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13 pages, 7831 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contribution to Improvement of Fatigue Properties of Zr-4 Alloy: Gradient Nanostructured Surface Layer versus Compressive Residual Stress

by Donghui Geng, Qiaoyan Sun, Chao Xin and Lin Xiao

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(11), 3125; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11113125 - 19 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2156

Abstract

The gradient nanostructured (GNS) layer forms beneath the surface of Zr-4 samples by the surface mechanical grinding treatment (SMGT) process, which increases the fatigue strength apparently due to the synergistic effect of the gradient nanostructured layer and compressive residual stress. The SMGTed Zr-4 [...] Read more.

The gradient nanostructured (GNS) layer forms beneath the surface of Zr-4 samples by the surface mechanical grinding treatment (SMGT) process, which increases the fatigue strength apparently due to the synergistic effect of the gradient nanostructured layer and compressive residual stress. The SMGTed Zr-4 samples are subjected to annealing to remove residual stress (A-SMGT) and the individual effect of the GNS layer and compressive residual stress can be clarified. The results show that the gradient nanostructure in the surface is stable after annealing at 400 °C for 2 h but residual stress is apparently removed. Both SMGTed and A-SMGTed Zr-4 samples exhibit higher fatigue strength than that of coarse-grained (CG) Zr-4 alloy. The fatigue fracture of Zr-4 alloy indicates that the hard GNS surface layer hinders fatigue cracks from approaching the surface and leads to a lower fatigue striation space than that of CG Zr-4 samples. The offset fatigue strength of 10⁶ cycles is taken for SMRT-ed, A-SMRT-ed, and CG Zr-4 samples and the results indicate clearly that the GNS surface layer is a key factor for the improvement of fatigue strength of the Zr-4 alloy with surface mechanical grinding treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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13 pages, 6115 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Metastable Cellular Structure on Deformation Behavior in Laser Additively Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel

by Na Li, Zhengyang Li and Yujie Wei

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(11), 2859; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11112859 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2517

Abstract

Metastable cellular structures (MCSs) play a crucial role for the mechanical performance in concentrated alloys during non-equilibrium solidification process. In this paper, typifying the heterogeneous 316L stainless steel by laser additive manufacturing (LAM) process, we examine the microstructures in cellular interiors and cellular [...] Read more.

Metastable cellular structures (MCSs) play a crucial role for the mechanical performance in concentrated alloys during non-equilibrium solidification process. In this paper, typifying the heterogeneous 316L stainless steel by laser additive manufacturing (LAM) process, we examine the microstructures in cellular interiors and cellular boundaries in detail, and reveal the interactions of dislocations and twins with cellular boundaries. Highly ordered coherent precipitates present along the cellular boundary, resulting from spinodal decomposition by local chemical fluctuation. The co-existences of precipitates and high density of tangled dislocations at cellular boundaries serve as walls for extra hardening. Furthermore, local chemical fluctuation in MCSs inducing variation in stacking fault energy is another important factor for ductility enhancement. These findings shed light on possible routines to further alter nanostructures, including precipitates and dislocation structures, by tailoring local chemistry in MCSs during LAM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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9 pages, 3529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Superior Strength and Ductility of 304 Austenitic Stainless Steel with Gradient Dislocations

by Qingsong Pan, Song Guo, Fang Cui, Lijun Jing and Lei Lu

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(10), 2613; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11102613 - 4 Oct 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2710

Abstract

Materials with designed gradient nanograins exhibit unprecedented mechanical properties, such as superior strength and ductility. In this study, a heterostructured 304 stainless steel with solely gradient dislocation structure (GDS) in micron-sized grains produced by cyclic-torsion processing was demonstrated to exhibit a substantially improved [...] Read more.

Materials with designed gradient nanograins exhibit unprecedented mechanical properties, such as superior strength and ductility. In this study, a heterostructured 304 stainless steel with solely gradient dislocation structure (GDS) in micron-sized grains produced by cyclic-torsion processing was demonstrated to exhibit a substantially improved yield strength with slightly reduced uniform elongation, compared with its coarse grained counterparts. Microstructural observations reveal that multiple deformation mechanisms, associated with the formation of dense dislocation patterns, deformation twins and martensitic phase, are activated upon straining and contribute to the delocalized plastic deformation and the superior mechanical performance of the GDS 304 stainless steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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16 pages, 5245 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling the Shear Banding in Gradient Nano-Grained Metals

by Tianyu Chen and Jianjun Li

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(10), 2468; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11102468 - 22 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2562

Abstract

Extensive experiments have shown that gradient nano-grained metals have outstanding synergy of strength and ductility. However, the deformation mechanisms of gradient metals are still not fully understood due to their complicated gradient microstructure. One of the difficulties is the accurate description of the [...] Read more.

