Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Batteries batteries	4.6	4.0	2015	22 Days	CHF 2700
Designs designs	-	3.9	2017	15.2 Days	CHF 1600
Energies energies	3.0	6.2	2008	17.5 Days	CHF 2600
Sustainability sustainability	3.3	6.8	2009	20 Days	CHF 2400
World Electric Vehicle Journal wevj	2.6	4.5	2007	15.7 Days	CHF 1400

5 pages, 177 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Zero-Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation

by Wenbin Yu and Guang Zeng

Sustainability 2024, 16(15), 6447; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156447 - 28 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1043

In recent decades, traditional fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas have made the greatest contributions to the economic development of the industrial sector [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

27 pages, 12662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Injector Nozzle Diameter on High-Density and Lean Mixture Combustion in Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines

by Yize Liu and Wanhua Su

Energies 2024, 17(11), 2549; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112549 - 24 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 826

Abstract

In order to improve the fuel economy of heavy-duty diesel engines under high-load conditions, based on the combustion pathway model, it is proposed that the proportion of lean mixture with 0 < Φ < 1 is the most important spray characteristic affecting the [...] Read more.

In order to improve the fuel economy of heavy-duty diesel engines under high-load conditions, based on the combustion pathway model, it is proposed that the proportion of lean mixture with 0 < Φ < 1 is the most important spray characteristic affecting the overall diesel combustion process. Answering the question of how to increase the proportion of lean mixture inside the spray is the key to achieving the efficient and clean combustion of diesel engines. This paper investigated the mechanism of injector nozzle diameter on the in-cylinder air–fuel mixture and combustion process based on a high-density and lean mixture characteristic combustion strategy. The experimental results show that with an increase in nozzle diameter, the peak pressure and instantaneous heat release rate significantly increase, the combustion duration is shortened by about 20%, and the heat release becomes more concentrated. At 1200 rpm and IMEPg~2.3 MPa conditions, the indicated thermal efficiency increases by 1.3%, reaching a maximum of 51.5%. The numerical simulation results show that with the increase in nozzle diameter from 0.169 mm to 0.218 mm, the spray ejection momentum per unit time increases by 30%, the momentum transferred to the air by the spray increases, the oxygen transport process becomes more intense, and the air entrainment mass during the spray free development stage increases by 42%. The proportion of lean mixture inside the spray throughout the entire spray development process increases, resulting in an increase in the heat release rate of the lean mixture, making the overall combustion more intense and concentrated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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16 pages, 8004 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combustion Mechanism of Gasoline Detonation Tube and Coupling of Engine Turbocharging Cycle

by Diyun Huang, Jiayong Wang, Minshuo Shi, Puze Yang and Binyang Wu

Energies 2024, 17(11), 2466; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112466 - 22 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 755

Abstract

Traditional exhaust-gas turbocharging exhibits hysteresis under variable working conditions. To achieve rapid-intake supercharging, this study investigates the synergistic coupling process between the detonation and diesel cycles using gasoline as fuel. A numerical simulation model is constructed to analyze the detonation characteristics of a [...] Read more.

Traditional exhaust-gas turbocharging exhibits hysteresis under variable working conditions. To achieve rapid-intake supercharging, this study investigates the synergistic coupling process between the detonation and diesel cycles using gasoline as fuel. A numerical simulation model is constructed to analyze the detonation characteristics of a pulse-detonation combustor (PDC), followed by experimental verification. The comprehensive process of the flame’s deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) and the formation of the detonation wave are discussed in detail. The airflow velocity, DDT time, and peak pressure of detonation tubes with five different blockage ratios (BR) are analyzed, with the results imported into a one-dimensional GT-POWER engine model. The results indicate that the generation of detonation waves is influenced by flame and compression wave interactions. Increasing the airflow does not shorten the DDT time, whereas increasing the BR causes the DDT time to decrease and then increase. Large BRs affect the initiation speed of detonation in the tube, while small BRs impact the DDT distance and peak pressure. Upon connection to the PDC, the transient response rate of the engine is slightly improved. These results can provide useful guidance for improving the transient response characteristics of engines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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21 pages, 11053 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Innovative Mechanical Approach to Mitigating Torque Fluctuations in IC Engines during Idle Operation

by Daniel Silva Cardoso, Paulo Oliveira Fael, Pedro Dinis Gaspar and António Espírito-Santo

Designs 2024, 8(3), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs8030047 - 17 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1118

Abstract

Internal combustion engines have been a major contributor to air pollution. Replacing these engines with electric propulsion systems presents significant challenges due to different countries’ needs and limitations. An active, purely mechanical solution to the problem of irregular torque production in an alternative [...] Read more.

