Sensors

10 pages, 2381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of an Electrical Resistance Sensor from High Strength Steel for Automotive Applications

by Tadeja Kosec, Viljem Kuhar, Andrej Kranjc, Vili Malnarič, Branko Belingar and Andraž Legat

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1956; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081956 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4518

This work focuses on a demonstration of the monitoring of corrosion processes taking place in high strength steel in automotive applications. This is performed by means of a corrosion sensor, which operates as an electrical resistance sensor. It was developed from the same [...] Read more.

This work focuses on a demonstration of the monitoring of corrosion processes taking place in high strength steel in automotive applications. This is performed by means of a corrosion sensor, which operates as an electrical resistance sensor. It was developed from the same type of material that is used for the high-strength steel parts produced in the automotive industry. Using the sensor, real time corrosion processes can be measured. It is attached to a location inside the vehicle’s engine and is equipped with a data logger, which enables wireless transfer of the measured data. In this study the development, operation, and evaluation of the monitoring process are presented. Corrosion estimation is verified by means of electrochemical methods. A metallographic investigation was included in order to verify the similarity between the microstructural properties of the sensor and those of the as-received high-strength steel sheet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Materials)

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27 pages, 1041 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Streaming Data Fusion for the Internet of Things

by Klemen Kenda, Blaž Kažič, Erik Novak and Dunja Mladenić

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1955; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081955 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7795

Abstract

To achieve the full analytical potential of the streaming data from the internet of things, the interconnection of various data sources is needed. By definition, those sources are heterogeneous and their integration is not a trivial task. A common approach to exploit streaming [...] Read more.

To achieve the full analytical potential of the streaming data from the internet of things, the interconnection of various data sources is needed. By definition, those sources are heterogeneous and their integration is not a trivial task. A common approach to exploit streaming sensor data potential is to use machine learning techniques for predictive analytics in a way that is agnostic to the domain knowledge. Such an approach can be easily integrated in various use cases. In this paper, we propose a novel framework for data fusion of a set of heterogeneous data streams. The proposed framework enriches streaming sensor data with the contextual and historical information relevant for describing the underlying processes. The final result of the framework is a feature vector, ready to be used in a machine learning algorithm. The framework has been applied to a cloud and to an edge device. In the latter case, incremental learning capabilities have been demonstrated. The reported results illustrate a significant improvement of data-driven models, applied to sensor streams. Beside higher accuracy of the models the platform offers easy setup and thus fast prototyping capabilities in real-world applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Signal Processing, Data Science and the IoT World)

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18 pages, 9606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sock-Type Wearable Sensor for Estimating Lower Leg Muscle Activity Using Distal EMG Signals

by Takashi Isezaki, Hideki Kadone, Arinobu Niijima, Ryosuke Aoki, Tomoki Watanabe, Toshitaka Kimura and Kenji Suzuki

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1954; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081954 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7721

Abstract

Lower leg muscle activity contributes to body control; thus, monitoring lower leg muscle activity is beneficial to understand the body condition and prevent accidents such as falls. Amplitude features such as the mean absolute values of electromyography (EMG) are used widely for monitoring [...] Read more.

Lower leg muscle activity contributes to body control; thus, monitoring lower leg muscle activity is beneficial to understand the body condition and prevent accidents such as falls. Amplitude features such as the mean absolute values of electromyography (EMG) are used widely for monitoring muscle activity. Garment-type EMG measurement systems use electrodes and they enable us to monitor muscle activity in daily life without any specific knowledge and the installation for electrode placement. However, garment-type measurement systems require a high compression area around the electrodes to prevent electrode displacement. This makes it difficult for users to wear such measurement systems. A less restraining wearable system, wherein the electrodes are placed around the ankle, is realized for target muscles widely distributed around the shank. The signals obtained from around the ankle are propagated biosignals from several muscles, and are referred to as distal EMG signals. Our objective is to develop a sock-type wearable sensor for estimating lower leg muscle activity using distal EMG signals. We propose a signal processing method based on multiple bandpass filters from the perspectives of noise separation and feature augmentation. We conducted an experiment for designing the hardware configuration, and three other experiments for evaluating the estimation accuracy and dependability of muscle activity analysis. Compared to the baseline based on a 20-500 Hz bandpass filter, the results indicated that the proposed system estimates muscle activity with higher accuracy. Experimental results suggest that lower leg muscle activity can be estimated using distal EMG signals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors for Gait and Motion Analysis 2018)

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21 pages, 33453 KiB

Open AccessArticle

EMERALD—Exercise Monitoring Emotional Assistant

by Jaime A. Rincon, Angelo Costa, Carlos Carrascosa, Paulo Novais and Vicente Julian

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1953; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081953 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5004

Abstract

The increase in the elderly population in today’s society entails the need for new policies to maintain an adequate level of care without excessively increasing social spending. One of the possible options is to promote home care for the elderly. In this sense, [...] Read more.

