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A special issue of Land (ISSN 2073-445X). This special issue belongs to the section "Urban Contexts and Urban-Rural Interactions".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2024) | Viewed by 11196

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Dr. Alessio Russo

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School of Architecture and Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
Interests: green infrastructure; sustainable design; urban ecosystem services and disservices; outdoor thermal comfort and mitigation of the urban heat island effect
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Prof. Dr. Giuseppe T. Cirella

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Faculty of Economics, University of Gdansk, 81-824 Sopot, Poland
Interests: geography; sustainability; environmental management; urban studies; social impact; economic development; green infrastructure
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to announce a Special Issue of Land entitled "Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition".

Urbanization, population growth, and climate change are exerting negative impacts on ecosystem services (ES) in cities and assessing and estimating the losses of ES due to rapid urban expansion has come to play a significant role in sustainable urban development [1]. However, studies on the effects of urbanization on ES have shown inconsistent and sometimes contradictory results [2–4].

Compact modern cities have emerged as having a high density and mixed-use pattern and their features are believed to contribute to a form of functional urban design that supports sustainability and restresses the importance of ES. Urban green spaces play a vital role in urban design and have an impact on how compact cities have developed; thus, a scientific debate on the amount of greenery that individuals require and to what extent contemporary approaches address this has been triggered. Given the meaningful influence of socioecological systems in cities, future cities should integrate them into their urban planning, management, and governance [4,5].

As a continuation of the last Special Issue on “Urban Ecosystem Services IV”, this Special Issue will still seek to explore innovative approaches to enhancing urban sustainability and ES in the face of increasing concerns surrounding urbanization.

References

Das, M.; Das, A. Dynamics of Urbanization and its impact on Urban Ecosystem Services (UESs): A study of a medium size town of West Bengal, Eastern India. Urban Manag. 2019, 1–15.
Wang, J.; Zhou, W.; Pickett, S.T.A.; Yu, W.; Li, W. A multiscale analysis of urbanization effects on ecosystem services supply in an urban megaregion. Total Environ. 2019, 662, 824–833.
Russo, A.; Cirella, G.T. Edible Green Infrastructure 4.0 for Food Security and Well-being: Campania Region, Italy. In International Guidelines on Urban and Territorial Planning. Compendium of Inspiring Practices: Health Edition; Quinlan, V., Ed.; UN Habitat, HS/080/18E: Nairobi, Kenya, 2018; p. 72.
Russo, A.; Cirella, G.T. Modern Compact Cities: How Much Greenery Do We Need? J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2180.
Schewenius, M.; McPhearson, T.; Elmqvist, T. Opportunities for Increasing Resilience and Sustainability of Urban Social–Ecological Systems: Insights from the URBES and the Cities and Biodiversity Outlook Projects. Ambio 2014, 43, 434–444.

Dr. Alessio Russo
Prof. Dr. Giuseppe T. Cirella
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Land is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

assessing natural capital and ecosystem services
compact cities
ecosystem services, ecosystem disservices, and well-being
ecosystem service degradation
edible green infrastructure
green infrastructure
green space
green walls
healing garden design
landscape architecture and urban design
mapping and assessing ecosystem services
modelling ecosystem services
nature-based solutions
social-ecological systems
sustainable urbanism
urban agriculture
urban biodiversity and ecosystem services
urban biosphere reserve
urban ecosystems
urban forest
urban geography and development
urban–rural interface
urban sustainability

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Related Special Issues

Urban Ecosystem Services IV in Land (11 articles)
Urban Ecosystem Services: 6th Edition in Land

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

33 pages, 12993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Buffer Gradient Synergies: Comparing Objective and Subjective Evaluations of Urban Park Ecosystem Services in Century Park, Shanghai

by Weixuan Wei, Yiqi Wang, Qi Yan, Guanpeng Liu and Nannan Dong

Land 2024, 13(11), 1848; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13111848 - 6 Nov 2024

