Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality, Safety, and Authenticity

A special issue of Foods (ISSN 2304-8158). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Quality and Safety".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2020) | Viewed by 41121

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Guest Editor
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Peloponnese, 24100 Antikalamos, Kalamata, Greece
Interests: food technology; food engineering; food safety; food quality; extra virgin olive oil; mycotoxins; fermented foods
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The following summary explains the purpose of this Special Issue addressing the very important subject of extra virgin olive oil quality, safety, and authenticity. We hope that you will be able to contribute a research paper or review on the state of the art in this field of research.

Olive oil represents the most consumed edible fat in the food intake of the Mediterranean basin due to the healing effects associated with the so-called “Mediterranean diet”.

Extra virgin olive oil, produced by modern milling technologies, can be directly consumed without any further manipulation.

Protected designation of origin, protected geographical indication, etc. are official European Union classifications, which guarantee the quality and the origin of the labeled foodstuff.

Many factors affect the profiling of the volatile components and the aroma of olive oil, including the cultivar; the atmospheric, pedologic, and fostering conditions; the ripening degree; the olive and oil storing procedure; and the technology of oil extraction from drupes, as has been reported over the last decade.

In extra virgin olive oil production, the quality assessment of raw materials and final products is a fundamental parameter for having and maintaining high quality standards. There are different aspects determining the overall quality of foods: the “quality” (in terms of sensory characteristics, stability, and nutritional value), the “safety” (with respect to microbiology, contaminants, and toxins), and the “authenticity”.

An authentic product, whether raw (olives) or processed (extra virgin olive oil), is one that strictly complies with the declaration given by the producer in terms of ingredients, natural components, absence of extraneous substances, production technology, geographical and botanical origin, production year, and genetic identity. Authenticity is an important issue for the food industry because of issues of legal compliance, economics, guarantees of a constant well-defined quality, safety concerns (no hazardous substitutes), and religious traditions (e.g., Halal or Kosher).

The problem of how to guarantee/ensure food authenticity can be tackled by applying accurate specifications for raw materials and selecting suppliers that have a quality assurance system in place.

Adulteration has always been an unfortunate reality, and it is usually carried out for economical purposes (e.g., to increase the bulk volume, to over-evaluate a product of inferior quality, or to subtract/save expensive ingredients). On the other hand, contaminations may occur accidentally, e.g., in factories, where several oils are produced or used at the same time. These cross-contaminations are usually below 1–2 % of the total amount.

In addition, safety problems can be involved in such adulterations. These cases have been reported with respect to extra virgin olive oil technology and need to be taken into account to minimize the risks involved and raise the issue of food safety and quality, which nowadays should not be jeopardized.

Prof. Dr. Theodoros Varzakas
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • quality
  • safety
  • extra virgin olive oil
  • authenticity

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 173 KiB  
Editorial
Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO): Quality, Safety, Authenticity, and Adulteration
by Theodoros Varzakas
Foods 2021, 10(5), 995; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10050995 - 2 May 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3274
Abstract
The prevention and bioactivity effects associated with the so-called “Mediterranean diet” make olive oil the most consumed edible fat in the food intake of the Mediterranean basin [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality, Safety, and Authenticity)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