Internal combustion engines have been a major contributor to air pollution. Replacing these engines with electric propulsion systems presents significant challenges due to different countries’ needs and limitations. An active, purely mechanical solution to the problem of irregular torque production in an alternative internal combustion engine is proposed. This solution uses an actuator built on a camshaft and a spring, which stores and returns energy during the engine operating cycle, allowing torque production to be normalized, avoiding heavy flywheels. Designed for control throughout the engine’s duty cycle, this system incorporates a cam profile and a spring mechanism. The spring captures energy during the expansion stroke, which is then released to the engine during the intake and compression strokes. Simple, lightweight, and efficient, this system ensures smoother and more consistent engine operations. It presents a viable alternative to the heavy and problematic dual-mass flywheels that were introduced in the 1980s and are still in use. This innovative approach could significantly enhance the performance and reliability of alternative internal combustion engines without notable energy losses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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18 pages, 7592 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Friction and -Knocking Diesel Engine Cylindrical-Tapered Bore Profile Design

by Junhong Zhang, Ning Wang, Jian Wang, Hui Wang, Xueling Zhang, Huwei Dai and Jiewei Lin

Energies 2024, 17(9), 2042; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17092042 - 25 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 843

Abstract

To reduce the friction loss and the piston-knocking noise from the perspective of the design of the cylinder bore profile, the piston-ring cylinder bore (PRCB) dynamic model of an L6 diesel engine was developed using AVL-Excite-Piston & Rings. Based on the full-scale test [...] Read more.

To reduce the friction loss and the piston-knocking noise from the perspective of the design of the cylinder bore profile, the piston-ring cylinder bore (PRCB) dynamic model of an L6 diesel engine was developed using AVL-Excite-Piston & Rings. Based on the full-scale test method, the effects of bore taper, starting height of tapered profile, and ellipticity on the friction power and knocking energy of the PRCB system were investigated, and the optimization of the design of the bore profile was carried out with the objectives of minimizing the system’s friction power and the peak knocking kinetic energy. The results showed that the taper of the cylinder bore has the greatest influence on the system’s friction power and the peak knocking kinetic energy, followed by the starting height of the conical profile. For the peak knocking kinetic energy of the piston, there was an obvious interaction between the taper and the starting height of the conical profile. When the taper was 35 μm and 45 μm, the peak knocking kinetic energy showed a decreasing and then increasing trend with the increase in the starting height of the profile, and when the taper was 55 μm the peak knocking kinetic energy monotonically was decreased with the increase in the starting height of the conical profile. The optimization results showed that the system’s friction power was decreased by 15.05% and the peak knocking kinetic energy was decreased by 21.41% for a taper degree of 55 μm, a tapered profile starting height of 31 mm, and an ellipticity of 50 μm compared to the initial cylindrical cylinder bore. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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14 pages, 5623 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on Traffic Carbon Emission Factor Based on Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analysis

by Jianan Chen, Hao Yu, Haocheng Xu, Qiang Lv, Zongqiang Zhu, Hao Chen, Feiyang Zhao and Wenbin Yu

Energies 2024, 17(7), 1774; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17071774 - 8 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 861

Abstract

The premise for formulating effective emission control strategies is to accurately and reasonably evaluate the actual emission level of vehicles. Firstly, the active subspace method is applied to set up a low-dimensional model of the relationship between CO₂ emission and multivariate vehicle [...] Read more.

