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A special issue of Toxics (ISSN 2305-6304). This special issue belongs to the section "Ecotoxicology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2022) | Viewed by 41053

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Dr. Stefanos Dailianis

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Section of Animal Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Patras, GR-26500 Patras, Greece
Interests: (eco)toxicology; cytotoxicity; genotoxicity; biochemistry; bioindicators; biomarkers; monitoring; wastewaters; water contaminants; signaling cascades
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Dr. Konstantinos Gkrintzalis

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School of Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Lonsdale Building, Office X224, Glasnevin Campus, Dublin 9, DO9 Y5NO Dublin, Ireland
Interests: (eco)toxicology; nanotoxicology; metabolomics; freshwater; biochemistry; biomarkers; oxidative stress; redox biology; cell biology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The good chemical and ecological status of water bodies is crucial for ensuring the sustainability of social-economic development. However, during the last decades, aquatic basins all over the world have been under increased human pressure, which in turn could contribute to significant decline in aquatic faunal populations and biodiversity, as well as the degradation of habitats and natural resources, thus threatening environmental and human health at higher time scales. To assess the pollution risk and the negative impact of single (metals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, biocides, nanomaterials, and polymers such as micro- and mesoplastics, etc.) or mixed contaminants (municipal and/or industrial wastes, agrochemicals, landfill leachates, atmospheric inputs, etc.) on aquatic media, (eco)toxicological methods are increasingly applied for determining potential adverse effects (including acute and chronic effects, cellular, biochemical and molecular alterations, etc.) on aquatic organisms of different trophic levels.

Aiming to bring together researchers all over the world that can enrich the current state of knowledge on the Toxicity of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms, we are pleased to invite you to contribute to the release of the current Special Issue of Toxics. In this Special Issue, commentaries, original research articles, reviews, and short communications (without restriction on their length), are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) both laboratorial (in vitro and/or in vivo) and field studies regarding the chemical-related toxic effects (acute or chronic toxicity, cytotoxic, genotoxic, oxidative-stress-related effects, etc.) of either single (metals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, biocides, nanomaterials, and polymers such as micro- and mesoplastics, etc.) or mixed contaminants (whole effluent toxicity testing methods in municipal and/or industrial wastes, agrochemicals, landfill leachates, atmospheric inputs, etc.) on freshwater or saltwater (marine) species or biological models (cells, tissues, organs, etc.), as well as studies relating to new methods for assessing the toxicity of contaminants to aquatic organisms.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Stefanos Dailianis
Dr. Konstantinos Gkrintzalis
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

aquatic organisms
(eco)toxicity testing
stress indices
water contaminants
molecular ecotoxicology
risk assessment

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 2058 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Effects of Single and Combined Stressors on Daphnids—Enzyme Markers of Physiology and Metabolomics Validate the Impact of Pollution

by Anna Michalaki, Allan Robert McGivern, Gernot Poschet, Michael Büttner, Rolf Altenburger and Konstantinos Grintzalis

Toxics 2022, 10(10), 604; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10100604 - 12 Oct 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2569

Abstract

The continuous global increase in population and consumption of resources due to human activities has had a significant impact on the environment. Therefore, assessment of environmental exposure to toxic chemicals as well as their impact on biological systems is of significant importance. Freshwater systems are currently under threat and monitored; however, current methods for pollution assessment can neither provide mechanistic insight nor predict adverse effects from complex pollution. Using daphnids as a bioindicator, we assessed the impact in acute exposures of eight individual chemicals and specifically two metals, four pharmaceuticals, a pesticide and a stimulant, and their composite mixture combining phenotypic, biochemical and metabolic markers of physiology. Toxicity levels were in the same order of magnitude and significantly enhanced in the composite mixture. Results from individual chemicals showed distinct biochemical responses for key enzyme activities such as phosphatases, lipase, peptidase, β-galactosidase and glutathione-S-transferase. Following this, a more realistic mixture scenario was assessed with the aforementioned enzyme markers and a metabolomic approach. A clear dose-dependent effect for the composite mixture was validated with enzyme markers of physiology, and the metabolomic analysis verified the effects observed, thus providing a sensitive metrics in metabolite perturbations. Our study highlights that sensitive enzyme markers can be used in advance on the design of metabolic and holistic assays to guide the selection of chemicals and the trajectory of the study, while providing mechanistic insight. In the future this could prove to become a useful tool for understanding and predicting freshwater pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms)

