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Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A4: Bio-Energy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2023) | Viewed by 26069

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Dr. M. A. Fazal

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Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Interests: biofuel; combustion; materials compatibility; energy materials; renewable energy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Guest Editors of the Special Issue “Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potentials” in Energies are pleased to announce that this issue is open for submissions.

This issue will focus on the most recent developments in the biomass bioenergy sector, providing a platform for researchers with which to exchange the latest research progress on the processing, characterization, and modelling of biomass bioenergy. We aim to compile novel findings from academia, industry, and government research laboratories.

Conventional fossil fuel is vital in global transportation and power generation systems due to its availability, combustion performance, and accessibility. However, the combustion of fossil fuel generates harmful emissions (e.g., CO₂, SO₂ and NO_x etc.), and pollutes the environment. Furthermore, depletion of reservation and the increased cost of and demand for fossil fuel have propelled the world energy industries to seek alternative and sustainable replacements. As a result, the entire world is striving to find viable renewable energy resources. Biofuel is the most promising renewable energy source for use in combustion engines and power generation systems. Diesel fuel blends containing up to 20% biodiesel are currently used in diesel engines without any modification. However, several critical issues exist in this field, including feedstock availability, production technology, energy yield, cost, storage stability, fuel properties, corrosivity, materials compatibility, etc. A considerable number of studies on these topics have been conducted both experimentally and numerically. The present Special Issue is dedicated to papers addressing these issues.

This Special Issue welcomes the following topics, among others:

i) Biomass bioenergy and their processing;
ii) Biofuel production technology and technoeconomic analysis;
iii) Properties, modelling, and applications of bioenergy;
iv) Ability of biomass and bioenergy to meet the world energy demand.

Dr. M. A. Fazal
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

biomass resources
biofuel feedstocks
bioenergy production
biofuel properties modelling
combustion
materials compatibility
technoeconomic analysis

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Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential—2nd Edition in Energies (3 articles)

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30 pages, 3871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biomass Amounts of Spontaneous Vegetation on Post-Coal Mine Novel Ecosystem in Relation to Biotic Parameters

by Karolina Ryś, Damian Chmura, Dariusz Prostański and Gabriela Woźniak

Energies 2023, 16(22), 7513; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16227513 - 9 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1156

Abstract

The amounts of biomass in ecosystems depends on the efficiency of energy gathering in organic chemical bonds by autotrophs, which are the only organisms that synthesize inorganic compounds into organic compounds structured into biomass. Plant species composition in the vegetation patch and the associated microorganism communities are factors that affect the matter and energy flow in the ecosystem. In human-established or severely transformed novel ecosystems, in particular in mineral-poor, oligotrophic habitats, the knowledge about the biotic parameters related to the biomass amount is very limited. The presented studies were performed on post-black coal mining heaps that provide the mineral material habitat. The following biotic parameters, the vegetation plant species composition of the distinguished vegetation types, soil organic matter, soil enzymatic activity, soil fauna presence, and the functional aspect of soil carbon release concerning amount of biomass are considered. The aim of this research was to analyze the influence of the selected biotic factors on the biomass amount in the vegetation patches of the studied sites. The results showed that the effect of the species composition diversity on the biomass amount is complex. The influences of soil enzyme activity on biomass amount are dependent on the enzyme presence and the vegetation type. Similarly, the impact of the soil organic matter (SOM) on the biomass amount is significantly different and dependent on vegetation type. The relationship between the amount of biomass and respiration showed that the biomass of the dominant plant species is positively correlated with the biomass amount in the studied vegetation types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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24 pages, 5223 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Soil Respiration of Coal Mine Heaps’ Novel Ecosystems in Relation to Biomass and Biotic Parameters

by Łukasz Radosz, Damian Chmura, Dariusz Prostański and Gabriela Woźniak

Energies 2023, 16(20), 7083; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16207083 - 13 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1110