15 pages, 757 KiB  
Article
Olive Fruit Refrigeration during Prolonged Storage Preserves the Quality of Virgin Olive Oil Extracted Therefrom
by Karolina Brkić Bubola, Marina Lukić, Anja Novoselić, Marin Krapac and Igor Lukić
Foods 2020, 9(10), 1445; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9101445 - 12 Oct 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3653
Abstract
With the aim to investigate the influence of post-harvest olive fruit storage temperatures on virgin olive oil production parameters, composition and quality, Istarska bjelica (IB) and Rosinjola (RO) fruits were stored for seven days at room temperature (RT), +4 °C and −20 °C [...] Read more.
With the aim to investigate the influence of post-harvest olive fruit storage temperatures on virgin olive oil production parameters, composition and quality, Istarska bjelica (IB) and Rosinjola (RO) fruits were stored for seven days at room temperature (RT), +4 °C and −20 °C prior to oil production. Lower temperatures delayed post-harvest maturation of IB fruits. Theoretical oil content did not change depending on the storage temperature, while the highest oil yield and extractability index were obtained after storage at RT. Chlorophylls decreased in IB-RT and in IB-20. A decrease in the sensory quality of oils was detected after fruit storage at RT and −20 °C, while the refrigeration temperature of +4 °C preserved it. Regarding the content of fatty acid ethyl esters, an increase was observed in IB-RT oils. Storage at RT increased the content of waxes, while the lower temperatures partially suppressed this phenomenon. In oils of both cultivars, storage at +4 °C preserved the concentration of most phenolic compounds at a level more similar to that of the fresh oil when compared to the other two treatments. In the production conditions, when prolonged fruit storage is necessary, refrigeration seems to be the most suitable option. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality, Safety, and Authenticity)
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14 pages, 2167 KiB  
Article
An Artificial Intelligence Approach for Italian EVOO Origin Traceability through an Open Source IoT Spectrometer
by Simona Violino, Luciano Ortenzi, Francesca Antonucci, Federico Pallottino, Cinzia Benincasa, Simone Figorilli and Corrado Costa
Foods 2020, 9(6), 834; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9060834 - 25 Jun 2020
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4661
Abstract
Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) represents a crucial ingredient of the Mediterranean diet. Being a first-choice product, consumers should be guaranteed its quality and geographical origin, justifying the high purchasing cost. For this reason, it is important to have new reliable tools able [...] Read more.
Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) represents a crucial ingredient of the Mediterranean diet. Being a first-choice product, consumers should be guaranteed its quality and geographical origin, justifying the high purchasing cost. For this reason, it is important to have new reliable tools able to classify products according to their geographical origin. The aim of this work was to demonstrate the efficiency of an open source visible and near infra-red (VIS-NIR) spectrophotometer, relying on a specific app, in assessing olive oil geographical origin. Thus, 67 Italian and 25 foreign EVOO samples were analyzed and their spectral data were processed through an artificial intelligence algorithm. The multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) results reported significant differences (p < 0.001) between the Italian and foreign EVOO VIS-NIR matrices. The artificial neural network (ANN) model with an external test showed a correct classification percentage equal to 94.6%. Both the MANOVA and ANN tested methods showed the most important spectral wavelengths ranges for origin determination to be 308–373 nm and 594–605 nm. These are related to the absorption of phenolic components, carotenoids, chlorophylls, and anthocyanins. The proposed tool allows the assessment of EVOO samples’ origin and thus could help to preserve the “Made in Italy” from fraud and sophistication related to its commerce. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality, Safety, and Authenticity)
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13 pages, 3186 KiB  
Article
Alignment and Proficiency of Virgin Olive Oil Sensory Panels: The OLEUM Approach
by Sara Barbieri, Karolina Brkić Bubola, Alessandra Bendini, Milena Bučar-Miklavčič, Florence Lacoste, Ummuhan Tibet, Ole Winkelmann, Diego Luis García-González and Tullia Gallina Toschi
Foods 2020, 9(3), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030355 - 19 Mar 2020
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5834
Abstract
A set of 334 commercial virgin olive oil (VOO) samples were evaluated by six sensory panels during the H2020 OLEUM project. Sensory data were elaborated with two main objectives: (i) to classify and characterize samples in order to use them for possible correlations [...] Read more.
A set of 334 commercial virgin olive oil (VOO) samples were evaluated by six sensory panels during the H2020 OLEUM project. Sensory data were elaborated with two main objectives: (i) to classify and characterize samples in order to use them for possible correlations with physical–chemical data and (ii) to monitor and improve the performance of panels. After revision of the IOC guidelines in 2018, this work represents the first published attempt to verify some of the recommended quality control tools to increase harmonization among panels. Specifically, a new “decision tree” scheme was developed, and some IOC quality control procedures were applied. The adoption of these tools allowed for reliable classification of 289 of 334 VOOs; for the remaining 45, misalignments between panels of first (on the category, 21 cases) or second type (on the main perceived defect, 24 cases) occurred. In these cases, a “formative reassessment” was necessary. At the end, 329 of 334 VOOs (98.5%) were classified, thus confirming the effectiveness of this approach to achieve a better proficiency. The panels showed good performance, but the need to adopt new reference materials that are stable and reproducible to improve the panel’s skills and agreement also emerged. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality, Safety, and Authenticity)
