended reality; augmented reality; virtual reality; artificial intelligence; behavioral analysis; digital therapies; minimally invasive surgery
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Pietro Piazzolla

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Guest Editor

Department of Management and Production Engineering (DIGEP), Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
Interests: virtual reality; augmented reality; e-learning

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, virtual and augmented reality usage scenarios have significantly changed, moving from a specialized usage for research purpose only to a wider employment for a huge number of market applications and a significant number of users. This new situation has stimulated the growth of an impressive number of solutions in different domains, from military to entertainment.

Technological improvements have been registered, especially in smartphone devices, such as in camera performance and features, which have allowed the possibility of creating a tangible interaction between the real and the virtual domain that could be perceived as a “window on the real world”. For this reason, some important brands have significantly involved virtual and augmented reality in their efforts to support their commercial strategies, focusing the attention on “mobile augmented reality” (MAR).

Moreover, AR/VR flexibility could support its sinergic usage with other technologies representing an “integration platform” for technology empowerment, for instance, in machine and deeep learing (AI), which particularly in the computer vision domain may be able to provide very disruptive solutions, e.g., in the medical domain for disease diagnosis and for precise surgey assistance. Minimal invasive surgical (MIS) technologies are another viable example where the combination bewteen real-world data, live camera images in real-time, and virtual objects, artificially generated three-dimensional medical images coming from trans rectal ultrasound or computed tomography/MRI, could provide a tangible support to medical tasks. Moreover, due to the present COVID-19 situation that will force a significant percentage of the workforce to work from home multiple days a week by the end of 2021, it will be necessary to provide a change of perspective in many collaborative tasks, such as conference calls, which are often undermined by the lack of a direct personal presence, for instance, by exploiting AR/VR technologies to create a more socially conducive environment where everybody can improve “social interaction”. Thus, given the current surge of AR/VR applications and the new scenario provided by the pandemic situation due to COVID-19, it is important to synthesize the current knowledge about the interactions and impacts between society and AR/VR latests and novel applications.

The aim of this Special Issue is to advance scholarly understanding of how these technologies can be used theoretically, empirically, methodologically, and practically, to understand how society and AR/VR interact with and impact each other, also in relation to COVID-19, which has completely modified many usage scenarios, and in which the possibility to exploit the power of “virtuality” in its different points of view is becoming fundamental to overcoming the limitations of human interaction and support.

Prof. Dr. Enrico Vezzetti
Dr. Pietro Piazzolla
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Artificial Intelligence
Machine Learning
Virtual Reality
Augmented Reality
AR
VR
Human–machine interaction
Education
Health
Services
Transport
Manufacturing
Agriculture
Tourism
Culture

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 22701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gamification of Upper Limb Rehabilitation in Mixed-Reality Environment

by Aditya Pillai, Md Samiul Haque Sunny, Md Tanzil Shahria, Nayan Banik and Mohammad Habibur Rahman

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(23), 12260; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312260 - 30 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3188

Abstract

The advancements in mixed reality (MR) technology in recent years have provided us with excellent prospects for creating novel approaches to supplement conventional physiotherapy to maintain a sufficient quantity and quality of rehabilitation. The use of MR systems to facilitate patients’ participation in intensive, repetitive, and task-oriented practice using cutting-edge technologies to enhance functionality and facilitate recovery is very encouraging. Multiple studies have found that patients who undergo therapy using MR experience significant improvements in upper limb function; however, assessing the efficacy of MR is challenging due to the wide variety of methods and tools used. Because of these challenges, a novel approach, gamified MR-based solution for upper extremity rehabilitation, is proposed, which is an MR application for the Microsoft HoloLens 2, complete with game levels, and can measure the ranges of motion of the arm joints. The proposed rehabilitative system’s functionality and usability were evaluated with ten healthy adult participants with no prior arm-related injuries and two occupational therapists (OTs). The system successfully provided rehab exercises for upper limb injuries through interactive mixed-reality games. The system can mimic upper limb behavior without additional sensors during rehab sessions. Unlike previously researched technologically-based rehabilitation methods, this method can integrate arm–joint data within the application and are independent of one another. The results and comparisons show that this system is relevant, accurate, and superior to previous VR-based rehabilitation methods because the VR-based system is blind to the surroundings, whereas the proposed approach has spatial awareness of the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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20 pages, 4390 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ergonomic Design of a Workplace Using Virtual Reality and a Motion Capture Suit

by Ilona Kačerová, Jan Kubr, Petr Hořejší and Jana Kleinová

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(4), 2150; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12042150 - 18 Feb 2022