Abstract

The biodiversity, including the diversity of autotrophic organisms of mostly plant species, assembled in vegetation patches and its impact on the course of ecosystem processes is still a key subject of research in natural sciences around the world. Certain aspects of the relationship between biodiversity and CO₂ release processes have been studied only in some natural and semi-natural ecosystems (semi-natural ecosystems such as meadow or grasslands). In contrast, very little is known about the biotic parameters related to natural processes and the functioning of novel ecosystems. This study was performed on post-black coal mining heaps. The studied sites were established on carboniferous mineral material. Among the considered biotic parameters, the vegetation plant species composition, soil organic matter, soil enzymatic activity, soil fauna presence, and the plant species biomass were studied. The aim of the research was to analyse the influence of the selected biotic factors on the CO₂ release from the mineral material of black coal mining heaps’ novel ecosystems. The range of CO₂ release at the analysed sites was 0.00158–1.21462 [g CO₂/m²/h]. The activity of soil enzymes such as dehydrogenase, acid phosphatase, and basic phosphatase was positively correlated with the amount of CO₂ released, however, there was no correlation between urease activity and CO₂ emissions from the soil. In our study, a comparison of the soil organic matter developed under the vegetation types studied and CO₂ release (rate) showed a dependence on vegetation type. The amount of biomass was not linearly correlated with CO₂ release from the soil. The presence of soil fauna displayed a positive effect on CO₂ release. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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27 pages, 7500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Spatially Explicit Evaluation of the Economic Performance of a Perennial Energy Crop on the Marginal Land of the Loess Plateau and China

by Yanmei Liu, Astley Hastings, Shaolin Chen and André Faaij

Energies 2023, 16(14), 5282; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16145282 - 10 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1350

Abstract

The Loess Plateau, with a large area of marginal land, holds the potential to produce 62–106 Tg per year of switchgrass biomass; however, the economic feasibility of producing bioenergy in the region is unclear. The farm-gate feedstock production (FGFP) cost of switchgrass was calculated in a spatially explicit way by taking the geographic variation in crop yield, soil properties, land quality, and input costs into consideration in order to evaluate the economic performance of bioenergy production. Cost–supply curves were constructed to explore the energy supply potential of switchgrass feedstock. The calculations were conducted using ArcGIS in a 1 km grid and all the evaluations were conducted under different agricultural management practice (AMP) scenarios in parallel. The FGFP costs showed significant spatial variation ranging from 95 to 7373 CNY (Chinese Yuan) per tonne⁻¹ and that the most economically desirable areas are scattered in the south and southeast region. The weighted average FGFP costs are 710, 1125, and 1596 CNY per tonne⁻¹ for small bale (SB), large bale (LB), and chipping (CP) harvest methods, respectively. The projected energy supply potential is 1927 PJ (Petajoules) per year⁻¹, of which 30–93% can be supplied below the market prices of different fossil fuels according to feedstock formats. Compared to current biomass residual pricing, 50–66 Tg (Teragrams) switchgrass feedstock is competitive. The results demonstrated that the Loess Plateau holds the potential to produce bioenergy that is economically feasible. This study provides a methodological framework for spatially explicit evaluation of the economic performance of perennial energy crops. Detailed information obtained from this study can be used to select the optimal locations and AMPs to produce feedstock production at minimum cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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16 pages, 1807 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Prediction of the Higher Heating Value of Biomass Using an Artificial Neural Network Model Based on the Selection of Input Parameters

by Justyna Kujawska, Monika Kulisz, Piotr Oleszczuk and Wojciech Cel

Energies 2023, 16(10), 4162; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16104162 - 18 May 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1566

Abstract

Recently, biomass has become an increasingly widely used energy resource. The problem with the use of biomass is its variable composition. The most important property that determines the energy content and thus the performance of fuels such as biomass is the heating value (HHV). This paper focuses on selecting the optimal number of input variables using linear regression (LR) and the multivariate adaptive regression splines approach (MARS) to create an artificial neural network model for predicting the heating value of selected biomass. The MARS model selected the input data better than the LR model. The best modeling results were obtained for a network with three input neurons and nine neurons in the hidden layer. This was confirmed by a high correlation coefficient of 0.98. The obtained results show that artificial neural network (ANN) models are effective in predicting the calorific value of woody and field biomass, and can be considered a worthy simulation model for use in selecting biomass feedstocks and their blends for renewable fuel applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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18 pages, 4708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potentialities and Impacts of Biomass Energy in the Brazilian Northeast Region

by Edvaldo Pereira Santos Júnior, Elias Gabriel Magalhães Silva, Maria Helena de Sousa, Emmanuel Damilano Dutra, Antonio Samuel Alves da Silva, Aldo Torres Sales, Everardo Valadares de Sa Barretto Sampaio, Luiz Moreira Coelho Junior and Rômulo Simões Cezar Menezes

Energies 2023, 16(9), 3903; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093903 - 5 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3066