Viewed by 549

Abstract

Urban parks provide essential ecosystem services (ESs) that enhance human wellbeing. However, discrepancies often arise between objective assessments of these services and stakeholders’ subjective perceptions. This study addresses a research gap concerning the synergies and tradeoffs between objective evaluations and subjective perceptions of key ecosystem services across various spatial scales. We investigated six key ecosystem services in Century Park, Shanghai, across seven buffer radii (8–100 m). Objective data were obtained from park view images (PVIs) and spatial analysis, while subjective perceptions were gathered through a scoring survey of 33 stakeholders. The key finding is that a buffer radius of 35 m offers optimal synergy between objective and subjective assessments for most ESs, particularly in pollution mediation, temperature regulation, and cultural services. Professionals showed stronger alignment in regulatory services like pollution mediation and temperature regulation, while residents exhibited higher synergy in net primary production (NPP) beyond a 75 m radius. Notably, cultural services displayed nuanced differences, with professionals preferring simpler landscapes and residents demonstrating varied aesthetic preferences. These findings emphasize the importance of integrating objective data and human perceptions in urban green space planning and governance. By incorporating diverse stakeholders and identifying optimal buffer zones, planners and designers can effectively balance ESs with human experiences. This approach ultimately fosters more sustainable and wellbeing-centered urban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition)

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13 pages, 2277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forest Enclave Potential Assessment for Nature Conservation and Recreation in City with Dysfunctional Natural System

by Agata Ćwik, Tomasz Wójcik and Gabriela Przydział

Land 2024, 13(11), 1776; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13111776 - 29 Oct 2024

Viewed by 384

Abstract

Forests are an important component of the natural systems of large cities. Their deficiency limits the proper functioning of these systems and creates a shortage of recreational places for residents needing contact with nature. This can be encountered in Rzeszów, a city in southern Poland with 200,000 inhabitants, which is characterised by the smallest forest area (2.8%) of all province capitals in the country. The natural state of small forest enclaves in this city has not been fully investigated. This has led to incorrect management and nature conservation policies. Therefore, the aim of this research conducted since 2015 was to recognise the potential for conservation and recreational functions using the concept of ecosystem services (ES) and ecosystem disservices (EDS), and to develop recommendations for the optimal use of these areas. This article analyses and compares 14 indicators related to ES and EDS of three out of five larger forest patches in the city. The results of this analysis indicate that the current method for protecting these valuable elements of the natural system does not correspond with their actual conservation potential. The application of the ES and EDS concepts to assess the nature conservation potential allowed us to determine it as high in two forest enclaves where such potential had not been indicated so far, and to identify the highest recreational potential in one of the investigated sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition)

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19 pages, 4739 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Agroecology for the City—Spatialising ES-Based Design in Peri-Urban Contexts

by Richard Morris, Shannon Davis, Gwen-Aëlle Grelet and Pablo Gregorini

Land 2024, 13(10), 1589; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13101589 - 30 Sep 2024

Viewed by 655

Abstract

The design of urban systems that allow growth while also maximising ecosystem services is identified as an important priority for creating a Good Anthropocene. An ecosystem service (ES)-based approach to landscape interventions maximises the provision of ESs, and in doing so, repairs and reinforces threatened ecological planetary boundaries. As an urbanising planet, cities are critical frontiers of human interaction with these planetary boundaries, and therefore a critical arena for ES-based intervention. Globally, the predominant pattern of urbanisation is dedensification, an outwardly expanding trend where cities are growing in physical extent at a higher rate than their population growth. We therefore require spatially explicit tools capable of reconciling dedensification and Good Anthropocene visions. We propose a methodology that integrates agroecology and urbanisation and is focussed specifically on the supply of targeted regulating ESs. This ‘Agroecology for the City’ differs from conventional urban agriculture discourse and its preoccupation with food security. Our research interest is agroecological farm systems’ (AFSs) capacity to provide critical life support services in a spatially effective manner to urban systems. Our recent research introduced a new GIS-based model (ESMAX) and a spatial agroecology approach that identified AFS configurations at a 1 ha scale which maximised the supply of three regulating ESs, as well as multifunctional performance across all three ESs combined. In the present research, we apply this process at a larger scale, with 1 ha and 4 ha AFS parcels being integrated with a real-world 200 ha peri-urban residential development. The AFS parcels and built-up areas are configured differently to maximise the supply of ESs identified as critical by the local community. We found that arrangements with AFS parcels interspersed evenly with built-up areas provided the best multifunctionality across the four ESs tested. This supports pathways for a Good Anthropocene that work with the global urbanising reality of dedensification and underpin the need for a hybrid science of rural/urban systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition)

