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Oil and Gas Engineering

A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2017) | Viewed by 104619

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Alireza Bahadori

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Environment, Science & Engineering, Southern Cross University, P.O. Box 157, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
Interests: renewable energy; sustainable energy; environmental engineering; oil and gas engineering; resource recovery and utilization; gasification, pyrolysis; air pollution control; waste management; waste treatment; waste to energy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In oil and gas fields, hydrocarbon production is often constrained by reservoir conditions, deliverability of the pipeline network, fluid-handling capacity of facilities, safety and economic considerations, or a combination of these considerations. The task of oil and gas engineers is to devise optimal operating strategies to achieve certain operational goals.

These targets can vary from field to field and with time. Typically, one may wish to maximize oil and gas production rates or minimize production costs. This Special Issue aims to provide high quality papers addressing various oil and gas engineering issues that ease and automate the decision making of oil and gas production and processing for certain operations. In this volume, high quality papers related to the major components (the objective, the control variables, and the constraints) of the oil and gas production and processing optimization problems are presented.

We cordially invite you to contribute your original research articles, review articles, or case studies to this Special Issue on oil and gas engineering.

Dr. Alireza Bahadori
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • oil and gas production
  • oil and gas processing, optimization
  • modelling, oil and gas transmission
  • oil and gas reservoir engineering
  • oil refining
  • petrochemical plants

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Published Papers (20 papers)

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Research

1074 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Model-Based Control Solutions for Severe Riser-Induced Slugs
by Simon Pedersen, Esmaeil Jahanshahi, Zhenyu Yang and Sigurd Skogestad
Energies 2017, 10(12), 2014; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10122014 - 1 Dec 2017
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3109
Abstract
Control solutions for eliminating severe riser-induced slugs in offshore oil & gas pipeline installations are key topics in offshore Exploration and Production (E&P) processes. This study describes the identification, analysis and control of a low-dimensional control-oriented model of a lab-scaled slug testing facility. [...] Read more.
Control solutions for eliminating severe riser-induced slugs in offshore oil & gas pipeline installations are key topics in offshore Exploration and Production (E&P) processes. This study describes the identification, analysis and control of a low-dimensional control-oriented model of a lab-scaled slug testing facility. The model is analyzed and used for anti-slug control development for both lowpoint and topside transmitter solutions. For the controlled variables’ comparison it is concluded that the topside pressure transmitter ( P t ) is the most difficult output to apply directly for anti-slug control due to the inverse response. However, as P t often is the only accessible measurement on offshore platforms this study focuses on the controller development for both P t and the lowpoint pressure transmitter ( P b ). All the control solutions are based on linear control schemes and the performance of the controllers are evaluated from simulations with both the non-linear MATLAB and OLGA models. Furthermore, the controllers are studied with input disturbances and parametric variations to evaluate their robustness. For both pressure transmitters the H ∞ loop-shaping controller gives the best performance as it is relatively robust to disturbances and has a fast convergence rate. However, P t does not increase the closed-loop bifurcation point significantly and is also sensitive to disturbances. Thus the study concludes that the best option for single-input-single-output (SISO) systems is to control P b with a H ∞ loop-shaping controller. It is suggested that for cases where only topside transmitters are available a cascaded combination of the outlet mass flow and P t could be considered to improve the performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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4126 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Modeling of the Two-Phase Leakage Process of Natural Gas Liquid Storage Tanks
by Xia Wu, Changjun Li, Yufa He and Wenlong Jia
Energies 2017, 10(9), 1399; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10091399 - 13 Sep 2017
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5975
Abstract
The leakage process simulation of a Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) storage tank requires the simultaneous solution of the NGL’s pressure, temperature and phase state in the tank and across the leak hole. The methods available in the literature rarely consider the liquid/vapor phase [...] Read more.