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18 pages, 3446 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

A Metabolomic Approach to Assess the Toxicity of the Olive Tree Endophyte Bacillus sp. PTA13 Lipopeptides to the Aquatic Macrophyte Lemna minor L.

by Evgenia-Anna Papadopoulou, Katerina Giaki, Apostolis Angelis, Alexios-Leandros Skaltsounis and Konstantinos A. Aliferis

Toxics 2022, 10(9), 494; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10090494 - 25 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2976

Abstract

Pesticides represent a major human input into the ecosystem, posing a serious risk to non-target organisms. Therefore, there is pressure toward the reduction in their use and the discovery of alternative sources of bioactivity. Endophytic microorganisms represent a source of bioactivity, whose potential for plant protection has been recently established. In this context, an olive tree endophytic Bacillus sp. was isolated, exhibiting superior antifungal activity, mainly attributed to its major surfactin, iturin, and fengycin and the minor gageotetrin and bacilotetrin groups of lipopeptides (LP). Based on the potential of LP and the lack of information on their toxicity to aquatic organisms, we have investigated the toxicity of an LP extract to the model macrophyte Lemna minor L. The extract exhibited low phytotoxicity (EC₅₀ = 419 μg·mL⁻¹), and for the investigation of its effect on the plant, GC/EI/MS metabolomics was applied following exposure to sub-lethal doses (EC₂₅ and EC₅₀). Results revealed a general disturbance of plants’ biosynthetic capacity in response to LP treatments, with substantial effect on the amino acid pool and the defense mechanism regulated by jasmonate. There are no previous reports on the phytotoxicity of LP to L. minor, with evidence supporting their improved toxicological profile and potential in plant protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms)

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10 pages, 1760 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Risk Assessment of Oxaliplatin Exposure on Early Life Stages of Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

by Davide Di Paola, Fabiano Capparucci, Jessica Maria Abbate, Marika Cordaro, Rosalia Crupi, Rosalba Siracusa, Ramona D’Amico, Roberta Fusco, Tiziana Genovese, Daniela Impellizzeri, Salvatore Cuzzocrea, Nunziacarla Spanò, Enrico Gugliandolo and Alessio Filippo Peritore

Toxics 2022, 10(2), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10020081 - 9 Feb 2022

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3476

Abstract

Pharmaceuticals are actually identified as a threat to the ecosystem. Nowadays, the growing consumption of antineoplastic agents has been related to their continuous input in natural environments. These substances can interfere with physiological and biochemical processes of aquatic species over their entire life cycle. Oxaliplatin (OXA) is a widely used chemotherapeutic agent to treat colon or rectal cancer. This study was aimed to evaluate the developmental toxicity of the OXA exposure. To this end, zebrafish embryos were incubated with 0.001, 0.1, 0.5 mg/L OXA. At different timepoints mortality rate, hatching rate, developmental abnormalities, histological analysis, oxidative stress and mRNA expression of gene related to oxidative stress were evaluated. Our results showed that OXA exposure can induce increased mortality and developmental abnormalities reducing the hatching rate. Histological analysis demonstrated that OXA induced liver, intestine, muscle and heart injury. Superoxide dismutase and catalase activities were significantly increased after OXA exposure demonstrating its oxidative effects. The mRNA expression levels of apoptosis-related genes (caspase-3, bax and bcl-2) were significantly upregulated by OXA exposure. In conclusion, we highlighted that OXA exposure led to a dose-related developmental toxicity, oxidative stress and apoptosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms)

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14 pages, 9341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lethal and Sub-Lethal Effects and Modulation of Gene Expression Induced by T Kinase Inhibitors in Zebrafish (Danio Rerio) Embryos

by Tina Elersek, Matjaž Novak, Mateja Mlinar, Igor Virant, Nika Bahor, Karin Leben, Bojana Žegura and Metka Filipič

Toxics 2022, 10(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10010004 - 24 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3534