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6370

Abstract

Musculoskeletal disorders are some of the most frequent manual work disorders. Employers worldwide pay high costs for their treatment and prevention. We present an innovative method for designing an ergonomic workplace. This method uses new technologies and supports not only ergonomics, but also a general improvement in the designing of the manufacturing process. Although many researchers claim that there is a huge potential for using new disruptive technologies like virtual reality and motion capture in ergonomics, there is still a lack of a comprehensive methodological basis for implementing these technologies. Our approach was designed using the expert group method. We can validate the manufacturing process and the ergonomics using a motion capture (MoCap) suit and a head-mounted display (HMD). There are no legislative restrictions for the tools which are used for ergonomic analyses, so we can use our outputs for workplace scoring. Firstly, we measure the anthropometrics of the proband. Then the proband is immersed in virtual reality and they go through a manufacturing process during which ergonomics data are collected. The design of a particular workplace or multiple workplaces can be validated based on the reactions, measurements, and input in real-time. After processing the data, the workplace can be adjusted accordingly. The proposed method has a time and economic benefit for workplace design, optimisation of workplace ergonomics, and shortens the time required for designing the production line layout. It also includes optional steps for validation using conventional methods. These steps were used for method validation on a representative workplace using on-site experiments. We validated it on a group of 20 healthy operators working in automotive production (age 22 to 35). A comparison study describes the classic methods of workplace ergonomics evaluation, compares the classic evaluation using biomechanical analysis, modern evaluation using a MoCap suit, and connection with virtual reality. We have proved the validity of the method using the comparison study. The results also showed other potential issues which can be further examined: like the role of peripheral vision or haptic feedback. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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28 pages, 53433 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Urban CoCreation Lab—An Integrated Platform for Remote and Simultaneous Collaborative Urban Planning and Design through Web-Based Desktop 3D Modeling, Head-Mounted Virtual Reality and Mobile Augmented Reality: Prototyping a Minimum Viable Product and Developing Specifications for a Minimum Marketable Product

by Hyekyung Imottesjo and Jaan-Henrik Kain

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(2), 797; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12020797 - 13 Jan 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4912

Abstract

Both policy and research highlight the importance of diverse stakeholder input in urban development processes but visualizing future built environments and creating two-way design communication for non-expert stakeholders are challenging. The present study develops an intuitive and simplified 3D modeling platform that integrates web-based desktop, virtual reality and mobile augmented reality technologies for remote simultaneous urban design collaboration. Through iterative prototyping, based on two series of workshops with stakeholders, the study resulted in such an integrated platform as a minimum viable product as well as specifications for a minimum marketable product to be used in real projects. Further study is required to evaluate the minimum level of detail in the 3D modeling necessary for good perception of scale and environmental impact simulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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13 pages, 4329 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Shape Free-Form Deformation Framework for Efficient Data Transmission in AR-Based Medical Training Simulators

by Myeongjin Kim and Fernando Bello

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(21), 9925; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11219925 - 24 Oct 2021

Viewed by 4547

Abstract

Augmented reality medical training simulators can provide a realistic and immersive experience by overlapping the virtual scene on to the real world. Latency in augmented reality (AR) medical training simulators is an important issue as it can lead to motion sickness for users. This paper proposes a framework that can achieve real-time rendering of the 3D scene aligned to the real world using a head-mounted display (HMD). Model deformation in the 3D scene is categorised into local deformation derived from user interaction and global deformation determined by the simulation scenario. Target shapes are predefined by a simulation scenario, and control points are placed to embed the predefined shapes. Free-form deformation (FFD) is applied to multiple shapes to efficiently transfer the simulated model to the HMD. Global deformation is computed by blending a mapping matrix of each FFD with an assigned weighting value. The local and global deformation are then transferred through the control points updated from a deformed surface mesh and its corresponding weighting value. The proposed framework is verified in terms of latency caused by data transmission and the accuracy of a transmitted surface mesh in a vaginal examination (VE) training simulation. The average latency is reduced to 7 ms, less than the latency causing motion sickness in virtual reality simulations. The maximum relative error is less than 3%. Our framework allows seamless rendering of a virtual scene to the real world with substantially reduced latency and without the need for an external tracking system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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20 pages, 4360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Cloth Simulation Using Compute Shader in Unity3D for AR/VR Contents

by Hongly Va, Min-Hyung Choi and Min Hong

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(17), 8255; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11178255 - 6 Sep 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 9284