The leakage process simulation of a Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) storage tank requires the simultaneous solution of the NGL’s pressure, temperature and phase state in the tank and across the leak hole. The methods available in the literature rarely consider the liquid/vapor phase transition of the NGL during such a process. This paper provides a comprehensive pressure-temperature-phase state method to solve this problem. With this method, the phase state of the NGL is predicted by a thermodynamic model based on the volume translated Peng-Robinson equation of state (VTPR EOS). The tank’s pressure and temperature are simulated according to the pressure-volume-temperature and isenthalpic expansion principles of the NGL. The pressure, temperature, leakage mass flow rate across the leak hole are calculated from an improved Homogeneous Non-Equilibrium Diener-Schmidt (HNE-DS) model and the isentropic expansion principle. In particular, the improved HNE-DS model removes the ideal gas assumption used in the original HNE-DS model by using a new compressibility factor developed from the VTPR EOS to replace the original one derived from the Clausius-Clayperon equation. Finally, a robust procedure of simultaneously solving the tank model and the leak hole model is proposed and the method is validated by experimental data. A variety of leakage cases demonstrates that this method is effective in simulating the dynamic leakage process of NGL tanks under critical and subcritical releasing conditions associated with vapor/liquid phase change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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7078 KiB  
Article
Sensitivity Analysis of Seismic Velocity and Attenuation Variations for Longmaxi Shale during Hydraulic Fracturing Testing in Laboratory
by Hongyu Zhai, Xu Chang, Yibo Wang, Ziqiu Xue, Xinglin Lei and Yi Zhang
Energies 2017, 10(9), 1393; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10091393 - 13 Sep 2017
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5377
Abstract
During the hydraulic fracturing procedure in shale-gas exploitation, the poroelastic properties of shale formation can be altered significantly. However, it is difficult to evaluate these variations using microseismic field data. In this study, we conduct a hydro-fracturing experiment using Longmaxi shale, which is [...] Read more.
During the hydraulic fracturing procedure in shale-gas exploitation, the poroelastic properties of shale formation can be altered significantly. However, it is difficult to evaluate these variations using microseismic field data. In this study, we conduct a hydro-fracturing experiment using Longmaxi shale, which is a major formation for shale-gas production in China, to simulate the water injection and rock fracturing procedure. The variation of the velocity and attenuation for primary/secondary (P/S) ultrasonic waves was investigated throughout the entire experimental procedure. The results show that the attenuation is more sensitive to sample rupture than the velocity. However, P-wave attenuation loses sensitivity to the water injection after the fractures are saturated with water. In that case, it is preferable to use S-wave attenuation to identify the opening/closing of the fractures. Based on the experimental results, we can conclude that the variation of the attenuation must be considered during microseismic data processing and interpretation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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1765 KiB  
Article
Permeability Change Caused by Stress Damage of Gas Shale
by Chuanliang Yan, Yuanfang Cheng, Fucheng Deng and Ji Tian
Energies 2017, 10(9), 1350; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10091350 - 6 Sep 2017
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3994
Abstract
Stress damage of shale during the uniaxial loading process will cause the change of permeability. The study of stress sensitivity of shale has focused on the influence of confining pressure on shale permeability and the change of shale permeability during the loading process [...] Read more.
Stress damage of shale during the uniaxial loading process will cause the change of permeability. The study of stress sensitivity of shale has focused on the influence of confining pressure on shale permeability and the change of shale permeability during the loading process of axial stress is lacking. The permeability of gas shale during loading process was tested. The results show that shale damage macroscopically reflects the process of axial micro-cracks generation and expansion, and the axial micro-cracks will cause permeability change during the loading process. There is a good corresponding relationship between damage development and micro-crack expansion during the process of shale loading. The damage factor will increase in the linear elastic stage and enlarge rapidly after entering the stage of unstable micro-crack expansion, and the permeability of shale increases with the increasing of shale damage. The research results provide a reliable test basis for further analysis of the borehole instability and hydraulic fracture mechanisms in shale gas reservoirs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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3292 KiB  
Article
Effects of Loading Rate on Gas Seepage and Temperature in Coal and Its Potential for Coal-Gas Disaster Early-Warning
by Chong Zhang, Xiaofei Liu, Guang Xu and Xiaoran Wang
Energies 2017, 10(9), 1246; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10091246 - 23 Aug 2017
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4118
Abstract
The seepage velocity and temperature externally manifest the changing structure, gas desorption and energy release that occurs in coal containing gas failure under loading. By using the system of coal containing gas failure under loading, this paper studies the law of seepage velocity [...] Read more.
The seepage velocity and temperature externally manifest the changing structure, gas desorption and energy release that occurs in coal containing gas failure under loading. By using the system of coal containing gas failure under loading, this paper studies the law of seepage velocity and temperature under different loading rates and at 1.0 MPa confining pressure and 0.5 MPa gas pressure, and combined the on-site results of gas pressure and temperature. The results show that the stress directly affects the seepage velocity and temperature of coal containing gas, and the pressure and content of gas have the most sensitivity to mining stress. Although the temperature is not sensitive to mining stress, it has great correlation with mining stress. Seepage velocity has the characteristic of critically slowing down under loading. This is demonstrated by the variance increasing before the main failure of the samples. Therefore, the variance of seepage velocity with time and temperature can provide an early warning for coal containing gas failing and gas disasters in a coal mine. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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56310 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Processes of Interaction between Hydraulic and Natural Fractures by PFC Modeling Comparing against Laboratory Experiments and Analytical Models
by Jian Zhou, Luqing Zhang, Anika Braun and Zhenhua Han
Energies 2017, 10(7), 1001; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10071001 - 14 Jul 2017
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 5561
Abstract
Hydraulic fracturing technology is usually used to stimulate tight gas reservoirs for increasing gas production. The stimulated volume depends in part on the pre-existing natural fractures in a reservoir. The mechanisms influencing the interaction between hydraulic fractures and natural fractures have to be [...] Read more.