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13 pages, 2001 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Importance of Forest Management in Psychological Restoration: Exploring the Effects of Landscape Change in a Suburban Forest

by Emilia Janeczko, Krzysztof Czyżyk, Małgorzata Woźnicka, Tomasz Dudek, Jitka Fialova and Natalia Korcz

Land 2024, 13(9), 1439; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091439 - 5 Sep 2024

Viewed by 563

Abstract

Currently, there is a marked increase in the importance of the environmental and cultural ecosystem services of the forest. Among the social benefits, protection of human health and improvement of human well-being come to the fore. Forests, both reserve and commercial, benefit human health. However, people often have negative attitudes toward forest management activities, especially near urban areas, and prefer forest management that results in a forest that is close to natural. Second-growth forest and clear-cutting are the most visible manifestations of ongoing forest management in forests. The purpose of this study was to compare the benefits derived from exposure to second-growth forest, clear-cutting and mature forest stands. Fifty-five students of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW (WULS-SGGW) participated in the study. The study was conducted in October 2023 in a forest within the city of Otwock, within the range of the Warsaw metropolitan area. Participants were exposed for 15 min to selected plots: second- growth forest, clear-cutting area and mature forest stand. Before the experiment (PRE-Test control trial) and after each of the exposures four psychological questionnaires were administered: the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Restorative Outcome Scale (ROS), the Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS) and Profile of Mood States (POMS). The results indicate that not all analyzed features of the forest landscape have a regenerative effect on people. Exposure to a commercial forest, only in the case of a mature stand, yielded the most benefits in terms of mood improvement. In contrast, exposure to clear-cutting area resulted in a decrease in positive feelings and an increase in negative feelings, leading to a complete disturbance of mood, an increase in tension, depression and a decrease in feelings of vigor. Clear-cutting area has significantly worse restorative properties compared to mature forest stands and second-growth forest. This observation is relevant to forest management within city limits and in the suburban zone of large cities. Not only is clear-cutting area not accepted by people visiting forests for recreational purposes, but it leads to a detraction from the health benefits provided by forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition)

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20 pages, 9537 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Driving Forces of Ecological Environment Quality in Coastal Cities: A Remote Sensing and Land Use Perspective in Changle District, Fuzhou

by Tianxiang Long, Zhuhui Bai and Bohong Zheng

Land 2024, 13(9), 1393; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091393 - 29 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 725