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17 pages, 1210 KiB  
Article
Non-Targeted Authentication Approach for Extra Virgin Olive Oil
by Didem Peren Aykas, Ayse Demet Karaman, Burcu Keser and Luis Rodriguez-Saona
Foods 2020, 9(2), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9020221 - 20 Feb 2020
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5731
Abstract
The aim of this study is to develop a non-targeted approach for the authentication of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) using vibrational spectroscopy signatures combined with pattern recognition analysis. Olive oil samples (n = 151) were grouped as EVOO, virgin olive oil [...] Read more.
The aim of this study is to develop a non-targeted approach for the authentication of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) using vibrational spectroscopy signatures combined with pattern recognition analysis. Olive oil samples (n = 151) were grouped as EVOO, virgin olive oil (VOO)/olive oil (OO), and EVOO adulterated with vegetable oils. Spectral data was collected using a compact benchtop Raman (1064 nm) and a portable ATR-IR (5-reflections) units. Oils were characterized by their fatty acid profile, free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), pyropheophytins (PPP), and total polar compounds (TPC) through the official methods. The soft independent model of class analogy analysis using ATR-IR spectra showed excellent sensitivity (100%) and specificity (89%) for detection of EVOO. Both techniques identified EVOO adulteration with vegetable oils, but Raman showed limited resolution detecting VOO/OO tampering. Partial least squares regression models showed excellent correlation (Rval ≥ 0.92) with reference tests and standard errors of prediction that would allow for quality control applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality, Safety, and Authenticity)
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11 pages, 704 KiB  
Article
Comparison and Discrimination of Two Major Monocultivar Extra Virgin Olive Oils in the Southern Region of Peloponnese, According to Specific Compositional/Traceability Markers
by Vasiliki Skiada, Panagiotis Tsarouhas and Theodoros Varzakas
Foods 2020, 9(2), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9020155 - 6 Feb 2020
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3207
Abstract
The qualitative characteristics and chemical parameters were determined for 112 virgin olive oil samples of the two dominant olive cultivars in the southern region of Peloponnese, cv. Koroneiki and cv. Mastoides. As no relevant data exist for this geographical area, yet one of [...] Read more.
The qualitative characteristics and chemical parameters were determined for 112 virgin olive oil samples of the two dominant olive cultivars in the southern region of Peloponnese, cv. Koroneiki and cv. Mastoides. As no relevant data exist for this geographical area, yet one of the most important olive-growing regions in Greece, this study aimed to evaluate and evidence the differences on specific chemical characteristics of the oils because of their botanical origin. Olive oils of Koroneiki variety were characterized by a three-fold lower concentration in heptadecanoic and heptadecenoic acid compared to oils of cv. Mastoides. In addition, Mastoides oils exhibited higher β-sitosterol and total sterols concentration and lower Δ-5-avenasterol and total erythodiol content compared to Koroneiki olive oils Analysis of variance and principal component analysis of the GC-analyzed olive oil samples showed substantial compositional differences in the fatty acid and sterolic profile between Koroneiki and Mastoides cultivars. Hence, results demonstrate that the fatty acid and sterolic profile can be used as exceptional compositional marker for olive oil authenticity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality, Safety, and Authenticity)
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14 pages, 1739 KiB  
Article
Preliminary Study and Observation of “Kalamata PDO” Extra Virgin Olive Oil, in the Messinia Region, Southwest of Peloponnese (Greece)
by Vasiliki Skiada, Panagiotis Tsarouhas and Theodoros Varzakas
Foods 2019, 8(12), 610; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8120610 - 23 Nov 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4481
Abstract
While there has been considerable research related to Koroneiki cultivar in different areas in Greece, no systematic work has been carried out on olive oil analysis from one of the most important olive-growing regions in Greece, located southwest of Peloponnese, Messinia. This work [...] Read more.
