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A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Viruses".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2023) | Viewed by 24233

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Prof. Dr. Shengwang Liu

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Guest Editor

Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
Interests: avian coronavirus; infectious bronchitis virus; pheasant coronavirus; epidemiology; tissue tropism; antigenicity; pathogenicity; vaccine; diagnosis

Dr. Huixin Li

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Guest Editor

Dr. Xin Zhang

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Guest Editor

Division of Swine Digestive System Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
Interests: coronavirus; epidemiology; antigenicity; pathogenicity; vaccine

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Following the success of the Special Issue “Infectious Bronchitis Virus,” we are editing a 2022 edition of this topic for new submissions.

The main topic of this Special Issue is an agriculturally important avian virus, infectious bronchitis virus, that affects not only the production of meat-type birds but also the quality and production levels of eggs from layer and breeder birds worldwide. The main topics of this Special Issue include the development of rationally attenuated vaccines and diagnostic methods for the better control of infectious bronchitis virus, the investigation of the epidemiology, tissue tropism, antigenicity and pathogenicity determinants of the infectious bronchitis virus and other topics of infectious bronchitis and infectious bronchitis virus.

Prof. Dr. Shengwang Liu
Dr. Huixin Li
Dr. Xin Zhang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

infectious bronchitis virus
epidemiology
tissue tropism
antigenicity
pathogenicity
diagnosis
therapy
vaccine

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 1990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome Variability of Infectious Bronchitis Virus in Mexico: High Lineage Diversity and Recurrent Recombination

by Ana Marandino, Lizbeth Mendoza-González, Yanina Panzera, Gonzalo Tomás, Joaquín Williman, Claudia Techera, Amanda Gayosso-Vázquez, Vianey Ramírez-Andoney, Rogelio Alonso-Morales, Mauricio Realpe-Quintero and Ruben Pérez

Viruses 2023, 15(7), 1581; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15071581 - 20 Jul 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1614

Abstract

The avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a coronavirus that mutates frequently, leading to a contagious and acute disease that results in economic losses to the global poultry industry. Due to its genetic and serological diversity, IBV poses a challenge in preventing and controlling the pathogen. The full-length S1 sequence analysis identifies seven main genotypes (GI–GVII) comprising 35 viral lineages. In addition to the previously described lineage, a new GI lineage (GI-30) and two lineages from novel genotypes (GVIII-1 and GIX-1) have been described in Mexico. To prevent the spread of IBV outbreaks in a specific geographic location and select the suitable vaccine, it is helpful to genetically identify the circulating IBV types. Moreover, sequencing genomes can provide essential insights into virus evolution and significantly enhance our understanding of IBV variability. However, only genomes of previously described lineages (GI-1, GI-9, GI-13, and GI-17) have been reported for Mexican strains. Here, we sequenced new genomes from Mexican lineages, including the indigenous GI-30, GVIII-1, and GIX-1 lineages. Comparative genomics reveals that Mexico has relatively homogenous lineages (i.e., GI-13), some with greater variability (i.e., GI-1 and GI-9), and others extremely divergent (GI-30, GVIII-1, and GIX-1). The circulating lineages and intra-lineage variability support the unique diversity and dynamic of Mexican IBV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Bronchitis Virus)

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15 pages, 9287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The S2 Subunit of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Affects Abl2-Mediated Syncytium Formation

by Shunyi Fan, Yuxi Shen, Shuyun Li, Xuelian Xiang, Nianling Li, Yongxin Li, Jing Xu, Min Cui, Xinfeng Han, Jing Xia and Yong Huang

Viruses 2023, 15(6), 1246; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15061246 - 25 May 2023