Abstract

In the face of persistent global environmental challenges, evaluating ecological environment quality and understanding its driving forces are crucial for maintaining the ecological balance and achieving sustainable development. Based on a case study of Changle District in Fuzhou, China, this research employed the Remote Sensing Ecological Index (RSEI) method to comprehensively assess ecological environment quality and analyze the impact of various driving factors from 2000 to 2020. Based on the GeoSOS-FLUS model, this study simulated and predicted land use classifications if maintaining the RSEI factors. The results reveal an overall improvement in the southern and southwestern regions, while the northwest and eastern areas face localized degradation. The RSEI index increased from 0.6333 in 2000 to 0.6625 in 2022, indicating significant ecological shifts over the years. The key driving factors identified include vegetation coverage, leaf area index, and aerosol levels. Industrial emissions and transportation activities notably affect air quality, while land use changes, particularly the expansion of construction land, play a critical role in altering ecological conditions. If maintaining the current RESI factors without any improvement, Changle District will experience continued urbanization and development, leading to an increase in built-up areas to 32.93% by 2030 at the expense of grasslands. This study offers valuable insights for policymakers and environmental managers to formulate targeted strategies aimed at reducing industrial and traffic emissions, optimizing land use planning, and enhancing ecological sustainability. The methodology and findings provide a robust framework for similar assessments in other rapidly urbanizing regions, contributing to the broader discourse on sustainable land use and ecological conservation. By advancing the understanding of ecological environment quality and its driving forces, this research supports the development of informed environmental protection and sustainable development strategies for coastal regions in developing countries globally. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition)

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21 pages, 7728 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Urban Ecological Welfare Performance: An ST-LMDI Approach to the Yangtze River Economic Belt

by Jie Yang and Zhigang Li

Land 2024, 13(8), 1318; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13081318 - 20 Aug 2024

Viewed by 728

Abstract

Enhancing urban ecological welfare performance is essential for achieving sustainable urban development and fostering a comprehensive regional green transformation. This study develops a quantitative assessment framework for urban ecological welfare performance, grounded in both the welfare of urban residents and their consumption of ecological resources. Employing the spatio-temporal Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index model to dissect the ecological welfare performance across 108 key prefecture-level cities within China’s Yangtze River Economic Belt, considering both temporal and spatial dimensions, the analysis reveals a “W”-shaped trajectory in the ecological welfare performance from 2006 to 2022, characterized by pronounced spatial disparities. Particularly in the downstream coastal regions and notably the Yangtze River Delta, advantages in social and economic structures, along with public fiscal outlays, contribute to a superior ecological welfare performance, exhibiting a notable spatial spillover effect. The study introduces six key factors—social benefit, economic benefit, population dispersion, population density in urban areas, urbanization scale, and ecological sustainability—to examine their influence on ecological welfare performance, uncovering substantial differences in the outcomes of temporal and spatial decomposition. Temporal decomposition indicates that economic benefit and urbanization scale are the primary drivers enhancing ecological welfare performance, whereas population dispersion is identified as the primary inhibitor. Spatial decomposition reveals that the determinants of above-average urban ecological welfare vary regionally and undergo dynamic shifts over time. Overall, a holistic understanding of the interplay among economic growth, ecological preservation, and the enhancement of residents’ welfare can inform the development and execution of tailored policies by local governments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition)

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24 pages, 9268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Eco-Environmental Effects and Its Impacts Mechanisms in the Mountainous City: Insights from Ecological–Production–Living Spaces Using Machine Learning Models in Chongqing

by Shuang Zhang, Shaobo Liu, Qikang Zhong, Kai Zhu and Hongpeng Fu

Land 2024, 13(8), 1196; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13081196 - 4 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1391

Abstract

In the face of accelerating land use changes, conflicts between land use patterns and the eco-environment are increasingly pronounced. By calculating the eco-environment quality index (EQI) adopting the ecological–production–living spaces (EPLS) framework, we evaluate the eco-environment quality of land use changes within Chongqing’s central urban area from 2000 to 2020. The study employs a random forest model to elucidate the mechanisms influencing the eco-environment quality. The findings reveal the following: (1) Living spaces have expanded by 361.53 km², while production and the ecological spaces have been experiencing a significant reduction of 331.42 km² and 30.11 km² over two decades. (2) The eco-environment quality has steadily declined from 0.3665 in 2000 to 0.3501 in 2020, indicating a degradation in overall quality. There is notable spatial variation in eco-environment quality, typically displaying a “low center–high periphery” pattern. (3) Pesticide usage, grain production, and the added value of the primary industry are the primary factors affecting ecological quality. The findings of this study provide valuable insights for global urban planning and environmental management. Rapidly, land use change regions worldwide face similar conflicts between economic growth and ecological sustainability. This research underscores the need for integrated land use policies that balance development with environmental preservation. The methodologies and findings can inform international efforts to optimize land use patterns, improve ecological quality, and achieving sustainable development goals, offering adaptable strategies for policymakers and urban planners globally. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition)