Extensive experiments have shown that gradient nano-grained metals have outstanding synergy of strength and ductility. However, the deformation mechanisms of gradient metals are still not fully understood due to their complicated gradient microstructure. One of the difficulties is the accurate description of the deformation of the nanocrystalline surface layer of the gradient metals. Recent experiments with a closer inspection into the surface morphology of the gradient metals reported that shear bands (strain localization) occur at the surface of the materials even under a very small, applied strain, which is in contrast to previously suggested uniform deformation. Here, a dislocation density-based computational model is developed to investigate the shear band evolution in gradient Cu to overcome the above difficulty and to clarify the above debate. The Voronoi polygon is used to establish the irregular grain structure, which has a gradual increase in grain size from the material surface to the interior. It was found that the shear band occurs at a small applied strain in the surface region of the gradient structure, and multiple shear bands are gradually formed with increasing applied load. The early appearance of shear banding and the formation of abundant shear bands resulted from the constraint of the coarse-grained interior. The number of shear bands and the uniform elongation of the gradient material were positively related, both of which increased with decreasing grain size distribution index and gradient layer thickness or increasing surface grain size. The findings are in good agreement with recent experimental observations in terms of stress-strain responses and shear band evolution. We conclude that the enhanced ductility of gradient metals originated from the gradient deformation-induced stable shear band evolution during tension. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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7 pages, 1530 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deformation Twinning Induced High Tensile Ductility of a Gradient Nanograined Cu-Based Alloy

by Junjie Wang and Nairong Tao

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(9), 2451; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092451 - 20 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2129

Abstract

We investigated the tensile properties of gradient nanograined Cu and CuAl samples prepared by plastic deformation. Tensile tests showed that the gradient nanograined Cu-4.5Al sample exhibits a uniform elongation of ~22% without any cracks, while the uniform elongation of the gradient nanograined Cu [...] Read more.

We investigated the tensile properties of gradient nanograined Cu and CuAl samples prepared by plastic deformation. Tensile tests showed that the gradient nanograined Cu-4.5Al sample exhibits a uniform elongation of ~22% without any cracks, while the uniform elongation of the gradient nanograined Cu sample is only ~18%. Numerous mechanical twinning retards the softening of the nanograins and accommodates a high tensile ductility in the gradient nanograined Cu-4.5Al sample. This work indicates that mechanical twinning is a potential deformation mechanism to achieve high tensile ductility of nanograined materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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12 pages, 3531 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gradient Enhanced Strain Hardening and Tensile Deformability in a Gradient-Nanostructured Ni Alloy

by Xinlai An, Weikang Bao, Zuhe Zhang, Zhouwen Jiang, Shengyun Yuan, Zesheng You and Yong Zhang

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(9), 2437; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092437 - 18 Sep 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2494

Abstract

Gradient-nanostructured material is an emerging category of material with spatial gradients in microstructural features. The incompatibility between gradient nanostructures (GNS) in the surface layer and coarse-grained (CG) core and their roles in extra strengthening and strain hardening have been well elucidated. Nevertheless, whether [...] Read more.

Gradient-nanostructured material is an emerging category of material with spatial gradients in microstructural features. The incompatibility between gradient nanostructures (GNS) in the surface layer and coarse-grained (CG) core and their roles in extra strengthening and strain hardening have been well elucidated. Nevertheless, whether similar mechanisms exist within the GNS is not clear yet. Here, interactions between nanostructured layers constituting the GNS in a Ni alloy processed by surface mechanical rolling treatment were investigated by performing unique microtension tests on the whole GNS and three subdivided nanostructured layers at specific depths, respectively. The isolated nanograined layer at the topmost surface shows the highest strength but a brittle nature. With increasing depths, isolated layers exhibit lower strength but enhanced tensile plasticity. The GNS sample’s behavior complied more with the soft isolated layer at the inner side of GNS. Furthermore, an extra strain hardening was found in the GNS sample, leading to a greater uniform elongation (>3%) as compared to all of three constituent nanostructured layers. This extra strain hardening could be ascribed to the effects of the strain gradients arising from the incompatibility associated with the depth-dependent mechanical performance of various nanostructured layers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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11 pages, 1535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Constitutive Description of Extra Strengthening in Gradient Nanotwinned Metals

by Wufan Chen, Panpan Wan, Qingkun Zhao and Haofei Zhou

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(9), 2375; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092375 - 13 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2590

