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A special issue of Foods (ISSN 2304-8158). This special issue belongs to the section "Drinks and Liquid Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (12 October 2022) | Viewed by 46355

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Prof. Dr. Carlos A. Blanco

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Guest Editor

Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering (Food technology), Universidad de Valladolid, Palencia, Spain
Interests: food technology; beer elaboration; beer analysis

Prof. Dr. Isabel Caballero

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Guest Editor

Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering (Food Technology), Universidad de Valladolid, Palencia, Spain
Interests: food technology; beer elaboration, beer analysis

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As you know, beer is one of the oldest known beverages and now represents the most widely consumed alcoholic beverage in the world. It contains a variety of compounds that offer both appreciated sensory characteristics and health benefits. Along the years the brewing process has undergone new technological advances, and consumer demands have allowed to produce a wide variety of beers in a more efficient way.Foods journal is preparing a Special issue which aims to include original research papers and reviews on brewery including raw materials, malts, adjuncts, hops, yeasts and even characteristics of water used in brewing. The most consumed styles of beer, and any sensory properties that increase beer acceptability such as aroma, taste, body, colour, alcoholic strength, are of special interest. Furthermore, chemical analysis of the compounds presents in beer and the chemical reaction that occurs throughout its production are of interest. It can also highlight that beer consumption may have a positive impact on health, due to different compounds present in beer such as polyphenols. We invite you to submit your original research papers or reviews to be published in this Special Issue of Foods, focused on the state of art, trends, risk or benefits of beer consuming, etc. This information will be valuable for the industrial sector, researchers, nutritionists, health care professionals and also those interested in beer studies in general.

Prof. Dr. Carlos A. Blanco
Prof. Dr. Isabel Caballero
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Beer
Brewery
Beer analysis
Beer adjuncts
Beer elaboration
Beer spoilage

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 2073 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Conventional Yeast: Behavior under Pure Culture, Sequential and Aeration Conditions in Beer Fermentation

by Vanesa Postigo, Tadhg O’Sullivan, Tom Elink Schuurman and Teresa Arroyo

Foods 2022, 11(22), 3717; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11223717 - 18 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3025

Abstract

The use of wild yeasts, isolated from different environments, is becoming the most interesting option for the production of new beers. The objective of this study is to evaluate the potential of seven non-conventional yeast strains from five different species (Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hanseniaspora guilliermondii, Metschnikowia pulcherrima, Torulaspora delbrueckii, and Zygosaccharomyces bailii) isolated from Madrid agriculture to produce type ale beer. Wild yeast strains were evaluated at laboratory and pilot plant scales under different fermentation conditions (pure, aerated, and sequential culture). Strain S. cerevisiae SafAle S-04 was used as a reference. Throughout the fermentation of beer, volatile compounds were determined by GC and residual sugars by HPLC, among other parameters. The yeast strains used for the fermentation in pure culture conditions were unable to ferment maltose and maltotriose (0.73–1.18% v/v of ethanol). The results of the study under aerated conditions showed varying levels of higher alcohol and ester concentrations. It should be noted that the strain CLI 1057 (S. cerevisiae) fermented maltose in the presence of oxygen (Kluyver effect). This strain also showed a high production of 4-vinyl guaiacol, making it suitable for producing beers with a phenolic profile. Finally, three strains (H. guilliermondii, Z. bailii, and T. delbrueckii) were evaluated in sequential culture together with commercial strain and found to improve the organoleptic characteristics of the brewed beer. These approaches offer the opportunity to add new product characteristics to the beers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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14 pages, 1658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physicochemical and Sensory Properties of Czech Lager Beers with Increasing Original Wort Extract Values during Cold Storage

by Richardos Nikolaos Salek, Eva Lorencová, Robert Gál, Vendula Kůrová, Kristýna Opustilová and František Buňka

Foods 2022, 11(21), 3389; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11213389 - 27 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1916

Abstract

The scope of the study was the evaluation of the selected physicochemical (O₂ and CO₂ contents, bitterness, color, total polyphenol content (TPC), turbidity, foaming stability) and sensory properties of Czech lager beer with different original wort extract (OWE) values (OWE of 10.0; 11.0; 11.5; 12.0% w/w) during a cold storage period of 6 months (4 ± 2 °C). The length of the cold storage period did not influence the values of dissolved O₂ and CO₂, bitterness, color and foam stability of the samples. Contrarily, the TPC, turbidity, and sensory attributes of the samples were affected by the course of cold storage. The OWE values did not affect the development of the parameters tested. All beer samples stored until the 5th month presented “very good” sensory characteristics. Cold storage of beer is advantageous in order to maintain its freshness and sensory attributes at the highest level for the final consumer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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20 pages, 3967 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Hop (Humulus lupulus L.) Oil Content and Composition during Long-Term Storage under Different Conditions

by Ksenija Rutnik, Miha Ocvirk and Iztok Jože Košir

Foods 2022, 11(19), 3089; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11193089 - 5 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2366