Hydraulic fracturing technology is usually used to stimulate tight gas reservoirs for increasing gas production. The stimulated volume depends in part on the pre-existing natural fractures in a reservoir. The mechanisms influencing the interaction between hydraulic fractures and natural fractures have to be well understood in order to achieve a successful application of hydraulic fracturing. In this paper, hydraulic fracturing simulations were performed based on a two-dimensional Particle Flow Code with an embedded Smooth Joint Model to investigate the interactions between hydraulic fractures and natural fractures and compare these against laboratory experimental results and analytical models. Firstly, the ability of the Smooth Joint Model to mimic the natural rock joints was validated. Secondly, the interactions between generated hydraulic fractures and natural fractures were simulated. Lastly, the influence of angle of approach, in situ differential stress, and the permeability of natural fractures was studied. It is found that the model is capable of simulating the variety of interactions between hydraulic fractures and natural fractures such as Crossed type, Arrested type and Dilated type, and the modeling examples agree well with the experimental results. Under high approach angles and high differential stresses, the hydraulic fractures tend to cross pre-existing natural fractures. Under contrary conditions, a hydraulic fracture is more likely to propagate along the natural fracture and re-initiate at a weak point or the tip of the natural fracture. Moreover, these numerical results are in good agreement compared with Blanton’s criterion. The variety of permeability of natural fractures has a great effect on their interactions, which should not be overlooked in hydraulic fracturing studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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4923 KiB  
Article
Integration of the Production Logging Tool and Production Data for Post-Fracturing Evaluation by the Ensemble Smoother
by Seungpil Jung
Energies 2017, 10(7), 859; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10070859 - 27 Jun 2017
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4100
Abstract
A post-fracturing evaluation is essential to optimize a fracturing design for a multi-stage fractured well located in unconventional reservoirs. To accomplish this task, a production logging tool (PLT) can be utilized to provide the oil production rate of each fracturing stage. In this [...] Read more.
A post-fracturing evaluation is essential to optimize a fracturing design for a multi-stage fractured well located in unconventional reservoirs. To accomplish this task, a production logging tool (PLT) can be utilized to provide the oil production rate of each fracturing stage. In this research, a practical method is proposed to integrate PLT and surface production data into a reservoir model. It applies the ensemble smoother for history-matching to integrate various kinds of dynamic data. To investigate the validity of the proposed method, three cases are designed according to the frequency of PLT surveys. Each fracture half-length calibrated by PLT data is similar to the true value, and the dynamic behavior also has the same trend as true production behavior. Integration with PLT data can reduce error ratios for fracture half-length down to 48%. In addition, it presents the applicability of reserve prediction and uncertainty assessment. It has been proven that the more frequently PLTs are surveyed, the more accurate the results. By sensitivity analysis of PLT frequency—a cost-effective strategy—a combination of only one PLT survey and continuous surface production data is employed to demonstrate this proposed concept. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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7336 KiB  
Article
Modeling and Scaling of the Viscosity of Suspensions of Asphaltene Nanoaggregates
by Rajinder Pal
Energies 2017, 10(6), 767; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10060767 - 1 Jun 2017
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4938
Abstract
The scaling and modeling of the viscosity of suspensions of asphaltene nanoaggregates is carried out successfully taking into consideration the solvation and clustering of nanoaggragates, and the jamming of the suspension at the glass transition volume fraction of asphaltene nanoaggregates. The nanoaggregates of [...] Read more.