Abstract

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are designed for targeted cancer therapy. The consumption of these drugs during the last 20 years has been constantly rising. In the zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo toxicity test, we assessed the toxicity of six TKIs: imatinib mesylate, erlotinib, nilotinib, dasatinib, sorafenib and regorafenib. Imatinib mesylate and dasatinib induced lethal effects, while regorafenib, sorfenib and dasatinib caused a significant increase of sub-lethal effects, predominantly oedema, no blood circulation and formation of blood aggregates. The analyses of the changes in the expression of selected genes associated with the hormone system after the exposure to imatinib mesylate, dasatinib and regorafenib demonstrated that all three tested TKIs deregulated the expression of oestrogen receptor esr1, cytochrome P450 aromatase (cypa19b) and hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase (hsd3b), regorafenib, and also thyroglobulin (tg). The expression of genes involved in the DNA damage response (gadd45 and mcm6) and apoptosis (bcl2) was deregulated only by exposure to regorafenib. The data indicate that common mechanisms, namely antiangiogenic activity and interference with steroidogenesis are involved in the TKI induced sub-lethal effects and potential hormone disrupting activity, respectively. The residues of TKIs may represent an environmental hazard; therefore, further ecotoxicological studies focusing also on the effects of their mixtures are warranted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms)

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17 pages, 3478 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Median Lethal Concentration (LC₅₀) for Endosulfan, Heptachlor and Dieldrin Pesticides to African Catfish, Clarias gariepinus and Their Impact on Its Behavioral Patterns and Histopathological Responses

by Md. Ariful Islam, S. M. Nurul Amin, Christopher L. Brown, Abdul Shukor Juraimi, Md. Kamal Uddin and Aziz Arshad

Toxics 2021, 9(12), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9120340 - 8 Dec 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5248

Abstract

Pesticides such as endosulfan, heptachlor and dieldrin persist in aquatic environments as a result of their resistance to biodegradation. However, there is no adequate information about the toxicity of endosulfan, heptachlor and dieldrin to the aquatic organism, African catfish (Clarias gariepinus)—a high valued widely distributed commercially interesting species. The current experiment was performed with the aim to determine the median lethal concentration (LC₅₀) of endosulfan, heptachlor and dieldrin to African catfish (Clarias gariepinus); their behavioral abnormalities and histopathological alterations in several vital organs. A total of 324 juvenile fish were exposed for 96 h to six concentrations of endosulfan and dieldrin at 0, 0.001, 0.002, 0.004, 0.008 and 0.016 ppm, and to heptachlor at concentrations of 0, 0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 0.16 and 0.32 ppm for dose-response tests. The study demonstrated that the species is highly susceptible to those contaminants showing a number of behavioral abnormalities and histopathological changes in gill, liver and muscle. The 96-h LC₅₀ value of endosulfan, dieldrin and heptachlor for the African catfish was found as 0.004 (0.001−0.01) mg/L, 0.006 mg/L and 0.056 (0.006−0.144) mg/L, respectively. Abnormal behaviors such as erratic jerky swimming, frequent surfacing movement with gulping of air, secretion of mucus on the body and gills were observed in response to the increasing exposure concentrations. Histopathological alterations of liver, gill and muscle tissues were demonstrated as vacuolization in hepatocytes, congestion of red blood cells (RBCs) in hepatic portal vein; deformed secondary lamellae and disintegrated myotomes with disintegrated epidermis, respectively. These findings are important to monitor and responsibly manage pesticide use in and around C. gariepinus aquacultural areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms)

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28 pages, 3111 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toxicity and Functional Tissue Responses of Two Freshwater Fish after Exposure to Polystyrene Microplastics

by Martha Kaloyianni, Dimitra C. Bobori, Despoina Xanthopoulou, Glykeria Malioufa, Ioannis Sampsonidis, Stavros Kalogiannis, Konstantinos Feidantsis, Georgia Kastrinaki, Anastasia Dimitriadi, George Koumoundouros, Dimitra A. Lambropoulou, George Z. Kyzas and Dimitrios N. Bikiaris

Toxics 2021, 9(11), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9110289 - 2 Nov 2021