Abstract

Hop essential oil, in addition to alpha-acids, is one of the most valuable parameters for brewers, since it is responsible for beer aroma. The hop oil content and hop oil chemical composition deliver various aromas to beer. During storage, the hop chemical composition undergoes many physical and chemical changes that impact its quality. The main purpose of our study was to evaluate the changes occurring in hop oil content and its chemical composition during two years of storage under four different conditions (anaerobic, aerobic, cold room (4 °C), and room temperature) in the form of cones and pellets, supplied by local suppliers in Slovenia. Hop oil content and composition were determined by steam distillation and GC-FID. The greatest decrease in hop essential oil content occurred when the hops were stored under aerobic conditions and at room temperature. Monitoring of eight hop oil compounds under various conditions revealed different behaviors of the changes. The best storage conditions were anaerobic at low temperatures. Oxygen resistance was lower for pellets than for hop cones, whereas high temperature was more devastating for hop cones. In addition to the storage conditions, the hop variety and form were important factors regulating the extent of changes in hop oil content and chemical composition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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14 pages, 1553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bread as a Valuable Raw Material in Craft Ale Beer Brewing

by Carlos Martin-Lobera, Fernando Aranda, Patricia Lozano-Martinez, Isabel Caballero and Carlos A. Blanco

Foods 2022, 11(19), 3013; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11193013 - 28 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3314

Abstract

One of the ingredients used for brewing is barley, which should be malted; it is considered the most polluting agricultural input. On the other hand, food wastage is today a widespread problem that causes significant environmental damage and also generates large economic losses worldwide. One of the most wasted food products is bread; it is estimated that hundreds of tons of bread are wasted every day worldwide. In this study, the brewing of ale beers with bread was carried out. For this purpose, up to 50% of the malt weight was replaced by different types of bread: wheat bread, whole wheat bread, rye bread, and corn bread. A physicochemical and sensory comparison was made with 100% malt ale beer. All beers brewed with bread had an alcoholic strength similar to that of the control beer, except the corn beer. Beers brewed with whole grain bread showed a higher antioxidant capacity and a higher total polyphenol content. The sensory analysis presented different profiles depending on the type of bread; in general, the addition of bread created a greater olfactory intensity in nose. Thus, it was found that it is possible to brew beer with bread substituting up to 50% of the malt. In addition, it was also shown that the beer brewed with whole wheat bread had similar characteristics to the control beer, even improving some beneficial health properties, representing a great advantage for the brewing industry all over the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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10 pages, 485 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Czech Hop Varieties on Aroma of Dry-Hopped Lager Beer

by Kejda Tusha, Jakub Nešpor, Lukáš Jelínek, Hana Vodičková, Tomáš Kinčl and Pavel Dostálek

Foods 2022, 11(16), 2520; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11162520 - 20 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2563

Abstract

The hoppy aroma in beer is characterized by an overall pleasant profile. The impacts of five Czech hop cultivars, Rubin, Saaz, Vital, Harmonie, and Kazbek, were tested on the hop aroma of the resulting beers, compared with a control beer sample, which was hopped with a commercial hop extract during wort boiling. GC-MS analysis was used for the identification and quantification of aroma-active compounds in the hops and beer. Dry hopping was successful in terms of improving the hoppy aroma in beer. Odorants such as β-myrcene, linalool, geraniol, β-citronellol, humulene epoxide I, and 2-methylbutyl-2-methylpropanoate were found at higher concentrations than the control in all dry-hopped beers. To quantify the success of dry hopping, the transfer rates of hop odorants were calculated. Those of linalool, geraniol and humulene epoxide I were adequate, whereas the transfer rates of polar compounds, e.g., β-myrcene, were relatively low, mostly due to their polarity. Changes in hop oil constituents were clearly notable, with the generation of β-citronellol, the release of other terpene alcohols from their glycosides or oxidation of α-humulene. Yeast metabolism also played an important role in these changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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23 pages, 1498 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolutionary Optimisation of Beer Organoleptic Properties: A Simulation Framework

by Mohammad Majid al-Rifaie and Marc Cavazza

Foods 2022, 11(3), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030351 - 26 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4258