The premise for formulating effective emission control strategies is to accurately and reasonably evaluate the actual emission level of vehicles. Firstly, the active subspace method is applied to set up a low-dimensional model of the relationship between CO₂ emission and multivariate vehicle driving data, in which the vehicle specific power (VSP) is identified as the most significant factor on the CO₂ emission factor, followed by speed. Additionally, acceleration and exhaust temperature had the least impact. It is inferred that the changes in data sampling transform the establishment of subspace matrices, affecting the calculation of eigenvector components and the fitting of the final quadratic response surface, so that the emission sensitivity and final fitting accuracy are impressionable by the data distribution form. For the VSP, the best fitting result can be obtained when the VSP conforms to a uniform distribution. Moreover, the Bayesian linear regression method accounts for fitting parameters between the VSP and CO₂ emission factor with uncertainties derived from heteroscedastic measurement errors, and the values and distributions of the intercept and slope α and β are obtained. In general, the high-resolution inventory of the carbon emission factor of the tested vehicle is set up via systematically analyzing it, which brings a bright view of data processing in further counting the carbon footprint. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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20 pages, 5198 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vehicle-Integrated Photovoltaics—A Case Study for Berlin

by Philipp Hoth, Ludger Heide, Alexander Grahle and Dietmar Göhlich

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(3), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15030113 - 15 Mar 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2036

Abstract

Recent developments in vehicle-integrated photovoltaics (VIPV) offer prospects for enhancing electric vehicle range, lowering operating costs, and supporting carbon-neutral transport, particularly in urban settings. This study evaluates the solar energy potential of parking spaces in Berlin, considering challenges like building and tree shading [...] Read more.

Recent developments in vehicle-integrated photovoltaics (VIPV) offer prospects for enhancing electric vehicle range, lowering operating costs, and supporting carbon-neutral transport, particularly in urban settings. This study evaluates the solar energy potential of parking spaces in Berlin, considering challenges like building and tree shading using digital surface models and weather data for solar simulations. Utilizing open datasets and software, the analysis covered 48,827 parking spaces, revealing that VIPV could extend vehicle range by 7 to 14 km per day, equating to a median annual increase of 2527 km. The findings suggest median yearly cost savings of 164 euros from reduced grid charging. However, the environmental benefits of solar vehicle charging were found to be less than those of traditional grid-connected photovoltaic systems. The study introduces a method to pinpoint parking spaces that are most suitable for solar charging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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18 pages, 4067 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Waste from Electric Vehicle: A Bibliometric Analysis from 1995 to 2023

by Arief Nurdini, Rahmat Nurcahyo and Anton Satria Prabuwono

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(11), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14110300 - 27 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2809

Abstract

The introduction of electric vehicles (EVs) represents a promising solution for addressing urban air pollution, particularly CO₂ emissions in the transportation sector. Numerous countries are actively promoting EV adoption and the electrification of transportation systems, leading to a surge in research on [...] Read more.

The introduction of electric vehicles (EVs) represents a promising solution for addressing urban air pollution, particularly CO₂ emissions in the transportation sector. Numerous countries are actively promoting EV adoption and the electrification of transportation systems, leading to a surge in research on EV-related topics. This study employs bibliometrics as a valuable tool to investigate the research landscape in electric vehicle waste management. Drawing from a dataset of 593 documents retrieved from SCOPUS from 1995 to 20 September 2023, this research employs descriptive analysis and bibliometric mapping techniques. Notably, China stands out as the leading contributor to publications, with Tsinghua University being a prominent research institution in this field. An examination of keyword trends reveals dynamic shifts in research focus. In 2023, the most frequently occurring topic is “closed loop”. “Recycling” is the dominant keyword, appearing 681 times. Additionally, TreeMaps and VOSviewer results indicate that the most commonly used keywords are “electronic waste” and “recycling”. Projections suggest that “recycling materials” will gain prominence in mid-2023, further highlighting the evolving nature of this research field. Researchers in recycling materials disciplines can leverage these insights to explore new research avenues and contribute to sustainable waste management practices in the context of electric vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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18 pages, 842 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reasons Why Only Kuwaiti Citizens Drive Electric Vehicles despite Being Only a Quarter of the Population

by Sumayya Banna, Andri Ottesen and Basil Alzougool

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(10), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14100287 - 10 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4160

Abstract

The adoption of fully battery-powered electric vehicles (EVs) in Kuwait is currently at less than one percent of the population, and hence Kuwait has the lowest index rank among countries around the globe. Effectively, only Kuwaiti nationals have the opportunity to own EVs, [...] Read more.