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 7493

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs)’ ingestion has been demonstrated in several aquatic organisms. This process may facilitate the hydrophobic waterborne pollutants or chemical additives transfer to biota. In the present study the suitability of a battery of biomarkers on oxidative stress, physiology, tissue function and metabolic profile was investigated for the early detection of adverse effects of 21-day exposure to polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs, sized 5–12 μm) in the liver and gills of zebrafish Danio rerio and perch, Perca fluviatilis, both of which are freshwater fish species. An optical volume map representation of the zebrafish gill by Raman spectroscopy depicted 5 μm diameter PS-MP dispersed in the gill tissue. Concentrations of PS-MPs close to the EC₅₀ of each fish affected fish physiology in all tissues studied. Increased levels of biomarkers of oxidative damage in exposed fish in relation to controls were observed, as well as activation of apoptosis and autophagy processes. Malondialdehyde (MDA), protein carbonyls and DNA damage responses differed with regard to the sensitivity of each tissue of each fish. In the toxicity cascade gills seemed to be more liable to respond to PS-MPs than liver for the majority of the parameters measured. DNA damage was the most susceptible biomarker exhibiting greater response in the liver of both species. The interaction between MPs and cellular components provoked metabolic alterations in the tissues studied, affecting mainly amino acids, nitrogen and energy metabolism. Toxicity was species and tissue specific, with specific biomarkers responding differently in gills and in liver. The fish species that seemed to be more susceptible to MPs at the conditions studied, was P. fluviatilis compared to D. rerio. The current findings add to a holistic approach for the identification of small sized PS-MPs’ biological effects in fish, thus aiming to provide evidence regarding PS-MPs’ environmental impact on wild fish populations and food safety and adequacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms)

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16 pages, 1554 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Herbicides to Marine Organisms Aliivibrio fischeri and Artemia salina

by Radek Vurm, Lucia Tajnaiová and Jana Kofroňová

Toxics 2021, 9(11), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9110275 - 21 Oct 2021

Viewed by 3574

Abstract

The aim of this work was to determine the toxic effect of the most used herbicides on marine organisms, the bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri, and the crustacean Artemia salina. The effect of these substances was evaluated using a luminescent bacterial test and an ecotoxicity test. The results showed that half maximal inhibitory concentration for A. fischeri is as follows: _15minIC₅₀ (Roundup^® Classic Pro) = 236 μg·L⁻¹, _15minIC₅₀ (Kaput^® Premium) = 2475 μg·L⁻¹, _15minIC₅₀ (Banvel^® 480 S) = 2637 μg·L⁻¹, _15minIC₅₀ (Lontrel 300) = 7596 μg·L⁻¹, _15minIC₅₀ (Finalsan^®) = 64 μg·L⁻¹, _15minIC₅₀ (glyphosate) = 7934 μg·L⁻¹, _15minIC₅₀ (dicamba) = 15,937 μg·L⁻¹, _15minIC₅₀ (clopyralid) = 10,417 μg·L⁻¹, _15minIC₅₀ (nonanoic acid) = 16,040 μg·L⁻¹. Median lethal concentrations for A. salina were determined as follows: LC₅₀ (Roundup^® Classic Pro) = 18 μg·L⁻¹, LC₅₀ (Kaput^® Premium) = 19 μg·L⁻¹, LC₅₀ (Banvel^® 480 S) = 2519 μg·L⁻¹, LC₅₀ (Lontrel 300) = 1796 μg·L⁻¹, LC₅₀ (Finalsan^®) = 100 μg·L⁻¹, LC₅₀ (glyphosate) = 811 μg·L⁻¹, LC₅₀ (dicamba) = 3705 μg·L⁻¹, LC₅₀ (clopyralid) = 2800 μg·L⁻¹, LC₅₀ (nonanoic acid) = 7493 μg·L⁻¹. These findings indicate the need to monitor the herbicides used for all environmental compartments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms)

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15 pages, 2375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Risk Assessment of Vehicle Exhaust Particles on Aquatic Organisms of Different Trophic Levels

by Konstantin Pikula, Mariya Tretyakova, Alexander Zakharenko, Seyed Ali Johari, Sergey Ugay, Valery Chernyshev, Vladimir Chaika, Tatiana Kalenik and Kirill Golokhvast

Toxics 2021, 9(10), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9100261 - 13 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2255