Viewed by 1861

Abstract

The S2 subunit serves a crucial role in infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) infection, particularly in facilitating membrane fusion. Using reverse genetic techniques, mutant strains of the S2 locus exhibited substantially different syncytium-forming abilities in chick embryonic kidney cells. To determine the precise formation mechanism of syncytium, we demonstrated the co-ordinated role of Abl2 and its mediated cytoskeletal regulatory pathway within the S2 subunit. Using a combination of fluorescence quantification, RNA silencing, and protein profiling techniques, the functional role of S2 subunits in IBV-infected cells was exhaustively determined. Our findings imply that Abl2 is not the primary cytoskeletal regulator, the viral S2 component is involved in indirect regulation, and the three different viral strains activate various cytoskeletal regulatory pathways through Abl2. CRK, CRKL, ABI1, NCKAP1, and ENAH also play a role in cytoskeleton regulation. Our research provides a point of reference for the development of an intracellular regulatory network for the S2 subunit and a foundation for the rational design of antiviral drug targets against Abl2. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Bronchitis Virus)

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11 pages, 2042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution and Epidemic Spread of the Avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV) GI-23 in Brazil

by Nilo Ikuta, Diéssy Kipper, Dayana Soriano Spencer de Freitas, André Salvador Kazantzi Fonseca and Vagner Ricardo Lunge

Viruses 2023, 15(6), 1229; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15061229 - 24 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2038

Abstract

Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a pathogen affecting poultry flocks worldwide. GI-23 is an IBV lineage with a rapid spread into different continents of the world, and it was reported for the first time in South American/Brazilian broiler farms last year. This study aimed to investigate the recent introduction and epidemic spread of IBV GI-23 in Brazil. Ninety-four broiler flocks infected with this lineage were evaluated from October 2021 to January 2023. IBV GI-23 was detected using real-time RT-qPCR, and the S1 gene hypervariable regions 1 and 2 (HVR1/2) were sequenced. S1 complete and HVR1/2 nucleotide sequence datasets were used to carry out phylogenetic and phylodynamic analyses. Brazilian IBV GI-23 strains clustered into two specific subclades (SA.1 and SA.2), both in tree branches with IBV GI-23 from Eastern European poultry-producing countries, suggesting two independent and recent introductions (around 2018). Viral phylodynamic analysis showed that the IBV GI-23 population increased from 2020 to 2021, remaining constant for one year and declining in 2022. S1 amino acid sequences from Brazilian IBV GI-23 presented specific and characteristic substitutions in the HVR1/2 for subclades IBV GI-23 SA.1 and SA.2. This study brings new insights into the introduction and recent epidemiology of IBV GI-23 in Brazil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Bronchitis Virus)

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13 pages, 2667 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Host Proteins Interacting with IBV S1 Based on Tracheal Organ Culture

by Huandong Zhang, Houli Cai, Qingyang Li, Chengxiu Fang, Li Peng, Jianing Lan, Jiyong Zhou and Min Liao

Viruses 2023, 15(5), 1216; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15051216 - 22 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1828

Abstract

Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) belongs to the gamma-coronavirus genus of Coronaviridae and causes serious infectious diseases in the poultry industry. However, only a few IBV strains can infect avian passage cell lines, seriously hindering the progress of basic research on IBV pathogenesis. Whereas IBV field strains can replicate in tracheal ring organ culture (TOC) without any previous adaptation in chicken embryos or primary cells. In this study, to investigate the potential use of TOC as an in vitro infection model for the study of IBV-host interaction, we first established a chicken embryo TOC culture system and carried out an investigation on the IBV replication kinetics in the system. We found that the selected strains of the IBV GI-1, GI-7, GI-13, GI-19, and GI-22 genotypes could successfully replicate in TOC and bring about damage to the infected trachea. Next, we identified host proteins of the chicken embryo trachea that interact with the IBV S1 protein by immunoprecipitation and protein mass spectrometry. A total of 127 candidate proteins were initially identified with major involvement in cell adhesion pathways and apoptosis- and autophagy-related pathways. The heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) was selected for further investigation in the interaction with IBV viral proteins. Our results showed that HSP70 interacted with IBV S1 in both TOC and CEK cells, whereas HSP70 overexpression inhibited viral replication. This study indicates that TOC is a good system for the elucidation of IBV-host interactions and HSP70 is a potential host antiviral factor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Bronchitis Virus)