Abstract

Gradient nanotwinned (GNT) metals exhibit extra strengthening and work hardening behaviors, which endow them impressive potentials in engineering applications. The increased strength is attributed to the dense interactions between dislocations and boundaries in the grain interiors. However, a constitutive model elucidating the extra [...] Read more.

Gradient nanotwinned (GNT) metals exhibit extra strengthening and work hardening behaviors, which endow them impressive potentials in engineering applications. The increased strength is attributed to the dense interactions between dislocations and boundaries in the grain interiors. However, a constitutive model elucidating the extra strengthening effect is currently lacking. Here, we propose a theoretical framework to describe the mechanical response of GNT metals, especially the unusual extra strengthening behavior. The model captures the deformation mechanisms of GNT metals and coincides well with the reported experiment. The constitutive description developed in this work presents a tool to guide the structural design for developing gradient metallic materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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12 pages, 3715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gradient Microstructure Design in Stainless Steel: A Strategy for Uniting Strength-Ductility Synergy and Corrosion Resistance

by Qiong He, Wei Wei, Ming-Sai Wang, Feng-Jiao Guo, Yu Zhai, Yan-Fei Wang and Chong-Xiang Huang

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(9), 2356; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092356 - 10 Sep 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3305

Abstract

Martensite transformation and grain refinement can make austenitic stainless steel stronger, but this comes at a dramatic loss of both ductility and corrosion resistance. Here we report a novel gradient structure in 301 stainless steel sheets, which enables an unprecedented combination of high [...] Read more.

Martensite transformation and grain refinement can make austenitic stainless steel stronger, but this comes at a dramatic loss of both ductility and corrosion resistance. Here we report a novel gradient structure in 301 stainless steel sheets, which enables an unprecedented combination of high strength, improved ductility and good corrosion resistance. After producing inter-layer microstructure gradient by surface mechanical attrition treatment, the sheet was annealed at high temperature for a short duration, during which partial reverse transformation occurred to form recrystallized austenitic nano-grains in the surface layer, i.e., introducing extra intra-layer heterogeneity. Such 3D microstructure heterogeneity activates inter-layer and inter-phase interactions during deformation, thereby producing back stress for high yield strength and hetero-deformation induced (HDI) hardening for high ductility. Importantly, the recrystallized austenitic nano-grains significantly ameliorates the corrosion resistance. These findings suggest an effective route for evading the strength–ductility and strength–corrosion tradeoffs in stainless steels simultaneously. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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7 pages, 2502 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formation of Nanolaminated Structure with Enhanced Thermal Stability in Copper

by Jianxin Hou, Xiuyan Li and Ke Lu

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(9), 2252; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092252 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2391

Abstract

Nanolaminated structure with an average boundary spacing of 67 nm has been fabricated in copper by high-rate shear deformation at ambient temperature. The nanolaminated structure with an increased fraction of low angle grain boundaries exhibits a high microhardness of 2.1 GPa. The structure [...] Read more.

Nanolaminated structure with an average boundary spacing of 67 nm has been fabricated in copper by high-rate shear deformation at ambient temperature. The nanolaminated structure with an increased fraction of low angle grain boundaries exhibits a high microhardness of 2.1 GPa. The structure coarsening temperature is 180 K higher than that of its equiaxial nanograined counterpart. Formation of nanolaminated structure provides an alternative way to relax grain boundaries and to stabilize nanostructured metals with medium to low stacking faults energies besides activation of partial dislocations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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13 pages, 11109 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Cu Ion Concentration on Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of Nanotwinned Cu Foils Fabricated by Rotary Electroplating

by Yu-Wen Hung, Dinh-Phuc Tran and Chih Chen

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(8), 2135; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11082135 - 22 Aug 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4333

Abstract

Rotary electroplating was employed to fabricate high-strength nanotwinned copper (nt-Cu) foils serving as a current collector for high energy-density lithium ion batteries (LIBs). The effect of Cu ion concentration on the microstructural and mechanical properties of the nt-Cu foils was then investigated. Formation [...] Read more.