The adoption of fully battery-powered electric vehicles (EVs) in Kuwait is currently at less than one percent of the population, and hence Kuwait has the lowest index rank among countries around the globe. Effectively, only Kuwaiti nationals have the opportunity to own EVs, as there are no fast direct-current charging stations in Kuwait, and Kuwaiti landlords (expats cannot own real estate) do not allow the installation of EV-charging home wall boxes at their rented properties. Given these facts, this paper only focuses on the preferences of Kuwaiti nationals, even though they only constitute 25 percent of the population of Kuwait. To accomplish the present objectives, a quantitative descriptive method (closed-ended questions) was used to collect data from a sample of 227 Kuwaiti nationals who were representative of the owners of half a million internal combustion engine (ICE) cars and that were categorized as early majority consumers. The findings of the present study indicate that over 50 percent of the respondents would prefer to buy an EV in the following three years when certain criteria were satisfied, including government-controlled pricing policies and recharging point availability, high-speed roads, and free EV-dedicated parking spaces. Furthermore, over 40 percent of respondents stated that they would contemplate purchasing an electric vehicle if the price of gasoline or diesel increased by 19 to 50 percent. The findings also indicated that more than 40 percent of respondents believed that EVs are fire- and crash-safe, and roughly 50 percent of the respondents would be willing to pay between 6 and 20% more for an EV because they believe that EVs are ecofriendlier vehicles and are significantly faster than conventional petrol vehicles. Additionally, respondents rewarded those vehicles with an excellent mark because of their ecological, economical, and technological attributes and benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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26 pages, 8614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formulation of a Jet Fuel Surrogate and Its Kinetic Chemical Mechanism by Emulating Physical and Chemical Properties of Real Jet Fuel

by Guangze Li, Boxuan Cui, Chenglin Zhang, Liuyong Chang and Longfei Chen

Sustainability 2023, 15(18), 13792; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813792 - 15 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1830

Abstract

The application of jet fuel in gas turbines and diesel engines adheres to the Army’s single-fuel forward policy, streamlining supply chains. To ensure precise engine combustion numerical studies, surrogate fuels and mechanisms should faithfully replicate real fuel properties and combustion traits. In this [...] Read more.

The application of jet fuel in gas turbines and diesel engines adheres to the Army’s single-fuel forward policy, streamlining supply chains. To ensure precise engine combustion numerical studies, surrogate fuels and mechanisms should faithfully replicate real fuel properties and combustion traits. In this work, a new four-component jet fuel surrogate containing 39.05% n-dodecane/21.79% isocetane/11.49% decalin/27.67% toluene by mole fraction is formulated based on a property optimizer. The new-formulated fuel surrogate can satisfactorily emulate the chemical and physical properties of real jet fuel, including cetane number (CN), threshold sooting index (TSI), molecular weight (MW), lower heating value (LHV), the ratio of hydrogen and carbon (H/C), liquid density, viscosity, and surface tension. Furthermore, a reduced and robust kinetic chemical mechanism (containing 124 species and 590 reactions) that could be directly employed in practical engine combustion simulations has also been developed for the proposed surrogate jet fuel. The mechanism is validated through comprehensive experimental data, including ignition delay time (IDT) determined in shock tubes and rapid compression machines (RCMs), species mole fractions measured in premixed flames and jet stirred reactors (JSRs), and laminar flame speeds. Generally, the property deviations of the jet fuel surrogate are less than 2% except for MW (10.73%), viscosity (5.88%), and surface tension (8.71%). The comparison results between the predictions and measurements are in good agreement, indicating that the current kinetic mechanism is capable of reflecting the oxidation process of real jet fuel. The current mechanism can accurately capture variations in the ignition delay time in the negative temperature coefficient (NTC) region as well. In the future, the proposed surrogate jet fuel could be applied in practical engine computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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20 pages, 6166 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Current Advances in Ammonia Combustion from the Fundamentals to Applications in Internal Combustion Engines

by Fei Ma, Lingyan Guo, Zhijie Li, Xiaoxiao Zeng, Zhencao Zheng, Wei Li, Feiyang Zhao and Wenbin Yu

Energies 2023, 16(17), 6304; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16176304 - 30 Aug 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5177

Abstract

The energy transition from hydrocarbon-based energy sources to renewable and carbon-free energy sources such as wind, solar and hydrogen is facing increasing demands. The decarbonization of global transportation could come true via applying carbon-free fuel such as ammonia, especially for internal combustion engines [...] Read more.