Abstract

While the cloth component in Unity engine has been used to represent the 3D cloth object for augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), it has several limitations in term of resolution and performance. The purpose of our research is to develop a stable cloth simulation based on a parallel algorithm. The method of a mass–spring system is applied to real-time cloth simulation with three types of springs. However, cloth simulation using the mass–spring system requires a small integration time-step to use a large stiffness coefficient. Furthermore, constraint enforcement is applied to obtain the stable behavior of the cloth model. To reduce the computational burden of constraint enforcement, the adaptive constraint activation and deactivation (ACAD) technique that includes the mass–spring system and constraint enforcement method is applied to prevent excessive elongation of the cloth. The proposed algorithm utilizes the graphics processing unit (GPU) parallel processing, and implements it in Compute Shader that executes in different pipelines to the rendering pipeline. In this paper, we investigate the performance and compare the behavior of the mass–spring system, constraint enforcement, and ACAD techniques using a GPU-based parallel method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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21 pages, 6920 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mobile Augmented Reality Serious Game for Improving Old Adults’ Working Memory

by Kyungjin Han, Kiho Park, Kee-Hong Choi and Jongweon Lee

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(17), 7843; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11177843 - 26 Aug 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4737

Abstract

As the aging population increases rapidly throughout the world, various approaches and studies are in progress to prevent age-related diseases. Among the diseases related to the elderly, dementia (in which cognitive function declines) is classified as a mental disorder. Since there is currently no therapeutic agent for dementia, early diagnosis and prophylactic approaches may be useful. In this study, a mobile-based augmented reality system for regular cognitive function training is proposed to minimize declines in cognitive function among the elderly. Using the characteristics of markerless augmented reality technology that can support physical activities, the foregoing system was developed in the form of a serious game based on an understanding of physical aging by the main users and inspired by existing psychological cognitive evaluation tools. The augmented reality system proposed in this study aims to induce the active participation of clients with goal setting and motivation using a gamified training system. In addition, it can ultimately be used as a self-assessment tool by recording an individual users’ performance ability. This proposed system must be used after receiving proper guidance from psychologists. The game protocol was designed together with experts in clinical psychology: therapists as well as neuropsychological assessors who were experienced in carrying out cognitive training sessions. The experts said that the system could help improve cognitive functions, such as working memory, attention concentration, and visual perception memory. However, this system has some limitations. This system was verified once with a small number of experts and could not be introduced to an actual elderly group to undergo verification of effectiveness. To compensate, we will conduct experiments to verify the effectiveness in order to avoid placebo effects. The effectiveness of program implementation will be verified by digitizing the correlations between the results of the neuropsychological assessment in the form of paper and pens and the results of signal data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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19 pages, 2493 KiB

Open AccessArticle

VR as a 3D Modelling Tool in Engineering Design Applications

by Daria Vlah, Vanja Čok and Uroš Urbas

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(16), 7570; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11167570 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5467

Abstract

The study aims to explore the usefulness of existing VR 3D modelling tools for use in mechanical engineering. Previous studies have investigated the use of VR 3D modelling tools in conceptual phases of the product development process. Our objective was to find out if VR tools are useful in creating advanced freeform CAD models that are part of the embodiment design phase in the context of mechanical design science. Two studies were conducted. In the preliminary study, the group of participants modelled a 3D part in a standard desktop CAD application, which provided information about the key characteristics that must be satisfied to obtain a solid model from a surface model. In the research study conducted with a focus group of participants, who were firstly trained in the use of VR, the same part was modelled using a VR headset. The results were analysed and the fulfilment of key characteristics in the use of VR was evaluated. It was found that using VR tools provides a fast way to create complex part geometries, however, it has certain drawbacks. Finally, the ease of use and specific features of the VR technology were discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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19 pages, 5727 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sightseeing Navigation System from Normal Times to Disaster Outbreak Times within Urban Tourist Areas in Japan

by Ryo Sasaki and Kayoko Yamamoto

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(10), 4609; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11104609 - 18 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2364