Rotary electroplating was employed to fabricate high-strength nanotwinned copper (nt-Cu) foils serving as a current collector for high energy-density lithium ion batteries (LIBs). The effect of Cu ion concentration on the microstructural and mechanical properties of the nt-Cu foils was then investigated. Formation of nano-scaled grains was found at the bottom. Its size gradually increases toward the top surface to form a microstructural mixture of gradient nano-scaled and columnar grains in the upper region. Experimental results show that the grains and elongation of the nt-Cu foils increase with increasing concentration of Cu ions. However, a trade-off between tensile strength and elongation is present. The elongation of nt-Cu foils has been enhanced by 22% (from 3.1% to 3.8%) while 8.3% and 3.9% reductions in ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and yield stress (YS) are seen. The current study shows a promising method to tune and optimize the microstructure and mechanical properties of such nt-Cu foils for various applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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11 pages, 3465 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Controllable Martensite Transformation and Strain-Controlled Fatigue Behavior of a Gradient Nanostructured Austenite Stainless Steel

by Yunbo Lei, Jiuling Xu and Zhenbo Wang

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(8), 1870; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11081870 - 21 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2651

Abstract

Gradient nanostructured (GNS) surface layer with a controllable martensite fraction has been synthesized on 316L austenitic stainless steel by means of surface mechanical rolling treatment (SMRT) with temperature being controlled. The mean grain size is in the nanometer scale in the near-surface layer [...] Read more.

Gradient nanostructured (GNS) surface layer with a controllable martensite fraction has been synthesized on 316L austenitic stainless steel by means of surface mechanical rolling treatment (SMRT) with temperature being controlled. The mean grain size is in the nanometer scale in the near-surface layer and increases gradually with depth. In addition, the volume fraction of martensite decreases from ~85% to 0 in the near-surface layer while the SMRT temperature increases from room temperature to 175 °C. Fatigue experiments showed that the strain-controlled fatigue properties of the GNS samples are significantly enhanced at total strain amplitudes ≥0.5%, especially in those with a dual-phase surface layer of austenite and pre-formed martensite. Analyses on fatigue mechanisms illustrated that the GNS surface layer enhances the strength-ductility synergy and suppresses the formation of surface fatigue defects during fatigue. In addition, the dual-phase structure promotes the formation of martensite and stacking faults, further enhancing fatigue properties at high strain amplitudes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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12 pages, 57206 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Improvement of Yield Strength and Ductility at Cryogenic Temperature by Gradient Structure in 304 Stainless Steel

by Shuang Qin, Muxin Yang, Fuping Yuan and Xiaolei Wu

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(7), 1856; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11071856 - 19 Jul 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3628

Abstract

The tensile properties and the corresponding deformation mechanism of the graded 304 stainless steel (ss) at both room and cryogenic temperatures were investigated and compared with those of the coarse-grained (CGed) 304 ss. Gradient structures were found to have excellent synergy of strength [...] Read more.

The tensile properties and the corresponding deformation mechanism of the graded 304 stainless steel (ss) at both room and cryogenic temperatures were investigated and compared with those of the coarse-grained (CGed) 304 ss. Gradient structures were found to have excellent synergy of strength and ductility at room temperature, and both the yield strength and the uniform elongation were found to be simultaneously improved at cryogenic temperature in the gradient structures, as compared to those for the CG sample. The hetero-deformation-induced (HDI) hardening was found to play a more important role in the gradient structures as compared to the CG sample and be more obvious at cryogenic temperature as compared to that at room temperature. The central layer in the gradient structures provides stronger strain hardening during tensile deformation at both temperatures, due to more volume fraction of martensitic transformation. The volume fraction of martensitic transformation in the gradient structures was found to be much higher at cryogenic temperature, resulting in a much stronger strain hardening at cryogenic temperature. The amount of martensitic transformation at the central layer of the gradient structures is observed to be even higher than that for the CG sample at cryogenic temperature, which is one of the origins for the simultaneous improvement of strength and ductility by the gradient structures at cryogenic temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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16 pages, 65076 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of Low Roughness Gradient Nanostructured Inner Surface on an AISI 304 Stainless Steel Pipe via Ultra-Sonic Rolling Treatment (USRT)

by Xiaolei Han, Changji Li, Chunhuan Chen, Xiaodan Zhang and Hongwang Zhang

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(7), 1769; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11071769 - 7 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2481

Abstract

Gradient nanostructure (GNS) has drawn great attention, owing to the unique deformation and properties that are superior to nanostructure with uniform scale. GNS is commonly fabricated via surface plastic deformation with small tips (of balls or shots) so as to produce high deformation [...] Read more.