The scaling and modeling of the viscosity of suspensions of asphaltene nanoaggregates is carried out successfully taking into consideration the solvation and clustering of nanoaggragates, and the jamming of the suspension at the glass transition volume fraction of asphaltene nanoaggregates. The nanoaggregates of asphaltenes are modeled as solvated disk-shaped “core–shell” particles taking into account the most recent small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and solid-state 1H NMR studies available on the size and structure of asphaltene nanoaggregates. This work is an extension of our earlier studies on modeling of asphaltene suspensions where solvation of asphaltene nanoaggregates was not considered. A new mathematical model is developed for estimating the aspect ratio (ratio of thickness to diameter of particle) and the corresponding intrinsic viscosity of suspension of solvated disk-shaped asphaltene nanoaggregates using the experimental relative viscosity data of suspensions at low asphaltene concentrations. The solvation of asphaltene nanoaggregates is found to be significant. The intrinsic viscosity increases with the increase in the degree of solvation of nanoaggregates. At high concentrations of asphaltenes, clustering of solvated nanoaggregates dominates resulting in large viscosities. A new scaling law is discovered to scale the viscosity data of different asphaltene suspensions. According to the new scaling law, a unique correlation is obtained, independent of the type of asphaltene system, when the data are plotted as ( η r − 1 ) / [ η ] S versus ϕ S where η r is the relative viscosity of suspension, [ η ] S is the intrinsic viscosity of suspension of solvated nanoaggregates, and ϕ S is the volume fraction of solvated nanoaggregates. Twenty sets of experimental viscosity data on asphaltene suspensions gathered from different sources are used to verify and confirm the scaling law and the viscosity model proposed in this work. Based on the experimental data, the glass transition volume fraction of solvated asphaltene nanoaggregates where jamming of suspension, and hence divergence of viscosity, takes place is found to be approximately 0.4. The viscosity model proposed in this work can be used to predict the viscosity of a new asphaltene system over a broad range of asphaltene concentrations provided that the intrinsic viscosity of the suspension is obtained from viscosity measurements at very low asphaltene concentrations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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4324 KiB  
Article
The Role of Shearing Energy and Interfacial Gibbs Free Energy in the Emulsification Mechanism of Waxy Crude Oil
by Zhihua Wang, Xinyu Lin, Zhenhua Rui, Mengmeng Xu and Shuyi Zhan
Energies 2017, 10(5), 721; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10050721 - 19 May 2017
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6320
Abstract
Crude oil is generally produced with water, and the water cut produced by oil wells is increasingly common over their lifetime, so it is inevitable to create emulsions during oil production. However, the formation of emulsions presents a costly problem in surface process [...] Read more.
Crude oil is generally produced with water, and the water cut produced by oil wells is increasingly common over their lifetime, so it is inevitable to create emulsions during oil production. However, the formation of emulsions presents a costly problem in surface process particularly, both in terms of transportation energy consumption and separation efficiency. To deal with the production and operational problems which are related to crude oil emulsions, especially to ensure the separation and transportation of crude oil-water systems, it is necessary to better understand the emulsification mechanism of crude oil under different conditions from the aspects of bulk and interfacial properties. The concept of shearing energy was introduced in this study to reveal the driving force for emulsification. The relationship between shearing stress in the flow field and interfacial tension (IFT) was established, and the correlation between shearing energy and interfacial Gibbs free energy was developed. The potential of the developed correlation model was validated using the experimental and field data on emulsification behavior. It was also shown how droplet deformation could be predicted from a random deformation degree and orientation angle. The results indicated that shearing energy as the energy produced by shearing stress working in the flow field is the driving force activating the emulsification behavior. The deformation degree and orientation angle of dispersed phase droplet are associated with the interfacial properties, rheological properties and the experienced turbulence degree. The correlation between shearing stress and IFT can be quantified if droplet deformation degree vs. droplet orientation angle data is available. When the water cut is close to the inversion point of waxy crude oil emulsion, the interfacial Gibbs free energy change decreased and the shearing energy increased. This feature is also presented in the special regions where the suddenly changed flow field can be formed. Hence, the shearing energy is an effective form that can show the contribution of kinetic energy for the oil-water mixtures to interfacial Gibbs free energy in emulsification process, and the emulsification mechanism of waxy crude oil-water emulsions was further explained from the theoretical level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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4688 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Oil Recovery from Chalk Reservoirs by a Low-Salinity Water Flooding Mechanism and Fluid/Rock Interactions
by Aly A. Hamouda and Sachin Gupta
Energies 2017, 10(4), 576; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10040576 - 22 Apr 2017
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5384
Abstract
Different Low Salinity Waters (LSWs) are investigated in this work to understand the role of some ions, which were recognized from our previous work and the literature for their effect on wettability alteration. Different flooding stages were followed. The primary stage was by [...] Read more.