The energy transition from hydrocarbon-based energy sources to renewable and carbon-free energy sources such as wind, solar and hydrogen is facing increasing demands. The decarbonization of global transportation could come true via applying carbon-free fuel such as ammonia, especially for internal combustion engines (ICEs). Although ammonia has advantages of high hydrogen content, high octane number and safety in storage, it is uninflammable with low laminar burning velocity, thus limiting its direct usage in ICEs. The purpose of this review paper is to provide previous studies and current research on the current technical advances emerging in assisted combustion of ammonia. The limitation of ammonia utilization in ICEs, such as large minimum ignition energy, lower flame speed and more NO_x emission with unburned NH₃, could be solved by oxygen-enriched combustion, ammonia–hydrogen mixed combustion and plasma-assisted combustion (PAC). In dual-fuel or oxygen-enriched NH₃ combustion, accelerated flame propagation speeds are driven by abundant radicals such as H and OH; however, NOx emission should be paid special attention. Furthermore, dissociating NH₃ in situ hydrogen by non-noble metal catalysts or plasma has the potential to replace dual-fuel systems. PAC is able to change classical ignition and extinction S-curves to monotonic stretching, which makes low-temperature ignition possible while leading moderate NO_x emissions. In this review, the underlying fundamental mechanism under these technologies are introduced in detail, providing new insight into overcoming the bottleneck of applying ammonia in ICEs. Finally, the feasibility of ammonia processing as an ICE power source for transport and usage highlights it as an appealing choice for the link between carbon-free energy and power demand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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16 pages, 1062 KiB

Open AccessReview

Carbon Footprints of Active and Non-Active Transport Modes: Hierarchy and Intergenerational Narrative Analyses

by Nestor Asiamah, Kofi Awuviry-Newton, Whitney Nesser and Evelyn N. Alvarez

Sustainability 2023, 15(17), 12795; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151712795 - 24 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1529

Abstract

This paper aimed to (1) develop a hierarchy for understanding the impacts of active and non-active transport modes on the environment and (2) analyse the adoption of active transportation between older and younger people. A narrative review with two parts was adopted to [...] Read more.

This paper aimed to (1) develop a hierarchy for understanding the impacts of active and non-active transport modes on the environment and (2) analyse the adoption of active transportation between older and younger people. A narrative review with two parts was adopted to develop the hierarchy. In the first part, a framework was adopted to map active and non-active transport modes onto three operational boundaries of greenhouse gas emission to develop the hierarchy. In the second part, an intergenerational theoretical framework was developed to analyse the adoption of active transportation between older and younger people. The review suggests that the only active transport modes with no or negligible carbon footprint are walking, running, and swimming without a product that adds to atmospheric greenhouse gases. The evidence that younger people perform higher active transportation behaviour is inconsistent and is, therefore, inconclusive. This review suggests a need for manufacturers to prioritise the production of active vehicles (e.g., wheelchairs and scooters) that are biodegradable, recyclable, and small. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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19 pages, 4945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy-Efficient Control of a Gas Turbine Power Generation System

by Marwan Al-Shami, Omar Mohamed and Wejdan Abu Elhaija

Designs 2023, 7(4), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs7040085 - 3 Jul 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3435

Abstract

Gas turbines are used in the energy sectors as propulsion and power generation technologies. Despite technological advances in power generation and the emergence of numerous energy resources, gas turbine technology remains important due to its flexibility in load demand following, dynamical behavior, and [...] Read more.

Gas turbines are used in the energy sectors as propulsion and power generation technologies. Despite technological advances in power generation and the emergence of numerous energy resources, gas turbine technology remains important due to its flexibility in load demand following, dynamical behavior, and the ability to work on different fuels with minor design changes. However, there would be no ambitious progress for gas turbines without reliable modeling and simulation. This paper describes a novel approach for modeling, identifying, and controlling a running gas turbine power plant. A simplified nonlinear model structure composed of s-domain transfer functions and nonlinear blocks represented by rate limiters, saturations, and look-up tables has been proposed. The model parameters have been optimized to fit real-world data. The verified model was then used to design a multiple PI/PD control to regulate the gas turbine via the inlet guide vane and fuel vales. The aim is to raise and stabilize the compressor’s differential pressure or pressure ratio, as well as raise the set-point of the temperature exhausted from the combustion turbine; as a result, energy efficiency has been improved by an average of 237.16 MWh saving in energy (or 8.96% reduction in fuel consumption) for a load range of 120 MW to 240 MW. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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16 pages, 2910 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Optimal Hybridization with Minimum Fuel Consumption of the Hybrid Fuel Cell Train

by Mario Mišić, Marinko Stojkov, Rudolf Tomić and Mario Lovrić

Designs 2023, 7(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs7020045 - 16 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2114

Abstract

This paper describes a numerical study of the optimal distribution of energy between fuel cells and auxiliary energy storages in the hybrid train. Internal combustion engines (ICEs) are currently under pressure from environmental agencies due to their harmful gas emissions, and pure battery [...] Read more.