The increase in the elderly population in today’s society entails the need for new policies to maintain an adequate level of care without excessively increasing social spending. One of the possible options is to promote home care for the elderly. In this sense, this paper introduces a personal assistant designed to help elderly people in their activities of daily living. This system, called EMERALD, is comprised of a sensing platform and different mechanisms for emotion detection and decision-making that combined produces a cognitive assistant that engages users in Active Aging. The contribution of the paper is twofold—on the one hand, the integration of low-cost sensors that among other characteristics allows for detecting the emotional state of the user at an affordable cost; on the other hand, an automatic activity suggestion module that engages the users, mainly oriented to the elderly, in a healthy lifestyle. Moreover, by continuously correcting the system using the on-line monitoring carried out through the sensors integrated in the system, the system is personalized, and, in broad terms, emotionally intelligent. A functional prototype is being currently tested in a daycare centre in the northern area of Portugal where preliminary tests show positive results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ambient Intelligent Systems using Wearable Sensors)

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16 pages, 8608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

sEMG-Based Hand-Gesture Classification Using a Generative Flow Model

by Wentao Sun, Huaxin Liu, Rongyu Tang, Yiran Lang, Jiping He and Qiang Huang

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1952; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081952 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7218

Abstract

Conventional pattern-recognition algorithms for surface electromyography (sEMG)-based hand-gesture classification have difficulties in capturing the complexity and variability of sEMG. The deep structures of deep learning enable the method to learn high-level features of data to improve both accuracy and robustness of a classification. [...] Read more.

Conventional pattern-recognition algorithms for surface electromyography (sEMG)-based hand-gesture classification have difficulties in capturing the complexity and variability of sEMG. The deep structures of deep learning enable the method to learn high-level features of data to improve both accuracy and robustness of a classification. However, the features learned through deep learning are incomprehensible, and this issue has precluded the use of deep learning in clinical applications where model comprehension is required. In this paper, a generative flow model (GFM), which is a recent flourishing branch of deep learning, is used with a SoftMax classifier for hand-gesture classification. The proposed approach achieves

63.86 \pm 5.12 %

accuracy in classifying 53 different hand gestures from the NinaPro database 5. The distribution of all 53 hand gestures is modelled by the GFM, and each dimension of the feature learned by the GFM is comprehensible using the reverse flow of the GFM. Moreover, the feature appears to be related to muscle synergy to some extent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EMG Sensors and Applications)

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16 pages, 6050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Resolution Crack Localization Approach Based on Diffraction Wave

by Weilei Mu, Jiangang Sun, Guijie Liu and Shuqing Wang

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1951; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081951 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3776

Abstract

The delay-and-sum imaging algorithm is a promising crack localization approach for crack detection and monitoring of key structural regions. Most studies successfully offer a hole-like damage position. However, cracks are more common than hole-like damages in a structure. To solve this issue, this [...] Read more.

The delay-and-sum imaging algorithm is a promising crack localization approach for crack detection and monitoring of key structural regions. Most studies successfully offer a hole-like damage position. However, cracks are more common than hole-like damages in a structure. To solve this issue, this paper presents a crack localization approach, based on diffraction wave theory, which is capable of imaging crack endpoints. The guided wave propagated to the crack endpoints and transformed into a diffraction wave. A line sensor array was used to record the diffraction waveform. Then, dispersion compensation was applied to shorten the dispersive wave packets and separate the overlapping wave packets. Subsequently, half-wave compensation was executed to improve the localization accuracy. Finally, the effectiveness of this high-resolution crack localization method was validated by an experimental example. Full article

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14 pages, 4606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Gradient Compensation of Full-Tensor Airborne Gravity Gradiometer

by Xuewu Qian and Yanhua Zhu

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1950; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081950 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3417

Abstract

In the process of airborne gravity gradiometry for the full-tensor airborne gravity gradiometer (FTAGG), the attitude of the carrier and the fuel mass will seriously affect the accuracy of gravity gradiometry. A self-gradient is the gravity gradient produced by the surrounding masses, and [...] Read more.