Abstract

In tourist areas, it is necessary to prepare a method that supports tourists’ activities by providing information concerning disaster support facilities during normal times, in addition to sightseeing spots and tourism-related facilities, because there is a risk of confusion during disasters, as tourists are not aware of the locations of disaster support facilities. The present study aims to develop a navigation system that supports the activities of users during both normal times and disasters by integrating augmented reality (AR) and web geographic information systems (Web-GISs), as well as by using pictograms. The system can not only effectively provide users with information concerning sightseeing spots and tourism-related facilities but also information concerning disaster support facilities. The system was operated over a period of 6 weeks in Chofu City, Tokyo Metropolis, Japan. Based on the results of a questionnaire survey for 60 users, the system was highly evaluated for its originality in terms of displays and functions using pictograms, navigation using AR, and obtaining information during disasters. Additionally, based on the results of access log analysis, the system was continuously utilized by users during the operation period. Therefore, by continuously operating the system, it can be expected that users will further utilize each function of the system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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Review

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13 pages, 559 KiB

Open AccessReview

Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality in Dentistry: Highlights from the Current Research

by Sidra Fahim, Afsheen Maqsood, Gotam Das, Naseer Ahmed, Shahabe Saquib, Abhishek Lal, Abdul Ahad Ghaffar Khan and Mohammad Khursheed Alam

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(8), 3719; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12083719 - 7 Apr 2022

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 16947

Abstract

Many modern advancements have taken place in dentistry that have exponentially impacted the progress and practice of dentistry. Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) are becoming the trend in the practice of modern dentistry because of their impact on changing the patient’s experience. The use of AR and VR has been beneficial in different fields of science, but their use in dentistry is yet to be thoroughly explored, and conventional ways of dentistry are still practiced at large. Over the past few years, dental treatment has been significantly reshaped by technological advancements. In dentistry, the use of AR and VR systems has not become widespread, but their different uses should be explored. Therefore, the aim of this review was to provide an update on the contemporary knowledge, to report on the ongoing progress of AR and VR in various fields of dental medicine and education, and to identify the further research required to achieve their translation into clinical practice. A literature search was performed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar for articles in peer-reviewed English-language journals published in the last 10 years up to 31 March 2021, with the help of specific keywords related to AR and VR in various dental fields. Of the total of 101 articles found in the literature search, 68 abstracts were considered suitable and further evaluated, and consequently, 33 full-texts were identified. Finally, a total of 13 full-texts were excluded from further analysis, resulting in 20 articles for final inclusion. The overall number of studies included in this review was low; thus, at this point in time, scientifically-proven recommendations could not be stated. AR and VR have been found to be beneficial tools for clinical practice and for enhancing the learning experiences of students during their pre-clinical education and training sessions. Clinicians can use VR technology to show their patients the expected outcomes before the undergo dental procedures. Additionally, AR and VR can be implemented to overcome dental phobia, which is commonly experienced by pediatric patients. Future studies should focus on forming technological standards with high-quality data and developing scientifically-proven AR/VR gadgets for dental practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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17 pages, 5982 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effectiveness of Augmented Reality in Stroke Rehabilitation: A Meta-Analysis

by Huu Lam Phan, Thi Huong Le, Jung Min Lim, Chang Ho Hwang and Kyo-in Koo

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(4), 1848; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12041848 - 11 Feb 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6509

Abstract

Augmented reality (AR)-based rehabilitation shows potential to improve upper and lower limb function after stroke. This study aims to review the effect of AR technology in the recovery of the upper and lower limb function in stroke patients. Published randomized controlled trials and observational investigations with adult stroke patients were retrieved from five electronic databases to analyze the effect of the AR systems in improving motor function and balance and gait function for stroke patients. The treatment effect was estimated by standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) using a random effect model for motor function outcomes at the body structure and function, body activity and participation level of the International Classification of Functioning, and balance and gait outcomes. In total, 13 investigations (9 for the upper limb and 4 for the lower limb) were identified. AR demonstrated a significant influence on the upper limb function (SMD = 0.657; 95% CI, 0.287 to 1.026; p = 0.000) and the lower limb function (SMD = 0.52; 95% CI, 0.039 to 1.001; p = 0.034). The present analysis suggests that AR applications could offer options for increasing treatment intensity and promoting motor recovery after a stroke. This approach can be used with the conventional rehabilitation methods as a new intervention for recovering upper and lower limb function. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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14 pages, 1095 KiB