This paper describes a numerical study of the optimal distribution of energy between fuel cells and auxiliary energy storages in the hybrid train. Internal combustion engines (ICEs) are currently under pressure from environmental agencies due to their harmful gas emissions, and pure battery vehicles have a short range; a hybrid train powered by fuel cells, batteries, and supercapacitors can provide a viable propulsion solution. In this study, special energy management on the mountain railway with optimal power distribution and minimum hydrogen consumption is proposed. Considering the characteristics of the mountain railway, the vehicle uses recuperation of regenerative braking energy and thus charges additional power devices, and hybridization optimization gives favorable power to each power source device with a minimum consumption of hydrogen in the fuel cell. In this study, a simulation model was created in a Matlab/Simulink environment for the optimization of hybridized power systems on trains, and it can be easily modified for the hybridization of any type of train. Optimization was performed by using Sequential quadratic programming (SQP). The results show that this hybrid train topology has the ability to recover battery and supercapacitor state of charge (SOC) while meeting vehicle speed and propulsion power requirements. The effect of battery and supercapacitor parameters on power distribution and fuel consumption was also simulated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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22 pages, 1173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How to Cross the Chasm for the Electric Vehicle World’s Laggards—A Case Study in Kuwait

by Andri Ottesen, Sumayya Banna and Basil Alzougool

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14020045 - 8 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3555

Abstract

Ever since the discovery of oil in 1938, the State of Kuwait has increasingly sought out international brands in the car market due to the high purchasing power of Kuwaiti nationals. However, the makers of electric vehicles (EVs) have not been able to [...] Read more.

Ever since the discovery of oil in 1938, the State of Kuwait has increasingly sought out international brands in the car market due to the high purchasing power of Kuwaiti nationals. However, the makers of electric vehicles (EVs) have not been able to penetrate this market, with the exception of innovators and early adopters. The phenomenon in disruptive innovation theory—called “Crossing the Chasm”—regarding a mass market appeal has not yet occurred in Kuwait. Through deep interviews with 12 Kuwaiti owners of EVs and automotive dealers who sold either EVs or Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), 10 key reasons for this phenomenon have been previously revealed, which were used to develop an extensive questionnaire. A total of 472 car drivers aged from 18 to 30, identified as the “early majority”, completed the questionnaire to achieve the objective of identifying the factors required to create a mass market for EVs in Kuwait. The results demonstrated that potential customers highly preferred three different types of attributes of EVs: environmental, financial, and technological. There were significant differences in the identified attributes preferred by Kuwaiti individuals for EVs in terms of the number of cars owned and the sector of employment. Moreover, the results of our study indicate that potential customers are very willing to buy EVs in the future, considering both their financial and infrastructure attributes. There were further significant differences in the identified necessary conditions to buy EVs in terms of educational level and monthly income. This study discusses a variety of valuable promotional tactics, which may be implemented in conjunction with public incentives and policy changes in the State of Kuwait. This information is considered useful for marketers and designers who wish to tap into this lucrative market, which is significantly different from that in the global North. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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16 pages, 4440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A High-Gain DC Side Converter with a Ripple-Free Input Current for Offshore Wind Energy Systems

by Ran Tao, Jingpeng Yue, Zhenlin Huang, Ranran An, Zou Li and Junfeng Liu

Sustainability 2022, 14(18), 11574; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811574 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1724

Abstract

Considering that the distance between offshore wind farms and onshore converters is getting farther and farther, dc transmission becomes increasingly more applicable than conventional ac transmission. To reduce the transmission loss, a feasible solution is using a high-gain dc/dc converter to boost the [...] Read more.