Abstract

In Northeast Brazil, the use of biomass for energy generation is settled on traditional productive arrangements, such as a sugarcane production system in the humid Atlantic coastal area and firewood extraction from native tropical dry forests in the west. In parallel, substantial amounts of other biomass sources, such as residues from agricultural or urban processes, are still little used or wholly wasted, fudging the opportunity to generate new value chains based on these biomass sources. We hypothesize that using these non-traditional biomass sources to produce biofuels would significantly increase the regional bioenergy supply. In this context, this article discusses the potential for the production and use of biofuels and bioenergy in Northeast Brazil and its effects on regional development, which may be useful for both private actors and policymakers in the energy sector. The use of biomass sources for energy in the region is significant, reaching approximately 8.8 million tons of oil equivalent (toe) per year, emphasizing the already consolidated production of sugarcane and its derivatives. The use of all biomass resources in the Northeast region could supply around 4% of the Brazilian national electrical energy demand, with an environmental footprint of 0.055 tCO_2eq per toe, which would contribute to reducing emissions from the Brazilian energy matrix generation. Regarding the spatial distribution of biomass sources, sugarcane prevails on the coast, firewood and livestock manure in the dryland area towards the west, and municipal solid waste is distributed throughout the region within urban areas. Different from what we expected, the potential energy recovery from municipal waste and animal manure would increase by only 17% the current bioenergy supply. In the future, since the majority of the region presents a semi-arid climate with limited rainfall, to increase the use of biomass as an energy source, there is a need to increase the supply of biomass sources with high efficiency in water use and good yields in drylands. For this, the cultivation and use of cacti and agave, for example, could contribute to making biorefineries viable in the region. Above all, public policies for harnessing bioenergy in NE Brazil must seek opportunities associated with the carbon/decarbonization economy, with studies being needed to assess the technical, economic, social, and environmental viability of future productive arrangements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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34 pages, 6926 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Supercritical Water Gasification of Coconut Shell Impregnated with a Nickel Nanocatalyst: Box–Behnken Design and Process Evaluation

by Marcela M. Marcelino, Gary A. Leeke, Guozhan Jiang, Jude A. Onwudili, Carine T. Alves, Delano M. de Santana, Felipe A. Torres, Ednildo A. Torres and Silvio A. B. Vieira de Melo

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3563; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083563 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1800

Abstract

The energy conversion of nickel-impregnated coconut shells using supercritical water has not yet been explored. The impregnation process was conducted at room temperature and a pH of 5.80 for 72 h. Characterization of the prepared sample confirmed the presence of nickel nanoparticles with an average size of 7.15 nm. The gasification of control and impregnated samples was performed at 400–500 °C, biomass loading from 20 to 30 wt% and residence time from 20 to 60 min. The response surface methodology (RSM) approach, with a Box–Behnken method, was used to design the experiments. The optimization model showed that the non-catalytic process at 500 °C, 60 min and 20 wt% of biomass loading could promote an H₂ yield of 8.8 mol% and gasification efficiency of 47.6%. The gasification of nickel-impregnated coconut shells showed significantly higher gasification efficiency (58.6%) and hydrogen yield (17.2 mol%) with greater carbon and hydrogen efficiencies (109.4 and 116.9%) when compared to the non-catalytic process. The presence of nickel particles in the biomass matrix as nanocatalysts promoted higher hydrogen production and supercritical water gasification efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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22 pages, 2132 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Assessment of Economic Supply and Environmental Effects of Biomass Co-Firing in Coal Power Plants: A Case Study of Jiangsu, China

by Weiwei Wang

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2725; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062725 - 15 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2098

Abstract

The technical supply potential of biomass and the associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are widely studied in the literature. However, relatively few studies have examined the role of biomass co-firing for future electricity in China by integratedly considering the economic supply potential and GHG effects. To fill this gap, we choose the Jiangsu Province in China as a case study and build up a partial equilibrium model with multiple agricultural commodities. Using this model combined with a life cycle assessment, we jointly determine the economic potential of the biomass supply for a biomass co-firing purpose and social benefits, including the agricultural producers’ surplus and GHG mitigation potential. The simulation incorporates the county-level biomass market of various crop residues as well as endogenous crop prices and transportation costs. We find that 0.7–12.5 M MT of residue-based biomass are economically viable for co-firing in coal-based power plants (up to 20%) at biomass prices between USD 50 and USD 100/MT. The net GHG savings achieved at these biomass prices are from 3.2 to 59 M MTCO₂e. Our findings indicate that biomass co-firing with coal in power plants would be a feasible low-carbon energy transition pathway if the biomass price is above USD 50/MT. In addition to biomass prices, other factors such as crop yields, production costs of residues, and transportation costs are found to be impactful on the economic viability of biomass and GHG savings. Our results can inform policy to develop localized carbon reduction strategies in provinces with abundant biomass resources and a high share of coal-fired electricity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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17 pages, 6747 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Production of Bio-Oil from Thermo-Catalytic Decomposition of Pomegranate Peels over a Sulfonated Tea Waste Heterogeneous Catalyst: A Kinetic Investigation

by Nafees Ur Rehman, Jan Nisar, Ghulam Ali, Ali Ahmad, Afzal Shah, Zahoor H. Farooqi and Faisal Muhammad