In the process of airborne gravity gradiometry for the full-tensor airborne gravity gradiometer (FTAGG), the attitude of the carrier and the fuel mass will seriously affect the accuracy of gravity gradiometry. A self-gradient is the gravity gradient produced by the surrounding masses, and the surrounding masses include distribution mass for the carrier mass and fuel mass. In this paper, in order to improve the accuracy of airborne gravity gradiometry, a self-gradient compensation model is proposed for FTAGG. The self-gradient compensation model is a fuction of attitude for carrier and time, and it includes parameters ralated to the distribution mass for the carrier. The influence of carrier attitude and fuel mass on the self-gradient are simulated and analyzed. Simulation shows that the self-gradient tensor element

Γ_{x x}, Γ_{x y}, Γ_{x z}, Γ_{y z}

and

Γ_{z z}

are greatly affected by the middle part of the carrier, and the self-gradient tensor element

Γ_{y z}

is affected by the carrier’s fuel mass in three attitudes. Further simulation experiments show that the presented self-gradient compensation method is valid, and the error of the self-gradient compensation is within 0.1 Eu. Furthermore, this method can provide an important reference for improving the accuracy of aviation gravity gradiometry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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19 pages, 3617 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Frequency Feature Learning from Vibration Information of GIS for Mechanical Fault Detection

by Yang Yuan, Suliang Ma, Jianwen Wu, Bowen Jia, Weixin Li and Xiaowu Luo

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1949; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081949 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4576

Abstract

The reliability of gas insulated switchgear (GIS) is very important for the safe operation of power systems. However, the research on potential faults of GIS is mainly focused on partial discharge, and the research on the intelligent detection technology of the mechanical state [...] Read more.

The reliability of gas insulated switchgear (GIS) is very important for the safe operation of power systems. However, the research on potential faults of GIS is mainly focused on partial discharge, and the research on the intelligent detection technology of the mechanical state of GIS is very scarce. Based on the abnormal vibration signals generated by a GIS fault, a fault diagnosis method consisting of a frequency feature extraction method based on coherent function (CF) and a multi-layer classifier was developed in this paper. First, the Fourier transform was used to analyze the differences and consistency in the frequency spectrum of signals. Secondly, the frequency domain commonalities of the vibration signals were extracted by using CF, and the vibration characteristics were screened twice by using the correlation threshold and frequency threshold to further select the vibration features for diagnosis. Then, a multi-layer classifier composed of two one-class support vector machines (OCSVMs) and one support vector machine (SVM) was designed to classify the faults of GIS. Finally, the feasibility of the feature extraction method was verified by experiments, and compared with other classification methods, the stability and reliability of the proposed classifier were verified, which indicates that the fault diagnosis method promotes the development of an intelligent detection technology of the mechanical state in GIS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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25 pages, 5649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Frequency Shift versus Force Gradient of a Dynamic AFM Quartz Tuning Fork Subject to Lennard-Jones Potential Force

by Chia-Ou Chang, Wen-Tien Chang-Chien, Jia-Po Song, Chuang Zhou and Bo-Shiun Huang

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1948; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081948 - 25 Apr 2019

Viewed by 4070

Abstract

A self-sensing and self-actuating quartz tuning fork (QTF) can be used to obtain its frequency shift as function of the tip-sample distance. Once the function of the frequency shift versus force gradient is acquired, the combination of these two functions results in the [...] Read more.

A self-sensing and self-actuating quartz tuning fork (QTF) can be used to obtain its frequency shift as function of the tip-sample distance. Once the function of the frequency shift versus force gradient is acquired, the combination of these two functions results in the relationship between the force gradient and the tip-sample distance. Integrating the force gradient once and twice elucidates the values of the interaction force and the interatomic potential, respectively. However, getting the frequency shift as a function of the force gradient requires a physical model which can describe the equations of motion properly. Most papers have adopted the single harmonic oscillator model, but encountered the problem of determining the spring constant. Their methods of finding the spring constant are very controversial in the research community and full of discrepancies. By circumventing the determination of the spring constant, we propose a method which models the prongs and proof mass as elastic bodies. Through the use of Hamilton’s principle, we can obtain the equations of motion of the QTF, which is subject to Lennard-Jones potential force. Solving these equations of motion analytically, we get the relationship between the frequency shift and force gradient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quartz Tuning Fork-based Sensors)