While there has been considerable research related to Koroneiki cultivar in different areas in Greece, no systematic work has been carried out on olive oil analysis from one of the most important olive-growing regions in Greece, located southwest of Peloponnese, Messinia. This work is the first systematic attempt to study the profile of Messinian olive oils and evaluate to what extent they comply with the recent EU regulations in order to be classified as “Kalamata Protected Designation of Origin (PDO)”-certified products. Quality indices were measured and detailed analyses of sterols, triterpenic dialcohols, fatty acid composition and wax content were conducted in a total of 71 samples. Messinian olive oils revealed a high-quality profile but, at the same time, results demonstrated major fluctuations from the established EU regulatory limits on their chemical parameters. Results showed low concentrations of total sterols, with 66.7% of the examined samples below the regulated set limits for Kalamata PDO status; high concentrations of campesterol, with a total of 21.7%, exceeding the legal maximum of 4.0%; and a slight tendency of high total erythrodiol content. Fatty acid composition and wax content were within the normal range expected for the extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) category. However, the narrower established PDO limits in specific fatty acids showed some fluctuations in a few cases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality, Safety, and Authenticity)
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26 pages, 1387 KiB  
Article
Inter-Varietal Diversity of Typical Volatile and Phenolic Profiles of Croatian Extra Virgin Olive Oils as Revealed by GC-IT-MS and UPLC-DAD Analysis
by Igor Lukić, Marina Lukić, Mirella Žanetić, Marin Krapac, Sara Godena and Karolina Brkić Bubola
Foods 2019, 8(11), 565; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8110565 - 9 Nov 2019
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4737
Abstract
Despite having an interesting native olive gene pool and a rapidly emerging olive oil industry, monovarietal extra virgin olive oils (EVOO) from Croatia are relatively unexplored. To investigate the inter-varietal diversity of typical volatile and phenolic profiles of Croatian EVOO, 93 samples from [...] Read more.
Despite having an interesting native olive gene pool and a rapidly emerging olive oil industry, monovarietal extra virgin olive oils (EVOO) from Croatia are relatively unexplored. To investigate the inter-varietal diversity of typical volatile and phenolic profiles of Croatian EVOO, 93 samples from six olive (Olea europaea L.) varieties were subjected to gas chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry (GC-IT-MS) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (UPLC-DAD), respectively. Quantitative descriptive sensory analysis was also performed. Analysis of variance extracted many relevant exclusive or partial discriminators between monovarietal EVOOs among the identified volatile compounds and phenols. Successful differentiation model with a 100% correct classification was built by linear discriminant analysis, while the most typical volatiles for each monovarietal EVOO were confirmed by partial least squares discriminant analysis. Diverse typical sensory attributes among the EVOOs were tentatively ascribed to the variations in the composition of volatiles and phenols. It was proven that the approach that comprises GC-IT-MS and UPLC-DAD analysis may provide additional objective information about varietal origin and typicity which successfully complement those obtained by sensory analysis. The approach was characterized as universal in nature, with a significant potential to contribute in strengthening the varietal identities and position on the market of monovarietal and Protected Denomination of Origin (PDO) EVOO. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality, Safety, and Authenticity)
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14 pages, 1357 KiB  
Article
Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality as Affected by Yeast Species Occurring in the Extraction Process
by Simona Guerrini, Eleonora Mari, Damiano Barbato and Lisa Granchi
Foods 2019, 8(10), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8100457 - 7 Oct 2019
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3177
Abstract
In extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) extraction process, the occurrence of yeasts that could affect the quality of olive oil was demonstrated. Therefore, in this work, at first, the yeasts occurring during different extractive processes carried out in a Tuscany oil mill, at [...] Read more.
In extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) extraction process, the occurrence of yeasts that could affect the quality of olive oil was demonstrated. Therefore, in this work, at first, the yeasts occurring during different extractive processes carried out in a Tuscany oil mill, at the beginning, in the middle, and the end of the harvesting in the same crop season, were quantified. Then, possible effects on quality of EVOO caused by the predominant yeast species, possessing specific enzymatic activities, were evaluated. Yeast concentrations were higher in extraction processes at the end of the harvesting. Twelve yeast species showing different isolation frequencies during olive oil extractive process and according to the harvesting date were identified by molecular methods. The yeast species dominating olive oil samples from decanter displayed enzymatic activities, potentially affecting EVOO quality according to zymogram analysis. HS-SPME-GC-MS analysis of the volatile compounds in commercial EVOO, inoculated with three yeast species (Nakazawaea molendini-olei, Nakazawaea wickerhamii, Yamadazyma terventina), pointed out significant differences depending on the strain inoculated. In conclusion, during the olive oil extractive processes, some yeast species colonize the extraction plant and may influence the chemical and sensory characteristics of EVOO depending on the cell concentrations and their enzymatic capabilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality, Safety, and Authenticity)
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