Gradient nanostructure (GNS) has drawn great attention, owing to the unique deformation and properties that are superior to nanostructure with uniform scale. GNS is commonly fabricated via surface plastic deformation with small tips (of balls or shots) so as to produce high deformation to refine the coarse grains, but unfortunately it suffers from the deterioration of surface quality which is hard to guarantee the reliable service. Although there are mirror-finishing techniques that can greatly enhance the surface quality, the induced slight deformation is commonly unable to produce GNS of reasonable thickness. Here, we propose a method to fabricate a GNS surface layer with a substantially enhanced surface quality via ultra-sonic rolling treatment (USRT), namely, surface rolling with a roller vibrated at a frequency of 20,000 Hz. It is found that 4-pass USRT is able to produce 20–30 µm thick GNS on AISI 304 stainless steel pipe inner surface, wherein the surface quality is enhanced by one order of magnitude from the starting Ra = 3.92 µm to 0.19 µm. Processing by a roller with a high-frequency vibration is necessary for both good surface quality and the effective accumulation of heavy deformation on the surface. The flattening mechanism as well as the microstructural evolution from millimeter- to nanometer-scale for AISI 304 stainless steel is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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11 pages, 6147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure Evolution and Mechanical Properties of Austenite Stainless Steel with Gradient Twinned Structure by Surface Mechanical Attrition Treatment

by Aiying Chen, Chen Wang, Jungan Jiang, Haihui Ruan and Jian Lu

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(6), 1624; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11061624 - 21 Jun 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3562

Abstract

Gradient structures in engineering materials produce an impressive synergy of strength and plasticity, thereafter, have recently attracted extensive attention in the material families. Gradient structured stainless steels (SS) were prepared by surface mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT) with different impacting velocities. The microstructures of [...] Read more.

Gradient structures in engineering materials produce an impressive synergy of strength and plasticity, thereafter, have recently attracted extensive attention in the material families. Gradient structured stainless steels (SS) were prepared by surface mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT) with different impacting velocities. The microstructures of the treated samples are characterized by gradient twin fraction and phase constituents. Quantitative relations of gradient microstructure with impacting time and mechanical properties are analyzed according to the observations of SEM, TEM, XRD, and tests of mechanical property. The processed SSs exhibited to be simultaneously stiff, strong, and ductile, which can be attributed to the co-operation of the different spatial distributions of multi-scaled structures. The formation of gradient twinned structure is resolved and the strengthening by gradient structure is explored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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Review

Jump to: Research

17 pages, 18514 KiB

Open AccessReview

Nano-Gradient Materials Prepared by Rotary Swaging

by Qingzhong Mao, Xiang Chen, Jiansheng Li and Yonghao Zhao

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(9), 2223; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092223 - 29 Aug 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4086

Abstract

Gradient nanostructured metallic materials with a nanostructured surface layer show immense potential for various industrial applications because of their outstanding mechanical, fatigue, corrosion, tribological properties, etc. In the past several decades, various methods for fabricating gradient nanostructure have been developed. Nevertheless, the thickness [...] Read more.

Gradient nanostructured metallic materials with a nanostructured surface layer show immense potential for various industrial applications because of their outstanding mechanical, fatigue, corrosion, tribological properties, etc. In the past several decades, various methods for fabricating gradient nanostructure have been developed. Nevertheless, the thickness of gradient microstructure is still in the micrometer scale due to the limitation of preparation techniques. As a traditional but potential technology, rotary swaging (RS) allows gradient stress and strain to be distributed across the radial direction of a bulk cylindrical workpiece. Therefore, in this review paper, we have systematically summarized gradient and even nano-gradient materials prepared by RS. We found that metals processed by RS usually possess inverse nano-gradient, i.e., nano-grains appear in the sample center, texture-gradient and dislocation density-gradient along the radial direction. Moreover, a broad gradient structure is distributed from center to edge of the whole processed rods. In addition, properties including micro-hardness, conductivity, corrosion, etc., of RS processed metals are also reviewed and discussed. Finally, we look forward to the future prospects and further research work for the RS processed materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gradient Nanograined Materials)

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