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29 pages, 1462 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review and Evaluation of MAC Protocols for Satellite IoT Systems Using Nanosatellites

by Tomás Ferrer, Sandra Céspedes and Alex Becerra

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1947; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081947 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 7524

Abstract

Extending the internet of things (IoT) networks to remote areas under extreme conditions or for serving sometimes unpredictable mobile applications has increased the need for satellite technology to provide effective connectivity. However, existent medium access control (MAC) protocols deployed in commercial satellite networks [...] Read more.

Extending the internet of things (IoT) networks to remote areas under extreme conditions or for serving sometimes unpredictable mobile applications has increased the need for satellite technology to provide effective connectivity. However, existent medium access control (MAC) protocols deployed in commercial satellite networks were not designed to offer scalable solutions for the increasing number of devices predicted for IoT in the near future, nor do they consider other specific IoT characteristics. In particular, CubeSats—a low-cost solution for space technology—have the potential to become a wireless access network for the IoT, if additional requirements, including simplicity and low demands in processing, storage, and energy consumption are incorporated into MAC protocol design for satellite IoT systems. Here we review MAC protocols employed or proposed for satellite systems and evaluate their performance considering the IoT scenario along with the trend of using CubeSats for IoT connectivity. Criteria include channel load, throughput, energy efficiency, and complexity. We have found that Aloha-based protocols and interference cancellation-based protocols stand out on some of the performance metrics. However, the tradeoffs among communications performance, energy consumption, and complexity require improvements in future designs, for which we identify specific challenges and open research areas for MAC protocols deployed with next low-cost nanosatellite IoT systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Middleware Solutions for Wireless Internet of Things)

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14 pages, 3030 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Joint Method Based on Time-Frequency Distribution to Detect Time-Varying Interferences for GNSS Receivers with a Single Antenna

by Qingshui Lv and Honglei Qin

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1946; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081946 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3063

Abstract

In this paper, a joint method combining Hough transform and reassigned smoothed pseudo Wigner-Ville distribution (RSPWVD) is presented to detect time-varying interferences with crossed frequency for a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver with a single antenna. The proposed method can prevent the [...] Read more.

In this paper, a joint method combining Hough transform and reassigned smoothed pseudo Wigner-Ville distribution (RSPWVD) is presented to detect time-varying interferences with crossed frequency for a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver with a single antenna. The proposed method can prevent the cross-term interference and detect the time-varying interferences with crossed frequency which cannot be achieved by the classical time-frequency (TF) analysis with the peak detection method. The actual performance of the developed method has been evaluated by experiments with conditions where the real BeiDou system (BDS) B1I signals are corrupted by the simulated chirp interferences. The results of experiments show that the introduced method is effectively able to detect chirp interferences with crossed frequency and provide the same root mean square errors (RMSE) of the parameter estimation for chirp one and the improved initial frequency estimation for chirp two compared with the Hough transform of Wigner-Ville distribution (WVD) when the jamming to noise ratio (JNR) equals or surpasses 4 dB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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23 pages, 5682 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Automatic UAS-Based Snow-Field Monitoring for Microclimate Research

by Petr Gabrlik, Premysl Janata, Ludek Zalud and Josef Harcarik

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1945; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081945 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4273

Abstract

This article presents unmanned aerial system (UAS)-based photogrammetry as an efficient method for the estimation of snow-field parameters, including snow depth, volume, and snow-covered area. Unlike similar studies employing UASs, this method benefits from the rapid development of compact, high-accuracy global navigation satellite [...] Read more.