Different Low Salinity Waters (LSWs) are investigated in this work to understand the role of some ions, which were recognized from our previous work and the literature for their effect on wettability alteration. Different flooding stages were followed. The primary stage was by injecting synthetic seawater (SSW) and the secondary stage was with SSW diluted by 10 (LSW 1:10) and 50 (LSW 1:50) times, single and two salt brines, such as Na2SO4, MgCl2, and NaCl+MgCl2 at 70 °C. The flooding sequence was due to that most of the fields in the North Sea were flooded with seawater. Two flooding rates were followed, 4 PV/day (PV = Pore Volume) and 16 PV/day in all the experiments. One of the observations was the increase of the pH during the flooding with LSW and single salt brines. The increase of the pH was attributed to mineral precipitation/dissolution as the results of ionic interactions. The effluent ion concentrations measured to understand the most likely oil recovery mechanisms. The results showed that the higher the SSW dilution the slower the oil recovery response. In presence of SO42−, Ca/Mg, higher oil recovery. The exchange between Ca/Mg, was in line with field observations. A geochemical simulation was done for a comparison with the experimental data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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6183 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation of Stress Rate and Grain Size on Gas Seepage Characteristics of Granular Coal
by Dan Ma, Qiang Li, Matthew R. Hall and Yu Wu
Energies 2017, 10(4), 527; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10040527 - 13 Apr 2017
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4568
Abstract
Coal seam gas, held within the inner pores of unmineable coal, is an important energy resource. Gas release largely depends on the gas seepage characteristics and their evolution within granular coal. To monitor this evolution, a series of experiments were conducted to study [...] Read more.
Coal seam gas, held within the inner pores of unmineable coal, is an important energy resource. Gas release largely depends on the gas seepage characteristics and their evolution within granular coal. To monitor this evolution, a series of experiments were conducted to study the effects of applied compressive stress and original grain size distribution (GSD) on the variations in the gas seepage characteristics of granular coal samples. Grain crushing under higher stress rates was observed to be more intense. Isolated fractures in the larger diameter fractions transformed from self–extending to inter-connecting pathways at a critical compressive stress. Grain crushing was mainly caused by compression and high-speed impact. Based on the test results of the original GSD effect, the overall process of porosity and permeability evolution during compression can be divided into three different phases: (1) rapid reduction in the void ratio; (2) continued reduction in the void ratio and large particle crushing; and (3) continued crushing of large particles. Void size reduction and particle crushing were mainly attributed to the porosity and permeability decreases that occurred. The performance of an empirical model, for porosity and permeability evolution, was also investigated. The predictive results indicate that grain crushing caused permeability increases during compression, and that this appeared to be the main cause for the predictive values being lower than those obtained from the experimental tests. The predictive accuracy would be the same for samples under different stress rates and the lowest for the sample with the highest proportion of large grain diameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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6536 KiB  
Article
The Performance of Polymer Flooding in Heterogeneous Type II Reservoirs—An Experimental and Field Investigation
by Huiying Zhong, Weidong Zhang, Jing Fu, Jun Lu and Hongjun Yin
Energies 2017, 10(4), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10040454 - 1 Apr 2017
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 5364
Abstract
The polymer flooding process has already been applied to the medium permeability type II reservoirs of the Daqing Oilfield (China) to enhance oil recovery. However, this process faces a number of challenges, such as the flooding efficiency, high injection pressure, formation blockage and [...] Read more.
The polymer flooding process has already been applied to the medium permeability type II reservoirs of the Daqing Oilfield (China) to enhance oil recovery. However, this process faces a number of challenges, such as the flooding efficiency, high injection pressure, formation blockage and damage, unbalanced absorption ratio, and economical justification. In this study, single-phase and two-phase flow experiments are performed to investigate polymer injection adaptability with natural cores of type II reservoirs. The enhanced oil recovery (EOR) effects of the polymer are studied by physical simulation experiments, and the results of application in an actual field are also presented. The results indicate that the flow characteristics and injection capability are dominated by the reservoir permeability in polymer flooding. Moreover, the adsorption of polymer molecules and the injection pressure gradient, which reflect formation damage, are affected more significantly by the concentration than by the molecular weight in type II reservoirs. Using the matching relationship, the injection-production process is stable, and additional oil recoveries of 10%–15% can be obtained in heterogeneous type II reservoirs with a high water saturation. This work is significant in that it further accelerates the application of polymer flooding EOR in medium permeability heterogeneous oilfields with high water saturation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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3494 KiB  
Article
Hybridising Human Judgment, AHP, Grey Theory, and Fuzzy Expert Systems for Candidate Well Selection in Fractured Reservoirs
by Fanhui Zeng, Xiaozhao Cheng, Jianchun Guo, Liang Tao and Zhangxin Chen
Energies 2017, 10(4), 447; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10040447 - 1 Apr 2017
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 4606
Abstract
The selection of appropriate wells for hydraulic fracturing is one of the most important decisions faced by oilfield engineers. It has significant implications for the future development of an oilfield in terms of its productivity and economics. In this study, we developed a [...] Read more.