Abstract

Vehicle emission particles (VEPs) represent a significant part of air pollution in urban areas. However, the toxicity of this category of particles in different aquatic organisms is still unexplored. This work aimed to extend the understanding of the toxicity of the vehicle exhaust particles in two species of marine diatomic microalgae, the planktonic crustacean Artemia salina, and the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius. These aquatic species were applied for the first time in the risk assessment of VEPs. Our results demonstrated that the samples obtained from diesel-powered vehicles completely prevented egg fertilization of the sea urchin S. intermedius and caused pronounced membrane depolarization in the cells of both tested microalgae species at concentrations between 10 and 100 mg/L. The sample with the highest proportion of submicron particles and the highest content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) had the highest growth rate inhibition in both microalgae species and caused high toxicity to the crustacean. The toxicity level of the other samples varied among the species. We can conclude that metal content and the difference in the concentrations of PAHs by itself did not directly reflect the toxic level of VEPs, but the combination of both a high number of submicron particles and high PAH concentrations had the highest toxic effect on all the tested species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms)

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12 pages, 2443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

First Evidence of In Vitro Effects of C6O4—A Substitute of PFOA—On Haemocytes of the Clam Ruditapes philippinarum

by Jacopo Fabrello, Francesca Targhetta, Maria Ciscato, Davide Asnicar, Ilaria Bernardini, Massimo Milan, Tomaso Patarnello, Maria Gabriella Marin and Valerio Matozzo

Toxics 2021, 9(8), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9080191 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3479

Abstract

Alternative chemicals to per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances have recently been introduced in various industrial processes. C6O4 (difluoro{[2,2,4,5-tetrafluoro-5-(trifluoromethoxy)-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl]oxy}acetic acid) is a new surfactant and emulsifier used as a replacement for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). From an ecotoxicological point of view, in vitro assays are useful tools for assessing the negative effects and understanding the mechanisms of action of chemicals at the cellular level. Here, we present the results of an in vitro study in which the effects of C6O4 were evaluated—for the first time—on haemocytes of the clam Ruditapes philippinarum. Cells were exposed to three concentrations of C6O4 (0.05, 0.5, 5 μg/mL) and the effects on haemocyte viability, haemocyte morphology, differential haemocyte count, lysosomal membrane stability, superoxide anion production, acid phosphatase, and β-glucuronidase activities, as well as on the percentage of micronuclei and chromosomal aberrations were evaluated. The results demonstrated that C6O4 significantly affected haemocyte morphology, lysosomal membrane stability, hydrolytic enzyme activity, and superoxide anion production, and promoted chromosomal aberrations. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study revealing the in vitro effects of C6O4, a substitute for PFOA, on haemocytes from a bivalve species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms)

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19 pages, 1341 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Potential Risk of Electronic Waste Disposal into Aquatic Media: The Case of Personal Computer Motherboards

by Georgios Kalamaras, Maria Kloukinioti, Maria Antonopoulou, Ioanna Ntaikou, Dimitris Vlastos, Antonios Eleftherianos and Stefanos Dailianis

Toxics 2021, 9(7), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9070166 - 12 Jul 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3582

Abstract

Considering that electronic wastes (e-wastes) have been recently recognized as a potent environmental and human threat, the present study aimed to assess the potential risk of personal computer motherboards (PCMBs) leaching into aquatic media, following a real-life scenario. Specifically, PCMBs were submerged for 30 days in both distilled water (DW) and artificial seawater (ASW). Afterwards, PCMBs leachates were chemically characterized (i.e., total organic carbon, ions, and trace elements) and finally used (a) for culturing freshwater (Chlorococcum sp. and Scenedesmus rubescens) and saltwater (Dunaliella tertiolecta and Tisochrysis lutea) microalgae for 10 days (240 h), (b) as the exposure medium for mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis (96 h exposure), and (c) for performing the Cytokinesis Block Micronucleus (CBMN) assay in human lymphocytes cultures. According to the results, PCMBs could mediate both fresh- and marine algae growth rates over time, thus enhancing the cytotoxic, oxidative, and genotoxic effects in the hemocytes of mussels (in terms of lysosomal membrane impairment, lipid peroxidation, and NO content and micronuclei formation, respectively), as well as human lymphocytes (in terms of MN formation and CBPI values, respectively). The current findings clearly revealed that PCMBs leaching into the aquatic media could pose detrimental effects on both aquatic organisms and human cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Contaminants on Aquatic Organisms)

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