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12 pages, 3730 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pathogenicity of GI-23 Avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus Strain Isolated in Brazil

by Iara Maria Trevisol, Luizinho Caron, Marcos Antônio Zanella Mores, Daiane Voss-Rech, Gabriel da Silva Zani, Alberto Back, Jorge Augusto Petroli Marchesi and Paulo Augusto Esteves

Viruses 2023, 15(5), 1200; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15051200 - 19 May 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2525

Abstract

IBV variants belonging to the GI-23 lineage have circulated since 1998 in the Middle East and have spread to several countries over time. In Brazil, the first report of GI-23 occurred in 2022. The study aimed to evaluate the in vivo pathogenicity of exotic variant GI-23 isolates. Biological samples were screening by real-time RT-PCR and classified in to GI-1 or G1-11 lineages. Interestingly, 47.77% were not classified in these lineages. Nine of the unclassified strains were sequenced and showed a high similarity to the GI-23 strain. All nine were isolated and three, were studied for pathogenicity. At necropsy, the main observations were the presence of mucus in the trachea and congestion in the tracheal mucosa. In addition, lesions on the tracheas showed marked ciliostasis, and the ciliary activity confirmed the high pathogenicity of isolates. This variant is highly pathogenic to the upper respiratory tract and can cause severe kidney lesions. This study confirm a circulation of GI-23 strain in the country and report, to first time, the isolation of an exotic variant of IBV in Brazil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Bronchitis Virus)

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19 pages, 28795 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unique Variants of Avian Coronaviruses from Indigenous Chickens in Kenya

by Henry M. Kariithi, Jeremy D. Volkening, Iryna V. Goraichuk, Leonard O. Ateya, Dawn Williams-Coplin, Tim L. Olivier, Yatinder S. Binepal, Claudio L. Afonso and David L. Suarez

Viruses 2023, 15(2), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15020264 - 17 Jan 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2702

Abstract

The avian gamma-coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (AvCoV, IBV; Coronaviridae family) causes upper respiratory disease associated with severe economic losses in the poultry industry worldwide. Here, we report for the first time in Kenya and the Eastern African region two novel AvCoVs, designated IBV/ck/KE/1920/A374/2017 (A374/17) and AvCoV/ck/KE/1922/A376/2017 (A376/17), inadvertently discovered using random nontargeted next-generation sequencing (NGS) of cloacal swabs collected from indigenous chickens. Despite having genome organization (5′UTR-[Rep1a/1ab-S-3a-3b-E-M-4b-4c-5a-5b-N-6b]-3′UTR), canonical conservation of essential genes and size (~27.6 kb) typical of IBVs, the Kenyan isolates do not phylogenetically cluster with any genotypes of the 37 IBV lineages and 26 unique variants (UVs). Excluding the spike gene, genome sequences of A374/17 and A376/17 are only 93.1% similar to each other and 86.7–91.4% identical to genomes of other AvCoVs. All five non-spike genes of the two isolates phylogenetically cluster together and distinctly from other IBVs and turkey coronaviruses (TCoVs), including the indigenous African GI-26 viruses, suggesting a common origin of the genome backbone of the Kenyan isolates. However, isolate A376/17 contains a TCoV-like spike (S) protein coding sequence and is most similar to Asian TCoVs (84.5–85.1%) compared to other TCoVs (75.6–78.5%), whereas isolate A374/17 contains an S1 gene sequence most similar to the globally distributed lineage GI-16 (78.4–79.5%) and the Middle Eastern lineage GI-23 (79.8–80.2%) viruses. Unanswered questions include the actual origin of the Kenyan AvCoVs, the potential pathobiological significance of their genetic variations, whether they have indeed established themselves as independent variants and subsequently spread within Kenya and to the neighboring east/central African countries that have porous live poultry trade borders, and whether the live-attenuated Mass-type (lineage GI-1)-based vaccines currently used in Kenya and most of the African countries provide protection against these genetically divergent field variants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Bronchitis Virus)