Considering that the distance between offshore wind farms and onshore converters is getting farther and farther, dc transmission becomes increasingly more applicable than conventional ac transmission. To reduce the transmission loss, a feasible solution is using a high-gain dc/dc converter to boost the rectified output voltage to thousands of volts. Thus, a novel single-switch high-gain dc/dc converter with a ripple-free input current is presented in this paper. The structure consists of two cells—a coupled-inductor cell and a switched-capacitor cell. The coupled-inductor cell in the proposed converter provides a ripple-free input current. The switched-capacitor cell provides a high voltage gain. The converter has a simple control strategy due to the use of a single switch. Moreover, the output capacitor is charged and discharged continuously by a 180° phase shift to eliminate the output voltage ripple. A steady-state analysis of the converter is proposed to determine the parameters of the devices. In addition, a 240 W, 40/308 V laboratory prototype at 35 kHz switching frequency has been developed, in which the input current ripple is only 1.1% and a peak efficiency of 94.5% is reached. The experimental results verify the validity and feasibility of the proposed topology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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23 pages, 7516 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation Method of Naturalistic Driving Behaviour for Shared-Electrical Car

by Shaobo Ji, Ke Zhang, Guohong Tian, Zeting Yu, Xin Lan, Shibin Su and Yong Cheng

Energies 2022, 15(13), 4625; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15134625 - 24 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2083

Abstract

Evaluation of driving behaviour is helpful for policy development, and for designing infrastructure and an intelligent safety system for a car. This study focused on a quantitative evaluation method of driving behaviour based on the shared-electrical car. The data were obtained from the [...] Read more.

Evaluation of driving behaviour is helpful for policy development, and for designing infrastructure and an intelligent safety system for a car. This study focused on a quantitative evaluation method of driving behaviour based on the shared-electrical car. The data were obtained from the OBD interface via CAN bus and transferred to a server by 4G network. Eleven types of NDS data were selected as the indexes for driving behaviour evaluation. Kullback–Leibler divergence was calculated to confirm the minimum data quantity and ensure the effectiveness of the analysis. The distribution of the main driving behaviour parameters was compared and the change trend of the parameters was analysed in conjunction with car speed to identify the threshold for recognition of aberrant driving behaviour. The weights of indexes were confirmed by combining the analytic hierarchy process and entropy weight method. The scoring rule was confirmed according to the distribution of the indexes. A score-based evaluation method was proposed and verified by the driving behaviour data collected from randomly chosen drivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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11 pages, 4009 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Study on Aerodynamic Characteristics of Heavy-Duty Vehicles Platooning for Energy Savings and CO₂ Reduction

by Junik Jo and Chul-Ho Kim

Energies 2022, 15(12), 4390; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15124390 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1840

Abstract

This study aims to analyze the aerodynamic interaction between moving vehicles platooning with the change in the platooning conditions on a freeway. The effect of the vortex generated by the forward vehicle reduces the value of the stagnation pressure generated at the front [...] Read more.

This study aims to analyze the aerodynamic interaction between moving vehicles platooning with the change in the platooning conditions on a freeway. The effect of the vortex generated by the forward vehicle reduces the value of the stagnation pressure generated at the front of the rear vehicle, which effectively reduces drag on the driving vehicle. To elucidate this, a total of four vehicles were applied to platooning at a speed of 100 km/h by altering the gap distance of heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) such as 0.5 Length (L), 1 L, 1.5 L, 2.0 L, and 2.5 L under the conditions of 1 L equal to 13.16 m. The stagnation pressure at the front of the following vehicle (FV) was reduced, and quantitative analysis of drag force generated at each leading vehicle (LV) and following vehicle that is platooning exhibited a reduction of about 51%, 56%, and 52%, respectively, when compared to the single moving HDV. This is considered as a reduction in engine power for the driving vehicle. Taken together, these results are effective in improving fuel efficiency and reducing CO₂, a representative greenhouse gas, and predicting fuel and CO₂ reduction based on HDV annual mileage according to the highway conditions and logistics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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17 pages, 4669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Slope Estimation Method of Electric Vehicles Based on Improved Sage–Husa Adaptive Kalman Filter

by Jiawei Guo, Chao He, Jiaqiang Li and Heng Wei

Energies 2022, 15(11), 4126; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15114126 - 3 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2590

Abstract

In order to deal with many influence factors of electric vehicles in driving under complex conditions, this paper establishes the system state equation based on the longitudinal dynamics equation of vehicle. Combined with the improved Sage–Husa adaptive Kalman filter algorithm, the road slope [...] Read more.