This article presents unmanned aerial system (UAS)-based photogrammetry as an efficient method for the estimation of snow-field parameters, including snow depth, volume, and snow-covered area. Unlike similar studies employing UASs, this method benefits from the rapid development of compact, high-accuracy global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers. Our custom-built, multi-sensor system for UAS photogrammetry facilitates attaining centimeter- to decimeter-level object accuracy without deploying ground control points; this technique is generally known as direct georeferencing. The method was demonstrated at Mapa Republiky, a snow field located in the Krkonose, a mountain range in the Czech Republic. The location has attracted the interest of scientists due to its specific characteristics; multiple approaches to snow-field parameter estimation have thus been employed in that area to date. According to the results achieved within this study, the proposed method can be considered the optimum solution since it not only attains superior density and spatial object accuracy (approximately one decimeter) but also significantly reduces the data collection time and, above all, eliminates field work to markedly reduce the health risks associated with avalanches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAV or Drones for Remote Sensing Applications in GPS/GNSS Enabled and GPS/GNSS Denied Environments)

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20 pages, 3681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Four Single-Sideband M-QAM Modulation Scheme Using a Shadow Equalizer for MIMO System Toward 5G Communications

by Mohammed Mustafa Alhasani, Quang Ngoc Nguyen, Gen-Ichiro Ohta and Takuro Sato

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1944; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081944 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5886

Abstract

Single-sideband (SSB) modulation through Hilbert transformation has successfully transmitted data using only half the bandwidth of the traditional scheme for the same amount of contained information. Toward this end, the four single-sideband (4-SSB) approach for high order modulation is a promising approach for [...] Read more.

Single-sideband (SSB) modulation through Hilbert transformation has successfully transmitted data using only half the bandwidth of the traditional scheme for the same amount of contained information. Toward this end, the four single-sideband (4-SSB) approach for high order modulation is a promising approach for the next-generation communications by applying soft-input soft-output (SISO) equalizer algorithms over orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). However, OFDM is challenging for realizing the feasible 5G communications, compared to the emerging techniques, e.g., non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA), orthogonal multiple access (OMA) or multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO). Since the 4-SSB is an orthogonal modulation which was successfully applied over the traditional OFDM, in this article, we propose a novel 4-SSB modulation scheme over OFDM Guard Interval (GI) and massive MIMO. Besides the carrier signal, from the receiver side, we also apply the shadow equalizer algorithm in the uncoded and coded environment using turbo codes to achieve the 4-SSB with high efficiency from low complexity and energy consumption for 5G. The evaluation results validate that our system consumes lower energy due to low complexity gained from same number of iterations without the heavy decoding as of the 4-SSB SISO based on the turbo equalizer. In addition, the 4-SSB over the OFDM GI achieves the best performance among the relevant approaches conducted in 4-SSB. The proposal then acts as a practical communication system designed to solve the inter-symbol interference (ISI) induced by additional Hilbert transform in the wireless environment toward fifth generation (5G), given that turbo code is considered as a potential channel coding scheme for 5G radio specification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 28th International Telecommunication Networks and Applications Conference)

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11 pages, 897 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Finite-Time Disturbance Observer for Robotic Manipulators

by Pengfei Cao, Yahui Gan and Xianzhong Dai

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1943; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081943 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5282

Abstract

Robotic manipulators may be subject to different types of disturbances such as unknown payloads, unmodeled dynamics, and environment interaction forces. Observing these unknown disturbances in robotic manipulators is fundamental in many robotic applications such as disturbance rejection and sensorless force control. In this [...] Read more.

Robotic manipulators may be subject to different types of disturbances such as unknown payloads, unmodeled dynamics, and environment interaction forces. Observing these unknown disturbances in robotic manipulators is fundamental in many robotic applications such as disturbance rejection and sensorless force control. In this paper, a novel disturbance observer (DOB) is introduced based on the insights from the finite-time observer (FTO) and robot dynamics. Different from the traditional DOBs, this new observer can provide the capability to track the disturbance within a finite time. The performance of the presented observer is verified by two kinds of typical disturbances for a two-link manipulator with a comparison with several existing DOBs. The simulation results show the rapidity and accuracy of the proposed FTO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Robotics, Sensors and Industry 4.0)

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20 pages, 7443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Compass Error Comparison of an Onboard Standard Gyrocompass, Fiber-Optic Gyrocompass (FOG) and Satellite Compass

by Krzysztof Jaskólski, Andrzej Felski and Paweł Piskur

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1942; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081942 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5611

Abstract

The aim of the presented research was to analyze the accuracy indications of three types of compass systems for the purposes of meeting warship modernization requirements. The authors of this paper have made an attempt to compare the accuracy of an onboard standard [...] Read more.