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28 pages, 7885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identifying and Optimizing the Ecological Security Pattern of the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Urban Agglomeration from 2000 to 2030

by Longsheng Huang, Yi Tang, Youtao Song, Jinghui Liu, Hua Shen and Yi Du

Land 2024, 13(8), 1115; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13081115 - 23 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 965

Abstract

The conflict between economic development and ecological protection continues to intensify, highlighting the necessity for constructing regional ecological security patterns (ESPs) to reconcile the relationship between development and protection effectively. This study used the GMOP and PLUS model to simulate future land use changes by 2030 under the following three scenarios: natural development (ND), ecological protection (EP), and economic development (ED). Employing the MSPA model and circuit theory, it identified ecological source areas and constructed the ESP for the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei urban agglomeration (BTH) from 2000 to 2030. The results indicate that the proportion of ecological source areas increased from 22.24% in 2000 to 23.09% in 2020, the EP scenario showing the highest proportion of ecological source areas compared with the other two scenarios. These areas are densely distributed in the northern and western mountainous regions, with sparse distributions in the southern plains. The number of ecological corridors grew from 603 in 2000 to 616 in 2020, with the EP scenario having more corridors than the other two scenarios. From 2000 to 2030, corridors in the northern and western mountainous areas were denser, shorter, and more variable, while those in the southern plains were less dense, longer, and relatively stable. Over two decades, habitat areas for species in BTH increased, while landscape connectivity decreased. Compared with 2020 and the other two scenarios, the EP scenario saw an increase in habitat areas and improved landscape connectivity. The impact on ecological corridors and improvement areas primarily arose from a combination of socio-ecological drivers (e.g., elevation, slope, population), while the influence on restoration and key areas mainly stemmed from ecological factors (e.g., elevation, temperature, NDVI, precipitation). The findings demonstrate that distinguishing different geomorphological units to improve and restore the regional environment, while considering socio-ecological drivers, is crucial for restoring the overall ESP and landscape connectivity of BTH. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition)

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16 pages, 3718 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Corticolous Lichen Communities and Their Bioindication Potential in an Urban and Peri-Urban Ecosystem in the Central Region of Colombia

by Miguel Moreno-Palacios, Alfredo Torres-Benítez, Edier Soto-Medina, Marta Sánchez, Pradeep K. Divakar, Iris Pereira and María Pilar Gómez-Serranillos

Land 2024, 13(7), 932; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13070932 - 26 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1441

Abstract

The richness, composition, abundance, and correlation with the atmospheric oxide concentrations of the community of corticolous lichens in the urban and peri-urban areas of the city of Ibagué (Colombia) were evaluated, selecting 25 individuals of the four most abundant phorophyte species. Twenty-nine lichen taxa grouped in 13 families and 17 genera were recorded, with a higher lichen coverage and taxa richness in the urban area. A non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis showed the conformation of two lichen communities associated with the urban and peri-urban areas of the city, and variation in composition among the phorophyte species. Exclusive and indicator taxa were found for both zones, as well as associations between variables through the application of a general linear model. Higher concentrations of atmospheric gases CO, SO₂, NO₂, and O₃ were found in the urban zone, and positive/negative relationships with some lichen taxa. There is high variability in the response of the lichen assemblage of urban and peri-urban ecosystems to environmental effects, with substantial or minimal changes in the variables of richness, coverage, and phorophyte association, and according to their interaction with atmospheric oxides, the patterns of potential tolerant and/or sensitive species are formed for their implementation in bioindication studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition)