In order to deal with many influence factors of electric vehicles in driving under complex conditions, this paper establishes the system state equation based on the longitudinal dynamics equation of vehicle. Combined with the improved Sage–Husa adaptive Kalman filter algorithm, the road slope estimation model is established. After the driving speed and rough slope observation are input into the slope estimation model, the accurate road slope estimation at the current time can be obtained. The road slope estimation method is compared with the original Sage–Husa adaptive Kalman filter road slope estimation method through three groups of road tests in different slope ranges, and the accuracy and stability advantages of the proposed algorithm in road conditions with large slopes are verified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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10 pages, 836 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integration of Electric Vehicles into Microgrids: Policy Implication for the Industrial Application of Carbon Neutralisation in China

by Yang (Andrew) Wu, Yui-Yip Lau and Ju-Ai Wu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(6), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13060096 - 26 May 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2543

Abstract

With the dynamic development of renewable energies, energy storage devices, and electric vehicles, microgrids have been playing an increasingly vital role in smart power grids. Under the recent development of carbon neutralisation, microgrid systems containing multiple clean energy sources have become significant modules [...] Read more.

With the dynamic development of renewable energies, energy storage devices, and electric vehicles, microgrids have been playing an increasingly vital role in smart power grids. Under the recent development of carbon neutralisation, microgrid systems containing multiple clean energy sources have become significant modules for energy conservation and emission reduction. Considering technological and environmental elements, we investigated the economic operation of microgrids with the integration of electric vehicles. In this paper, carbon trading mechanisms and operation scheduling strategies are analysed in the simulation models. Then, transaction costs and power balance are discussed. Industrial applications and policy implications are also presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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15 pages, 3181 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Non-Characteristic Third Harmonics Produced by Voltage Source Converter under Unbalanced Condition

by Min Zhang, Huiqiang Zhi, Shifeng Zhang, Rui Fan, Ran Li and Jinhao Wang

Sustainability 2022, 14(11), 6449; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116449 - 25 May 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1605

Abstract

A three-phase three-wire voltage source converter (VSC) can produce third harmonics when it is operated under an unbalanced condition. It is essential to understand the mechanism of the production of this third harmonic and to assess its impact on power systems. Therefore, this [...] Read more.

A three-phase three-wire voltage source converter (VSC) can produce third harmonics when it is operated under an unbalanced condition. It is essential to understand the mechanism of the production of this third harmonic and to assess its impact on power systems. Therefore, this paper presents an analytical model of the VSC under the unbalanced condition through mathematical derivations, and the final model is a coupled Thevenin circuit. The proposed model allows for direct computation of the non-characteristic third harmonics through harmonic power flow studies. The results show that VSC under unbalanced conditions emits both positive-sequence and negative-sequence third harmonics, and that the positive-sequence third harmonic is much larger than the negative-sequence third harmonic. It also shows that the unbalanced level and the size of the dc-link capacitor are critical to the level of non-characteristic third harmonics. The correctness of the proposed model and its application on noncharacteristic third harmonic evaluations have been verified using EMT simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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15 pages, 6063 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Energy Saving of PHEV Air Conditioning System Based on Reducing Air Backflow in Underhood

by Haibo Wu, Xingwang Tang, Sichuan Xu and Jiangbin Zhou

Energies 2022, 15(9), 3183; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093183 - 27 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1610

Abstract

A novel method characterizing the air backflow of the underhood in order to improve the thermal efficiency of the air conditioning system (ACS) and reduce the energy consumption of PHEV is proposed in this paper. In addition, a 1D model for analyzing air [...] Read more.

A novel method characterizing the air backflow of the underhood in order to improve the thermal efficiency of the air conditioning system (ACS) and reduce the energy consumption of PHEV is proposed in this paper. In addition, a 1D model for analyzing air backflow occurring in the underhood is established and a CFD method for calculating air backflow rate and distribution is proposed. It is found that the decrease in the air backflow rate of the underhood helps to improve the refrigeration capacity of the ACS, and when the backflow ratio cannot be reduced below 10%, the air backflow should be distributed as evenly as possible at the front end of the condenser. Moreover, in order to eliminate the impact of backflow on the underhood of PHEV, the gap between the radiator and the bracket is sealed and the gap around the air guide is reduced. Compared with the original structure, the backflow rate of the optimized structure is reduced from 32.7% to 9.3% and the cabin temperature can be reduced by 3–5 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zero Carbon Vehicles and Power Generation)

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