The aim of the presented research was to analyze the accuracy indications of three types of compass systems for the purposes of meeting warship modernization requirements. The authors of this paper have made an attempt to compare the accuracy of an onboard standard gyrocompass, a fiber-optic gyrocompass (FOG) and a satellite compass in real shipping circumstances. The research was carried out in the Gulf of Gdansk area, during the preparation of hydrographic surveys on stable courses. Three heading recordings have been taken into consideration. The helmsman’s operation and vessel inertia were analyzed and removed according to a spectrum analysis. Transient characteristics and the spectrum analysis (based on the Fourier transform theory and headings descriptions in the frequency domain) are presented. Data, processed using a band-stop finite impulse response (FIR) filter to reduce low-frequency heading distortions, are presented for further analyses. The statistics of errors of the compasses investigated, as well as the spectrum of these errors, are also presented. Based on accuracy measurements, the possibility of using the most accurate heading data as the input signal to the automatic ship control system was considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gyroscopes and Accelerometers)

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24 pages, 507 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monocular Visual-Inertial Odometry with an Unbiased Linear System Model and Robust Feature Tracking Front-End

by Xiaochen Qiu, Hai Zhang, Wenxing Fu, Chenxu Zhao and Yanqiong Jin

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1941; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081941 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7384

Abstract

The research field of visual-inertial odometry has entered a mature stage in recent years. However, unneglectable problems still exist. Tradeoffs have to be made between high accuracy and low computation for users. In addition, notation confusion exists in quaternion descriptions of rotation; although [...] Read more.

The research field of visual-inertial odometry has entered a mature stage in recent years. However, unneglectable problems still exist. Tradeoffs have to be made between high accuracy and low computation for users. In addition, notation confusion exists in quaternion descriptions of rotation; although not fatal, this may results in unnecessary difficulties in understanding for researchers. In this paper, we develop a visual-inertial odometry which gives consideration to both precision and computation. The proposed algorithm is a filter-based solution that utilizes the framework of the noted multi-state constraint Kalman filter. To dispel notation confusion, we deduced the error state transition equation from scratch, using the more cognitive Hamilton notation of quaternion. We further come up with a fully linear closed-form formulation that is readily implemented. As the filter-based back-end is vulnerable to feature matching outliers, a descriptor-assisted optical flow tracking front-end was developed to cope with the issue. This modification only requires negligible additional computation. In addition, an initialization procedure is implemented, which automatically selects static data to initialize the filter state. Evaluations of proposed methods were done on a public, real-world dataset, and comparisons were made with state-of-the-art solutions. The experimental results show that the proposed solution is comparable in precision and demonstrates higher computation efficiency compared to the state-of-the-art. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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26 pages, 3429 KiB

Open AccessReview

Powering the Environmental Internet of Things

by Joshua Curry and Nick Harris

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1940; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081940 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 7233

Abstract

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a constantly-evolving area of research and touches almost every aspect of life in the modern world. As technology moves forward, it is becoming increasingly important for these IoT devices for environmental sensing to become self-powered to enable [...] Read more.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a constantly-evolving area of research and touches almost every aspect of life in the modern world. As technology moves forward, it is becoming increasingly important for these IoT devices for environmental sensing to become self-powered to enable long-term operation. This paper provides an outlook on the current state-of-the-art in terms of energy harvesting for these low-power devices. An analytical approach is taken, first defining types of environments in which energy-harvesters operate, before exploring both well-known and novel energy harvesting techniques and their uses in modern-day sensing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesting Sensor Systems)

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13 pages, 7076 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SCENet: Secondary Domain Intercorrelation Enhanced Network for Alleviating Compressed Poisson Noises

by Seok Bong Yoo and Mikyong Han

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1939; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081939 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3877

Abstract

In real image coding systems, block-based coding is often applied on images contaminated by camera sensor noises such as Poisson noises, which cause complicated types of noises called compressed Poisson noises. Although many restoration methods have recently been proposed for compressed images, they [...] Read more.