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12 pages, 2285 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Origin of New Lineages by Recombination and Mutation in Avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus from South America

by Ana Marandino, Ariel Vagnozzi, Gonzalo Tomás, Claudia Techera, Rocío Gerez, Martín Hernández, Joaquín Williman, Mauricio Realpe, Gonzalo Greif, Yanina Panzera and Ruben Pérez

Viruses 2022, 14(10), 2095; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14102095 - 21 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1991

Abstract

The gammacoronavirus avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a highly contagious respiratory pathogen of primary economic importance to the global poultry industry. Two IBV lineages (GI-11 and GI-16) have been widely circulating for decades in South America. GI-11 is endemic to South America, and the GI-16 is globally distributed. We obtained full-length IBV genomes from Argentine and Uruguayan farms using Illumina sequencing. Genomes of the GI-11 and GI-16 lineages from Argentina and Uruguay differ in part of the spike coding region. The remaining genome regions are similar to the Chinese and Italian strains of the GI-16 lineage that emerged in Asia or Europe in the 1970s. Our findings support that the indigenous GI-11 strains recombine extensively with the invasive GI-16 strains. During the recombination process, GI-11 acquired most of the sequences of the GI-16, retaining the original S1 sequence. GI-11 strains with recombinant genomes are circulating forms that underwent further local evolution. The current IBV scenario in South America includes the GI-16 lineage, recombinant GI-11 strains sharing high similarity with GI-16 outside S1, and Brazilian GI-11 strains with a divergent genomic background. There is also sporadic recombinant in the GI-11 and GI-16 lineages among vaccine and field strains. Our findings exemplified the ability of IBV to generate emergent lineage by using the S gene in different genomic backgrounds. This unique example of recombinational microevolution underscores the genomic plasticity of IBV in South America. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Bronchitis Virus)

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12 pages, 2699 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Infectious Bronchitis Virus: A Comprehensive Multilocus Genomic Analysis to Compare DMV/1639 and QX Strains

by Ana P. da Silva, Rachel Jude and Rodrigo A. Gallardo

Viruses 2022, 14(9), 1998; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14091998 - 9 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1997

Abstract

Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a highly variable RNA virus that affects chickens worldwide. Due to its inherited tendency to suffer point mutations and recombination events during viral replication, emergent IBV strains have been linked to nephropathogenic and reproductive disease that are more severe than typical respiratory disease, leading, in some cases, to mortality, severe production losses, and/or unsuccessful vaccination. QX and DMV/1639 strains are examples of the above-mentioned IBV evolutionary pathway and clinical outcome. In this study, our purpose was to systematically compare whole genomes of QX and DMV strains looking at each IBV gene individually. Phylogenetic analyses and amino acid site searches were performed in datasets obtained from GenBank accounting for all IBV genes and using our own relevant sequences as a basis. The QX dataset studied is more genetically diverse than the DMV dataset, partially due to the greater epidemiological diversity within the five QX strains used as a basis compared to the four DMV strains from our study. Historically, QX strains have emerged and spread earlier than DMV strains in Europe and Asia. Consequently, there are more QX sequences deposited in GenBank than DMV strains, assisting in the identification of a larger pool of QX strains. It is likely that a similar evolutionary pattern will be observed among DMV strains as they develop and spread in North America. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Bronchitis Virus)

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22 pages, 4250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Genetic Stability, Replication Kinetics and Cytopathogenicity of Recombinant Avian Coronaviruses with a T16A or an A26F Mutation within the E Protein Is Cell-Type Dependent

by Isobel Webb, Sarah Keep, Kieran Littolff, Jamie Stuart, Graham Freimanis, Paul Britton, Andrew D. Davidson, Helena J. Maier and Erica Bickerton

Viruses 2022, 14(8), 1784; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14081784 - 15 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2252