The selection of appropriate wells for hydraulic fracturing is one of the most important decisions faced by oilfield engineers. It has significant implications for the future development of an oilfield in terms of its productivity and economics. In this study, we developed a fuzzy model for well selection that combines the major objective criteria with the subjective judgments of decision makers. This was done by fusing the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method, grey theory and an advanced version of fuzzy logic theory (FLT). The AHP component was used to identify the relevant criteria involved in selecting wells for hydraulic fracturing. Grey theory was used to determine the relative importance of those criteria. Then a fuzzy expert system was applied to fuzzily process the aggregated inputs using a Type-2 fuzzy logic system. This undertakes approximate reasoning and generates recommendations for candidate wells. These techniques and technologies were hybridized by using an intercommunication job-sharing method that integrates human judgment. The proposed method was tested on data from an oilfield in Western China and finally the most appropriate candidate wells for hydraulic fracturing were ranked in order of their projected output after fracturing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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2282 KiB  
Article
Study of the Effect of Clay Particles on Low Salinity Water Injection in Sandstone Reservoirs
by Sina Rezaei Gomari and Nikhil Joseph
Energies 2017, 10(3), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10030322 - 7 Mar 2017
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4811
Abstract
The need for optimal recovery of crude oil from sandstone and carbonate reservoirs around the world has never been greater for the petroleum industry. Water-flooding has been applied to the supplement primary depletion process or as a separate secondary recovery method. Low salinity [...] Read more.
The need for optimal recovery of crude oil from sandstone and carbonate reservoirs around the world has never been greater for the petroleum industry. Water-flooding has been applied to the supplement primary depletion process or as a separate secondary recovery method. Low salinity water injection is a relatively new method that involves injecting low salinity brines at high pressure similar to conventional water-flooding techniques, in order to recover crude oil. The effectiveness of low salinity water injection in sandstone reservoirs depends on a number of parameters such as reservoir temperature, pressure, type of clay particle and salinity of injected brine. Clay particles present on reservoir rock surfaces adsorb polar components of oil and modify wettability of sandstone rocks to the oil-wet state, which is accountable for the reduced recovery rates by conventional water-flooding. The extent of wettability alteration caused by three low salinity brines on oil-wet sandstone samples containing varying clay content (15% or 30%) and type of clay (kaolinite/montmorillonite) were analyzed in the laboratory experiment. Contact angles of mica powder and clay mixture (kaolinite/montmorillonite) modified with crude oil were measured before and after injection with three low salinity sodium chloride brines. The effect of temperature was also analyzed for each sample. The results of the experiment indicate that samples with kaolinite clay tend to produce higher contact angles than samples with montmorillonite clay when modified with crude oil. The highest degree or extent of wettability alteration from oil-wet to intermediate-wet state upon injection with low salinity brines was observed for samples injected with brine having salinity concentration of 2000 ppm. The increase in temperature tends to produce contact angles values lying in the higher end of the intermediate-wet range (75°–115°) for samples treated at 50 °C, while their corresponding samples treated at 25 °C produced contact angle values lying in the lower end of intermediate-wet range. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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3235 KiB  
Article
Production Characteristics with Different Superimposed Modes Using Variogram: A Case Study of a Super-Giant Carbonate Reservoir in the Middle East
by Chenji Wei, Hongqing Song, Yong Li, Qi Zhang, Benbiao Song and Jiulong Wang
Energies 2017, 10(2), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020250 - 18 Feb 2017
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4966
Abstract
Heterogeneity of permeability is an important factor affecting the production of a carbonate reservoir. How to correctly characterize the heterogeneity of permeability has become a key issue for carbonate reservoir development. In this study, the reservoirs were categorized into four superimposed modes based [...] Read more.
Heterogeneity of permeability is an important factor affecting the production of a carbonate reservoir. How to correctly characterize the heterogeneity of permeability has become a key issue for carbonate reservoir development. In this study, the reservoirs were categorized into four superimposed modes based on the actual logging data from a super-giant heterogeneous carbonate reservoir in the Middle East. A modified permeability formula in terms of the variogram method was presented to reflect the heterogeneity of the reservoirs. Furthermore, the models of oil production and water cut were established and the analytical solutions were obtained. The calculation results show that the present model can predict the productivity of wells with different heterogeneous layers more accurately and rapidly. The larger the varigoram value, the stronger the heterogeneity of the reservoirs, and the faster the decline of production owing to a quicker reduction of formation pressure. With the increase in variogram value, the relative permeability of the oil phase is smaller and the water phase larger, and the water cut becomes larger. This study has provided a quick and reasonable prediction model for heterogeneous reservoir. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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4343 KiB  
Article
Investigation of the Flow Characteristics of Methane Hydrate Slurries with Low Flow Rates
by Cuiping Tang, Xiangyong Zhao, Dongliang Li, Yong He, Xiaodong Shen and Deqing Liang
Energies 2017, 10(1), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10010145 - 23 Jan 2017
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 6156
Abstract
Gas hydrate blockage in pipelines during offshore production becomes a major problem with increasing water depth. In this work, a series of experiments on gas hydrate formation in a flow loop was performed with low flow rates of 0.33, 0.66, and 0.88 m/s; [...] Read more.