Open AccessReview

Augmented, Virtual and Mixed Reality in Dentistry: A Narrative Review on the Existing Platforms and Future Challenges

by Riccardo Monterubbianesi, Vincenzo Tosco, Flavia Vitiello, Giulia Orilisi, Franco Fraccastoro, Angelo Putignano and Giovanna Orsini

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(2), 877; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12020877 - 15 Jan 2022

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 11732

Abstract

The recent advancements in digital technologies have led to exponential progress in dentistry. This narrative review aims to summarize the applications of Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality and Mixed Reality in dentistry and describes future challenges in digitalization, such as Artificial Intelligence and Robotics. Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality and Mixed Reality represent effective tools in the educational technology, as they can enhance students’ learning and clinical training. Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality and can also be useful aids during clinical practice. Augmented Reality can be used to add digital data to real life clinical data. Clinicians can apply Virtual Reality for a digital wax-up that provides a pre-visualization of the final post treatment result. In addition, both these technologies may also be employed to eradicate dental phobia in patients and further enhance patient’s education. Similarly, they can be used to enhance communication between the dentist, patient, and technician. Artificial Intelligence and Robotics can also improve clinical practice. Artificial Intelligence is currently developed to improve dental diagnosis and provide more precise prognoses of dental diseases, whereas Robotics may be used to assist in daily practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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29 pages, 766 KiB

Open AccessReview

How to Promote User Purchase in Metaverse? A Systematic Literature Review on Consumer Behavior Research and Virtual Commerce Application Design

by Bingqing Shen, Weiming Tan, Jingzhi Guo, Linshuang Zhao and Peng Qin

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(23), 11087; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112311087 - 23 Nov 2021

Cited by 194 | Viewed by 35948

Abstract

Virtual commerce applies immersive technology such as augmented reality and virtual reality into e-commerce to shift consumer perception from 2D product catalogs to 3D immersive virtual spaces. In virtual commerce, the alignment of application design paradigms and the factors influencing consumer behavior is paramount to promote purchase of products and services. The question of their relation needs to be answered, together with the possible improvement of application design. This paper used a systematic literature review approach to synthesize research on virtual commerce from both application design and consumer behavior research, considering the promotion of purchase in virtual commerce settings. Throughout the review, influential factors to purchase and preeminent design artifacts were identified. Then, the research gaps were discovered by mapping the design artifacts to the influential factors, which can inspire future research opportunities on the synergy of these two research directions. Moreover, the evolution of virtual commerce research along with multiple directions were discussed, including the suggestion of meta-commerce as a future trend. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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22 pages, 10247 KiB

Open AccessReview

HMD-Based VR Tool for Traffic Psychological Examination: Conceptualization and Design Proposition

by Vojtěch Juřík, Václav Linkov, Petr Děcký, Sára Klečková and Edita Chvojková

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(19), 8832; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11198832 - 23 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3577

Abstract

In the present theoretical paper, the current body of knowledge regarding the use of wearable virtual reality (VR) technologies for traffic psychological examination (TPE) is introduced, critically discussed and a specific application is suggested. The combination of wearable head-mounted displays for VR with an interactive and cost-effective haptic driving interface is emphasized as a valid and viable platform for a driving skills psychological assessment, which is in several aspects superior to standard TPE as well as driving simulators. For this purpose, existing psychological examination methods and psychological phenomena relevant in the process of driving are discussed together with VR technology’s properties and options. Special focus is dedicated to situation awareness as a crucial, but currently hardly measurable construct, where VR in combination with embedded eye-tracking (ET) technology represents a promising solution. Furthermore, the suitability and possibilities of these VR tools for valid traffic psychological examination are analyzed and discussed. Additionally, potentially desirable measures for driving assessment based on recent advances of VR are outlined and practical applications are suggested. The aim of this article is to bring together recent advances in TPE, VR and ET; revise previous relevant studies in the field; and to propose concept of the cost effective, mobile and expandable HMD-based driving simulator, which can be suitable for an ecologically valid driving assessment and follow-up TPE in common practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AR, VR: From Latest Technologies to Novel Applications)

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