Energies 2023, 16(4), 1908; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041908 - 15 Feb 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1810

Abstract

In this study, the pyrolysis procedure was used to extract oil from pomegranate peels (PP) utilizing biomass-derived sulfonated tea waste as a catalyst. FTIR, SAA, SEM, and XRD were used to characterize the catalyst. Thermo-catalytic decomposition was carried out in a salt bath reactor and the bio-oil composition was determined through GC-MS. The oil obtained from virgin PP was observed to contain compounds in the range of C₅–C₁₃, whereas from the catalyzed reaction it was found to be rich in C₅–C₂₃. For the calculation of kinetic parameters, TG analysis was performed of virgin PP and with the catalyst at different heating rates. TG/DTG indicated weight loss in four steps. The first weight loss below 100 °C is due to the physically adsorbed water molecule evaporation. The second weight loss is attributed to hemicellulose decomposition and the third one to cellulose degradation. The fourth weight loss is due to lignin degradation. Kissinger model was used for measuring the activation energy (Ea) of the decomposition reaction. The activation energy of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin for non-catalytic reactions was observed as 199, 249, and 299 kJmol⁻¹, while in the case of the loaded tea waste catalyst, the Ea was reduced to 122, 163, and 207 kJmol⁻¹, respectively, confirming the effectiveness of the catalyst. From these findings, it can be concluded that sulfonated tea waste catalyst has not only lowered the pyrolysis temperature and Ea but also brought a change in oil quality by enhancing value-added compounds in the bio-oil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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26 pages, 3847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Production of Biodiesel from Novel Non-Edible Oil Seeds (Descurainia sophia L.) via Green Nano CeO₂ Catalyst

by Maryam Tanveer Akhtar, Mushtaq Ahmad, Mohamed Fawzy Ramadan, Trobjon Makhkamov, Akramjon Yuldashev, Oybek Mamarakhimov, Mamoona Munir, Maliha Asma, Muhammad Zafar and Salman Majeed

Energies 2023, 16(3), 1534; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031534 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3843

Abstract

The current study focuses on the synthesis of Cerium oxide (CeO₂) nanocatalyst via Tragacanth Gum (TG) using the wet impregnation method and its application for sustainable biodiesel production from a novel, non-edible Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl seed oil. The D. sophia seed oil has higher oil content (36 wt%) and free fatty acid (FFA) value (0.6 mg KOH/g). Innovative analytical methods, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, were used to characterize the newly synthesized, environmentally friendly, and recyclable CeO₂-TG phytonanocatalyst (FT-IR). The results show that the CeO₂-TG phytonanocatalyst was 22 nm in diameter with a spherical shape outer morphology, while the inner structure was hexagonal. Due to low FFA content, the D. sophia seed oil was pretreated and transesterified via a single step. Using varying parameters, the optimized process variables were determined via Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The optimum process values were 8:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 0.3 wt% catalyst concentration, 90 °C temperature, and reaction time of 210 min with 98% biodiesel yield. The recently created phytonanocatalyst was reliable and effective, with three times reusability in the transesterification reaction. Thin layer chromatography (TLC), FT-IR, gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy (GCMS), and Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses were used to characterize the synthesized biodiesel. Physico-chemical properties of D. sophia biodiesel, i.e., Kinematic viscosity (4.23 mm²/s), density (0.800 kg/m³), pour point (−7 °C), cloud point (−12 °C), and flash point (73.5 °C) agree well with international biodiesel standards (ASTM-6751, 951), (EU-14214), and China (GB/T 20828) standards. The results show that the synthesized nanocatalyst demonstrated remarkable stability, indicating a bright future for industrial biodiesel production from low-cost feedstock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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19 pages, 1830 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Utilizing Locally Available Bioresources for Powering Remote Indigenous Communities: A Framework and Case Study

by Jeremy B. Trombley, Kamaljit K. Sangha, Alan N. Andersen and Suresh N. Thennadil

Energies 2023, 16(2), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020666 - 5 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1819