Gas hydrate blockage in pipelines during offshore production becomes a major problem with increasing water depth. In this work, a series of experiments on gas hydrate formation in a flow loop was performed with low flow rates of 0.33, 0.66, and 0.88 m/s; the effects of the initial subcooling, flow rate, pressure, and morphology were investigated for methane hydrate formation in the flow loop. The results indicate that the differential pressure drop (ΔP) across two ends of the horizontal straight pipe increases with increasing hydrate concentration at the early stage of gas hydrate formation. When the flow rates of hydrate fluid are low, the higher the subcooling is, the faster the transition of the hydrates macrostructures. Gas hydrates can agglomerate, and sludge hydrates appear at subcoolings of 6.5 and 8.5 °C. The difference between the ΔP values at different flow rates is small, and there is no obvious influence of the flow rates on ΔP. Three hydrate macrostructures were observed: slurry-like, sludge-like, and their transition. When the initial pressure is 8.0 MPa, large methane hydrate blockages appear at the gas hydrate concentration of approximately 7%. Based on the gas–liquid two-phase flow model, a correlation between the gas hydrate concentration and the value of ΔP is also presented. These results can enrich the kinetic data of gas hydrate formation and agglomeration and provide guidance for oil and gas transportation in pipelines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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2678 KiB  
Article
Study on the Adsorption, Diffusion and Permeation Selectivity of Shale Gas in Organics
by Zhouhua Wang, Yun Li, Huang Liu, Fanhua Zeng, Ping Guo and Wei Jiang
Energies 2017, 10(1), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10010142 - 23 Jan 2017
Cited by 53 | Viewed by 6833
Abstract
As kerogen is the main organic component in shale, the adsorption capacity, diffusion and permeability of the gas in kerogen plays an important role in shale gas production. Based on the molecular model of type II kerogen, an organic nanoporous structure was established. [...] Read more.
As kerogen is the main organic component in shale, the adsorption capacity, diffusion and permeability of the gas in kerogen plays an important role in shale gas production. Based on the molecular model of type II kerogen, an organic nanoporous structure was established. The Grand Canonical Monte Carlo (GCMC) and Molecular Dynamics (MD) methods were used to study the adsorption and diffusion capacity of mixed gas systems with different mole ratios of CO2 and CH4 in the foregoing nanoporous structure, and gas adsorption, isosteric heats of adsorption and self-diffusion coefficient were obtained. The selective permeation of gas components in the organic pores was further studied. The results show that CO2 and CH4 present physical adsorption in the organic nanopores. The adsorption capacity of CO2 is larger than that of CH4 in organic pores, but the self-diffusion coefficient of CH4 in mixed gas is larger than that of CO2. Moreover, the self-diffusion coefficient in the horizontal direction is larger than that in the vertical direction. The mixed gas pressure and mole ratio have limited effects on the isosteric heat and the self-diffusion of CH4 and CO2 adsorption. Regarding the analysis of mixed gas selective permeation, it is concluded that the adsorption selectivity of CO2 is larger than that of CH4 in the organic nanopores. The larger the CO2/CH4 mole ratio, the greater the adsorption and permeation selectivity of mixed gas in shale. The permeation process is mainly controlled by adsorption rather than diffusion. These results are expected to reveal the adsorption and diffusion mechanism of gas in shale organics, which has a great significance for further research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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4278 KiB  
Article
Shear Resistance Properties of Modified Nano-SiO2/AA/AM Copolymer Oil Displacement Agent
by Nanjun Lai, Xin Guo, Ning Zhou and Qian Xu
Energies 2016, 9(12), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9121037 - 9 Dec 2016
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5542
Abstract
To address the problem regarding poor shear resistance of commonly employed polymers for oil displacement, modified nano-SiO2/AA/AM copolymer (HPMNS) oil displacement agents were synthesized using acrylic acid (AA), acrylamide (AM), and modified nano-SiO2 of different modification degrees as raw materials. [...] Read more.