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18 pages, 6620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simulation-Based Study on the Impact of Parametric Design on Outdoor Thermal Comfort and Urban Overheating

by Cheuk Yin Wai, Muhammad Atiq Ur Rehman Tariq, Hing-Wah Chau, Nitin Muttil and Elmira Jamei

Land 2024, 13(6), 829; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13060829 - 10 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1552

Abstract

Under the current energy crisis and climate change, sustainable urban planning and building design are a priority to achieve a net-zero future, as energy use in buildings for thermal comfort is one of the major carbon emission contributors. To adapt to a rapidly growing and stringent urban environment, where buildings are causing more emissions due to more frequent and severe extreme hot weather events, the parametric design approach has great potential and flexibility in providing a sustainable solution by simulating different design scenarios. This study aims to analyse urban geometry and identify the impact of various built environment scenarios on outdoor thermal comfort under certain climates. The Grasshopper program was used along with the Ladybugs plug-in to provide visualised outcomes of outdoor thermal comfort, with simulation models on Rhinoceros 3D Version 7 SR37 (7.37.24107.1500). Comparing the thermal comfort performance of different design scenarios, based on building height, orientation and urban geometry, helps to identify which factors are more impactful on building design. This study demonstrates the workflow of parametric design in analysing the microclimate pattern and outdoor thermal comfort performance of the existing built environment in Melbourne, Australia, to provide an insight for stakeholders and builders to inform better decision-making in urban planning and building design in order to achieve a zero-emission future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition)

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26 pages, 3449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Constructed Wetland Landscape Patterns during Rapid Urbanization in Chengdu, China

by Shiliang Liu, Yingying Chen, Rongjie Yang, Di Li, Yuling Qiu, Kezhu Lu, Xinhao Cao and Qibing Chen

Land 2024, 13(6), 806; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13060806 - 6 Jun 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1227

Abstract

The degradation of urban ecology, particularly in metropolitan areas distinguished by dense populations and impervious surfaces, presents a worldwide challenge linked to swift urban expansion. Despite extensive documentation of urbanization’s impact on broad regions or specific urban ecosystems over defined time periods, there remains a scarcity of studies investigating the spatiotemporal dynamics of landscape pattern (LP) changes in specific ecosystems at small-to-medium scales within inland megacities as a response to urbanization. Therefore, this work focused on the Bailuwan Wetland Park (BWP) in Chengdu, an inland megacity in southwestern China. Employing satellite imagery data from selected years spanning the previous decade (2010–2021, encompassing 2010, 2012, 2015, 2018, and 2021), this investigation delved into the influences of urbanization on the LP over various time-frames and across different land use/land cover (LULC) types. Our study revealed that urbanization has a significant impact on the patch-/landscape-level characteristics, including the class area (CA), number of patches (NP), patch density (PD), percentage of landscape (PLAND), aggregation index (AI), contagion index (CONTAG), largest patch index (LPI), landscape shape index (LSI), fractal dimension index (FRAC_MN), Shannon’s diversity (SHDI), and evenness index (SHEI). Over the period from 2010 to 2021, NP and PD experienced notable increases, while landscape shape (LSI/FRAC_MN) exhibited greater complexity and fragmentation (PLAND) intensified. Further, landscape heterogeneity (AI/CONTAG) and diversity (SHDI/SHEI) decreased. Particularly significant was the conversion of 52 ha of agricultural land to vegetation, resulting in heightened complexity and fragmentation in vegetation patterns. Additionally, the CA of lakes and rivers decreased following the establishment of the park, while the CA and NP of bare land presented significant increases. These findings suggest that rapid urbanization significantly influences the spatial–temporal dynamics of wetland landscape patterns. Consequently, it is imperative for society to prioritize the restoration and protection of urban constructed wetlands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Ecosystem Services: 5th Edition)

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