Abstract

Modern computational techniques offer new perspectives for the personalisation of food properties through the optimisation of their production process. This paper addresses the personalisation of beer properties in the specific case of craft beers where the production process is more flexible. Furthermore, this work presents a solution discovery method that could be suitable for more complex, industrial setups. An evolutionary computation technique was used to map brewers’ desired organoleptic properties to their constrained ingredients to design novel recipes tailored for specific brews. While there exist several mathematical tools, using the original mathematical and chemistry formulas, or machine learning models that deal with the process of determining beer properties based on the predetermined quantities of ingredients, this work investigates an automated quantitative ingredient-selection approach. The process, which was applied to this problem for the first time, was investigated in a number of simulations by “cloning” several commercial brands with diverse properties. Additional experiments were conducted, demonstrating the system’s ability to deal with on-the-fly changes to users’ preferences during the optimisation process. The results of the experiments pave the way for the discovery of new recipes under varying preferences, therefore facilitating the personalisation and alternative high-fidelity reproduction of existing and new products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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15 pages, 1622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Evaluation of Flavor Instability of Beer (Part 2): The Influence of De Novo Formation of Aging Aldehydes

by Arndt Nobis, Melanie Kwasnicki, Florian Lehnhardt, Michael Hellwig, Thomas Henle, Thomas Becker and Martina Gastl

Foods 2021, 10(11), 2668; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10112668 - 3 Nov 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3764

Abstract

Flavor instability of beer is affected by the rise of aroma-active aldehydes during aging. Aldehydes can be either released from bound-state forms or formed de novo. This second part of our study focused on the de novo formation of aldehydes during the Maillard reaction, Strecker degradation, and oxidation reactions. Key precursor compounds for de novo pathways are free amino acids. This study varied the potential for reactions by varying free amino acid content in fresh beer using different proteolytic malt modification levels (569–731 mg/100 g d. m. of soluble nitrogen) of the used malt in brewing trials. Overall, six pale lager beers were produced from three malts (different malt modification levels), each was made from two different barley varieties and was naturally and forcibly aged. It was found that higher malt modification levels in fresh beer and during beer aging increased amino acid and dicarbonyl concentrations as aging precursors and Strecker aldehyde contents as aging indicators. Dicarbonyls were degraded during aging. Advanced glycation end products as possible degradation products showed no consistent formation during aging. Therefore, Strecker reactions were favored during beer aging. No alternative oxidative formation of Strecker aldehydes from their corresponding alcohols could be confirmed. Along with the preceding part one of our investigation, the results of this study showed that de novo formation and release occur simultaneously. After 4 months of natural aging, aldehyde rise is mainly accounted for by de novo formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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15 pages, 1512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Evaluation of Flavor Instability of Beer (Part 1): Influence of Release of Bound State Aldehydes

by Florian Lehnhardt, Arndt Nobis, Andreas Skornia, Thomas Becker and Martina Gastl

Foods 2021, 10(10), 2432; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10102432 - 13 Oct 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3013

Abstract

Flavor instability of pale lager beer depends decisively on aroma-active aldehydes from the Maillard reaction, Strecker degradation, and lipid oxidation, which are formed in various oxidative and non-oxidative reactions. Therein, aldehydes can be formed de novo and be released from bound states to a free, aroma-active form during aging. During malting and brewing, proteolysis affects the amount of soluble nitrogen and thus flavor instability in different ways (e.g., precursors for de novo formation and binding agents for bound states). To isolate nitrogen-related aging processes, beers from malts (two barley varieties, three proteolytic malt modifications) were produced on a 50 L scale in part 1 of this study. Sensory analysis revealed increased flavor instability for beers with higher amounts of soluble nitrogen. Especially Strecker aldehydes significantly increased with malt modification. The release of bound state aldehydes revealed most free aldehydes in fresh beers and with higher malt modification. During aging, the equilibrium between free and bound state aldehydes shifted toward the free form. These results reveal a nitrogen-dependent bound pool of aldehydes that is depleted during aging and is responsible for aged aroma, especially in the early and medium stages of aging. Therefore, bound state aldehydes are indicators of the early-stage prediction of flavor instability already in a fresh condition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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19 pages, 3946 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tasting the Italian Terroir through Craft Beer: Quality and Sensory Assessment of Cascade Hops Grown in Central Italy and Derived Monovarietal Beers

by Katya Carbone, Giulia Bianchi, Maurizio Petrozziello, Federica Bonello, Valentina Macchioni, Barbara Parisse, Flora De Natale, Roberta Alilla and Maria Carla Cravero

Foods 2021, 10(9), 2085; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10092085 - 3 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2893

Abstract

The present study aimed to chemically and sensorially characterize hop samples, cv Cascade, grown in two different Italian regions (Latium and Tuscany) as well as their derived beers by a multi analytical approach. Significant differences in bitter acid, oil and polyphenol content were observed for hop samples according to their origin. Gas chromatography-olfactometry analysis pointed out floral notes for Tuscany samples, where hops from Latium were characterized by spicy and resinous notes, correlated to the presence of sesquiterpenes. Differences in the molecular fingerprinting were also highlighted by Fourier–Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. The differences found in the hops were reflected in the beers, which were clearly recognized as distinct by a sensory panel. Both beer samples were mainly characterized by six aroma compounds (linalool, geraniol and β-damascenone, citronellol, 2-phenylethyl acetate, and 2-phenylethanol), three of which were potentially responsible for the geographic origin of the hops given their significantly different concentrations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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14 pages, 1931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gas-Diffusion Microextraction (GDME) Combined with Derivatization for Assessing Beer Staling Aldehydes: Validation and Application

by Inês M. Ferreira, Daniel O. Carvalho, Marco Gomes da Silva and Luís Ferreira Guido