Abstract

We establish a framework to examine the feasibility of using local vegetation for bioenergy power systems in small-scale applications and remote settings. The framework has broad application, and we present a specific case here to demonstrate the process. Our case study is the Tiwi Islands in northern Australia, where a large Acacia mangium plantation is a potential source of biofuel feedstock. Two types of technology were considered: 1. Bio-oil from pyrolysis in diesel generators and 2. Direct combustion coupled with a steam turbine. The biomass was characterized and found to have adequate properties for an energy crop, with a lower heating value of about 18 MJ/kg and entire tree ash content of 2%. Measurements from trees that were damaged from wildfires had similar results, showing potential value recovery for a plantation after unplanned fire. In comparison to a petroleum diesel-based generator, the bio-oil system was 12% more expensive. The direct combustion system was found to be the most economical of those explored here, costing as low as 61% of the bio-oil system. Additional social and environmental benefits were identified, including local employment opportunities, improved energy security and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Our findings of high techno-economic potential of bioenergy systems, especially through direct combustion, are widely applicable to on-demand renewable energy supply in remote communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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27 pages, 6302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Injection Pressure and Aluminium Oxide Nano Particle-Added Fish Oil Methyl Ester on the Performance and Emission of Compression Ignition Engine

by K. M. Akkoli, S. C. Kamate, S. N. Topannavar, A. R. Bhavimani, N. R. Banapurmath, Ibham Veza, Manzoore Elahi M. Soudagar, T. M. Yunus Khan, A. S. El-Shafay, M. A. Kalam, M. M. Shivashimpi and Archana M. Gulli

Energies 2022, 15(24), 9491; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249491 - 14 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1718

Abstract

The present experimental examination was carried out to suggest a better fuel blend with an optimised dosage level of alumina nanoparticles (Al₂O₃)—in a mixture of Fish Oil Methyl Ester (FOME) biodiesel and diesel—and injection pressure, wherein enhanced performance and reduced emissions were obtained via a diesel engine. The aluminium nanoparticles were added to the mixture in 5 mg/l steps through varying concentrations from 5 to 20 mg/L. The experimental results showed that engine performance quietly reduces with increased emission characteristics with the addition of raw FOME biodiesel compared to diesel. Furthermore, the addition of aluminium nanoparticles (Al₂O₃) improved the performance as well as the emission characteristics of the engine. Among all the test blends, the B40D60A20 blend provided a maximum brake thermal efficiency of 30.7%, which is 15.63% superior to raw FOME and 3.90% inferior to diesel fuel. The blend also showed reduced emissions, for instance, a reduction of 48.38% in CO, 17.51% in HC, 16.52% in NOx, and 20.89% in smoke compared to diesel fuel. Lastly, it was concluded that B40D60A20 at 260 bar is the optimised fuel blend, and 20 mg/l is the recommended dose level of aluminium nanoparticles (Al₂O₃) in the FOME–diesel mixture biodiesels in order to enhance the performance and emission parameters of a diesel engine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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20 pages, 2421 KiB

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Advancements of Biochar-Based Catalyst for Improved Production of Biodiesel: A Comprehensive Review

by Sooraj Kumar, Suhail Ahmed Soomro, Khanji Harijan, Mohammad Aslam Uqaili and Laveet Kumar

Energies 2023, 16(2), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020644 - 5 Jan 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3583

Abstract

Despite being a limited and scarce resource, the necessity and exploitation of fossil fuels are unstoppable in serving human demands. In order to supply energy demand without causing environmental damage, it is crucial to utilize a variety of renewable feedstock resources. Biochar, made up mostly of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, is the product of the thermochemical processes of pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization, torrefaction, and hydrothermal liquefaction. Biochar, once activated, has the potential to act as a catalyst in a variety of energy generation processes, including transesterification and fermentation. Transesterification is the process that is used to produce biodiesel from a variety of oils, both edible and non-edible, as well as animal fats in the presence of either a homogeneous or a heterogeneous catalyst. When selecting a catalyst, the amount of free fatty acid (FFA) content in the oil is considered. Homogeneous catalysts are superior to heterogeneous catalysts because they are unaffected by the concentration of free fatty acids in the oil. Homogeneous catalysts are extremely hazardous, as they are poisonous, combustible, and corrosive. In addition, the production of soaps as a byproduct and a large volume of wastewater from the use of homogeneous catalysts necessitates additional pretreatment procedures and costs for adequate disposal. This article examines the biochar-based fuel-generation catalyst in detail. At first, a wide variety of thermochemical methods were provided for manufacturing biochar and its production. Biochar’s chemical nature was analyzed, and the case for using it as a catalyst in the production of biofuels was also scrutinized. An explanation of how the biochar catalyst can improve fuel synthesis is provided for readers. Biodiesel’s transesterification and esterification processes, biomass hydrolysis, and biohydrogen generation with the help of a biochar catalyst are all reviewed in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Resources and Bio-Energy Potential)

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