Abstract

The envelope (E) protein of the avian coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a small-membrane protein present in two forms during infection: a monomer and a pentameric ion channel. Each form has an independent role during replication; the monomer disrupts the secretory pathway, and the pentamer facilitates virion production. The presence of a T16A or A26F mutation within E exclusively generates the pentameric or monomeric form, respectively. We generated two recombinant IBVs (rIBVs) based on the apathogenic molecular clone Beau-R, containing either a T16A or A26F mutation, denoted as BeauR-T16A and BeauR-A26F. The replication and genetic stability of the rIBVs were assessed in several different cell types, including primary and continuous cells, ex vivo tracheal organ cultures (TOCs) and in ovo. Different replication profiles were observed between cell cultures of different origins. BeauR-A26F replicated to a lower level than Beau-R in Vero cells and in ovo but not in DF1, primary chicken kidney (CK) cells or TOCs. Genetic stability and cytopathic effects were found to differ depending on the cell system. The effect of the T16A and A26F mutations appear to be cell-type dependent, which, therefore, highlights the importance of cell type in the investigation of the IBV E protein. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Bronchitis Virus)

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14 pages, 7829 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of the RIPK3 Polyclonal Antibody and Its Application in Immunoassays of Nephropathogenic Infectious Bronchitis Virus-Infected Chickens

by Guanming Tian, Yan Shi, Xianhong Cao, Wei Chen, Yueming Gu, Ning Li, Cheng Huang, Yu Zhuang, Guyue Li, Ping Liu, Guoliang Hu, Xiaona Gao and Xiaoquan Guo

Viruses 2022, 14(8), 1747; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14081747 - 10 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2065

Abstract

Receptor interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3) is a vital serine/threonine kinase in regulating the programmed destruction of infected cells to defend against RNA viruses. Although the role of RIPK3 in viruses in mice is well characterized, it remains unclear where in nephropathogenic infectious bronchitis virus (NIBV) in chickens. Here, we use a self-prepared polyclonal antibody to clarify the abundance of RIPK3 in tissues and define the contributions of RIPK3 in tissue damage caused by NIBV infection in chickens. Western blot analyses showed that RIPK3 polyclonal antibody can specifically recognize RIPK3 in the vital tissues of Hy-Line brown chicks and RIPK3 protein is abundantly expressed in the liver and kidney. Moreover, NIBV significantly upregulated the expression levels of RIPK3 in the trachea and kidney of chicks in a time-dependent manner. In addition, the activation of necroptosis in response to NIBV infection was demonstrated by the coimmunoprecipitation (CoIP) experiments through RIPK3 in the necrosome, which phosphorylates its downstream mixed-spectrum kinase structural domain-like protein (MLKL). Our findings offered preliminary insights into the key role of RIPK3 protein in studying the underlying mechanism of organ failure caused by NIBV infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Bronchitis Virus)

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14 pages, 1050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Epidemiology of Turkey Coronaviruses in Poland

by Katarzyna Domańska-Blicharz, Anna Lisowska, Justyna Opolska, Anna Pikuła and Joanna Sajewicz-Krukowska

Viruses 2022, 14(5), 1023; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14051023 - 11 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1878

Abstract

The only knowledge of the molecular structure of European turkey coronaviruses (TCoVs) comes from France. These viruses have a quite distinct S gene from North American isolates. The aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence of TCoV strains in a Polish turkey farm during a twelve-year period, between 2008 and 2019, and to characterize their full-length S gene. Out of the 648 flocks tested, 65 (10.0%, 95% CI: 7.9–12.6) were positive for TCoV and 16 of them were molecularly characterized. Phylogenetic analysis showed that these strains belonged to two clusters, one formed by the early isolates identified at the beginning of the TCoV monitoring (from 2009 to 2010), and the other, which was formed by more recent strains from 2014 to 2019. Our analysis of the changes observed in the deduced amino acids of the S1 protein suggests the existence of three variable regions. Moreover, although the selection pressure analysis showed that the TCoV strains were evolving under negative selection, some sites of the S1 subunit were positively selected, and most of them were located within the proposed variable regions. Our sequence analysis also showed one TCoV strain had recombined with another one in the S1 gene. The presented investigation on the molecular feature of the S gene of TCoVs circulating in the turkey population in Poland contributes interesting data to the current state of knowledge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Bronchitis Virus)

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