To address the problem regarding poor shear resistance of commonly employed polymers for oil displacement, modified nano-SiO2/AA/AM copolymer (HPMNS) oil displacement agents were synthesized using acrylic acid (AA), acrylamide (AM), and modified nano-SiO2 of different modification degrees as raw materials. HPMNS was characterized by means of infrared spectroscopy (IR), nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR, 13C-NMR), dynamic/static light scattering, and scanning electron microscope. A comparative study of the shear resistance properties for partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) and HPMNS was conducted. Compared to HPAM, the introduced hyperbranched structure endowed HPMNS with good shear resistance, which was quantified from the viscosity retention ratio of the polymer solutions. From the perspective of rheological property, HPMNS also showed great shear stability after shearing by a Mixing Speed Governor and porous media shear model. Furthermore, with a higher degree of modification, HPMNS-2 had better shear stability in terms of viscosity and rheological property than HPMNS-1. The phenomena were due to its lower hydrodynamic radius, weight-average molecular weight, and better flexibility of its molecular chains. In addition, upon the indoor displacement test, the resistance factor and residual resistance factor values of HPMNS-2 were higher than those of HPAM. This behavior is beneficial for increasing oil recovery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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14659 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation of Crack Extension Patterns in Hydraulic Fracturing with Shale, Sandstone and Granite Cores
by Jianming He, Chong Lin, Xiao Li and Xiaole Wan
Energies 2016, 9(12), 1018; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9121018 - 1 Dec 2016
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 5701
Abstract
Hydraulic fracturing is an important method of reservoir stimulation in the exploitation of geothermal resources, and conventional and unconventional oil and gas resources. In this article, hydraulic fracturing experiments with shale, sandstone cores (from southern Sichuan Basin), and granite cores (from Inner Mongolia) [...] Read more.
Hydraulic fracturing is an important method of reservoir stimulation in the exploitation of geothermal resources, and conventional and unconventional oil and gas resources. In this article, hydraulic fracturing experiments with shale, sandstone cores (from southern Sichuan Basin), and granite cores (from Inner Mongolia) were conducted to investigate the different hydraulic fracture extension patterns in these three reservoir rocks. The different reactions between reservoir lithology and pump pressure can be reflected by the pump pressure monitoring curves of hydraulic fracture experiments. An X-ray computer tomography (CT) scanner was employed to obtain the spatial distribution of hydraulic fractures in fractured shale, sandstone, and granite cores. From the microscopic and macroscopic observation of hydraulic fractures, different extension patterns of the hydraulic fracture can be analyzed. In fractured sandstone, symmetrical hydraulic fracture morphology could be formed, while some micro cracks were also induced near the injection hole. Although the macroscopic cracks in fractured granite cores are barely observed by naked eye, the results of X-ray CT scanning obviously show the morphology of hydraulic fractures. It is indicated that the typical bedding planes well developed in shale formation play an important role in the propagation of hydraulic fractures in shale cores. The results also demonstrated that heterogeneity influenced the pathway of the hydraulic fracture in granite cores. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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5973 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study of the Feasibility of Air Flooding in an Ultra-Low Permeability Reservoir
by Guohui Qu, Yuanlin Meng, Anqi Shen, Yuxin Guo, Yikun Liu and Yonghang Tao
Energies 2016, 9(10), 783; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9100783 - 28 Sep 2016
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4762
Abstract
The development effect of water flooding in an ultra-low permeability reservoir is poor due to its poor physical properties and high shale content, so an experimental study of air flooding which helps to complement energy production was carried out. Based on the Accelerating [...] Read more.
The development effect of water flooding in an ultra-low permeability reservoir is poor due to its poor physical properties and high shale content, so an experimental study of air flooding which helps to complement energy production was carried out. Based on the Accelerating Rate Calorimeter experimental results, the crude oil of N block in L oilfield can undergo low-temperature oxidation reactions, which are the basic condition for air flooding. Three groups of experimental natural cylinder cores designed for oil displacement, water flooding and air flooding were used respectively, and the relationship between differential pressure, oil recovery, injection capacity with injection volume was investigated. It is observed that the recovery efficiency increased 2.58%, the injection-production pressure difference dropped 60% and the injection capability increased 60% in the experiment of shifting air flooding after water flooding to 75% moisture content, compared with water flooding alone. It has been shown in the results that the recovery efficiency improved sharply more than water flooding, the effect of depressurization and augmented injection was obvious, and the air displacement was thus validated. We suggest that other science and technology workers should perform further tests and verify this result through numerical simulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oil and Gas Engineering)
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