Foods 2021, 10(8), 1704; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081704 - 22 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2088

Abstract

In this work, a gas-diffusion microextraction (GDME) methodology was optimized and validated for the analysis of selected staling aldehydes (furfural (FURF), 2-methylpropanal (2-MP), 2-methylbutanal (2-MB), 3-methylbutanal (3-MB), and acetaldehyde (ACET)) during natural and forced aging of beer. The methodology was optimized considering time, temperature of extraction, and derivatizing agent. Using 4-hydrazinobenzoic acid (HBA) as a derivatizing agent, the performance of the method was evaluated by assessing several parameters such as detection limits (ranging from 1.2 to 1857.7 µg/L for 2-MB and ACET, respectively), quantification limits (ranging from 3.9 to 6192.4 µg/L for 2-MB and ACET, respectively), recoveries (higher than 96%), intraday and interday precisions (lower than 3.4 and 9.2%, respectively), and linearity (r² ≥ 0.995). During beer aging, higher content of Strecker aldehydes and FURF were found, while no significant variations in ACET levels were observed. In general, the aldehydes content assessed for beers stored at 37 ± 1 °C for 7 and 14 days mimics that observed for beers stored at 20 ± 2 °C for 3 and 6 months, respectively. Lower temperatures of storage (4 ± 1 °C) delayed the development of staling aldehydes. Based on PCA analysis, the content of staling aldehydes and beer color were responsible for 91.39% of the variance among the analyzed samples, and it was demonstrated that these are key parameters to discriminate fresh from aged beers. The results herein presented showed that the proposed analytic methodology is a valuable strategy for the characterization and quantification of important staling aldehydes in beer with a potential application in the quality control of beer during storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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Review

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16 pages, 802 KiB

Open AccessReview

Relevant Fusarium Mycotoxins in Malt and Beer

by Xenia Pascari, Sonia Marin, Antonio J. Ramos and Vicente Sanchis

Foods 2022, 11(2), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11020246 - 17 Jan 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3871

Abstract

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites of high concern in the food and feed industry. Their presence in many cereal-based products has been numerously reported. Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage worldwide, and Fusarium mycotoxins originating from the malted and unmalted cereals might reach the final product. This review aims to describe the possible Fusarium fungi that could infect the cereals used in beer production, the transfer of mycotoxins throughout malting and brewing as well as an insight into the incidence of mycotoxins in the craft beer segment of the industry. Studies show that germination is the malting step that can lead to a significant increase in the level of all Fusarium mycotoxins. The first step of mashing (45 °C) has been proved to possess the most significant impact in the transfer of hydrophilic toxins from the grist into the wort. However, during fermentation, a slight reduction of deoxynivalenol, and especially of zearalenone, is achieved. This review also highlights the limited research available on craft beer and the occurrence of mycotoxins in these products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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21 pages, 449 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Brewing with Starchy Adjuncts: Its Influence on the Sensory and Nutritional Properties of Beer

by Raquel Cadenas, Isabel Caballero, Dieudonné Nimubona and Carlos A. Blanco

Foods 2021, 10(8), 1726; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081726 - 26 Jul 2021

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 11400

Abstract

In brewing, the use of cereals (wheat, barley, maize, rice, sorghum, oats, rye or millet), pseudo-cereals (buckwheat, quinoa or amaranth) and tubers (sweet potato), as starch adjuncts, is being promoted for the production of a variety of high-quality beers, from sensory and nutritional points of view. The sensory properties of the obtained beer depend on the characteristics of each adjunct but also on the forms in which the adjunct is added: whole cereal, grits, malted, extruded grains, torrefied and syrup. Among these common forms, the extruded grains (maize or rice) produce a higher content of aroma compounds in beer. From a nutritional point of view, the use of non-conventional starch adjuncts, such as black rice, buckwheat or sweet potato, leads to an increase in the polyphenol content of the beer, and thus, its antioxidant capacity. Cereals such as maize, rice, sorghum or millet are the most promising for the production of gluten-free beers. A close relationship can be developed between the use of adjuncts in the beer industry and the use of commercial enzymes. Advances made by biotechnology to design new enzymes with different functionalities could be associated to a future increase in adjunct usage in brewing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies to Improve Beer Quality)

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