In real image coding systems, block-based coding is often applied on images contaminated by camera sensor noises such as Poisson noises, which cause complicated types of noises called compressed Poisson noises. Although many restoration methods have recently been proposed for compressed images, they do not provide satisfactory performance on the challenging compressed Poisson noises. This is mainly due to (i) inaccurate modeling regarding the image degradation, (ii) the signal-dependent noise property, and (iii) the lack of analysis on intercorrelation distortion. In this paper, we focused on the challenging issues in practical image coding systems and propose a compressed Poisson noise reduction scheme based on a secondary domain intercorrelation enhanced network. Specifically, we introduced a compressed Poisson noise corruption model and combined the secondary domain intercorrelation prior with a deep neural network especially designed for signal-dependent compression noise reduction. Experimental results showed that the proposed network is superior to the existing state-of-the-art restoration alternatives on classical images, the LIVE1 dataset, and the SIDD dataset. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep Learning-Based Image Sensors)

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17 pages, 2187 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anti-Multipath Performance Improvement of an M-ary Position Phase Shift Keying Modulation System

by Haiyuan Wang and Hongxian Tian

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1938; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081938 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3124

Abstract

Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN) is the technology that the Internet-of-Things (IoT) uses in long-distance, wide-coverage scenarios. As one of the ultra-narrowband (UNB) modulation techniques, M-ary position phase shift keying (MPPSK) modulation can provide high coverage and high reliability for LPWAN. This paper proposes [...] Read more.

Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN) is the technology that the Internet-of-Things (IoT) uses in long-distance, wide-coverage scenarios. As one of the ultra-narrowband (UNB) modulation techniques, M-ary position phase shift keying (MPPSK) modulation can provide high coverage and high reliability for LPWAN. This paper proposes a multipath separation method based on MPPSK modulation, which aims to eliminate the influence of multipath on the main path without increasing the spectrum overhead and system complexity. Specifically, the modulation parameter of the system is adjusted according to the delay value, so that the phase jump of the multipath signal falls outside the phase jump of the main path symbol to achieve separation of the multipath from the main path. Moreover, a normalized symbol joint decision method is proposed in order to reduce the introduced noise while using multipath information for decisions. The simulation results indicate that the multipath separation conditions given in this paper can meet the requirements of multipath separation of MPPSK signals. Compared with the existing mainstream decision scheme, the normalized symbol joint decision improves the demodulation performance of the system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Intelligence for Smart Sensor Networks: Possibilities and Prospects for Soft Computing-Based Sensors)

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18 pages, 7079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On Transducers Localization in Damage Detection by Wave Propagation Method

by Adam Stawiarski and Aleksander Muc

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1937; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081937 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3958

Abstract

In this paper, the elastic wave propagation method was used in damage detection in thin structures. The effectiveness and accuracy of the system based on the wave propagation phenomenon depend on the number and localization of the sensors. The utilization of the piezoelectric [...] Read more.

In this paper, the elastic wave propagation method was used in damage detection in thin structures. The effectiveness and accuracy of the system based on the wave propagation phenomenon depend on the number and localization of the sensors. The utilization of the piezoelectric (PZT) transducers makes possible to build a low-cost damage detection system that can be used in structural health monitoring (SHM) of the metallic and composite structures. The different number and localization of transducers were considered in the numerical and experimental analysis of the wave propagation phenomenon. The relation of the sensors configuration and the damage detection capability was demonstrated. The main assumptions and requirements of SHM systems of different levels were discussed with reference to the damage detection expectations. The importance of the damage detection system constituents (sensors number, localization, or damage index) in different levels of analysis was verified and discussed to emphasize that in many practical applications introducing complicated procedures and sophisticated data processing techniques does not lead to improving the damage detection efficiency. Finally, the necessity of the appropriate formulation of SHM system requirements and expectations was underlined to improve the effectiveness of the detection methods in particular levels of analysis and thus to improve the safety of the monitored structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Materials)

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12 pages, 4902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Submersible Printed Sensor Based on a Monopole-Coupled Split Ring Resonator for Permittivity Characterization

by Erick Reyes-Vera, G. Acevedo-Osorio, Mauricio Arias-Correa and David E. Senior

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1936; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081936 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 4690

Abstract

This work presents a non-invasive, reusable and submersible permittivity sensor that uses a microwave technique for the dielectric characterization of liquid materials. The proposed device consists of a compact split ring resonator excited by two integrated monopole antennas. The sensing principle is based [...] Read more.

This work presents a non-invasive, reusable and submersible permittivity sensor that uses a microwave technique for the dielectric characterization of liquid materials. The proposed device consists of a compact split ring resonator excited by two integrated monopole antennas. The sensing principle is based on the notch introduced by the resonators in the transmission coefficient, which is affected due to the introduction of the sensor in a new liquid material. Then, a frequency shift of the notch and the Q-factor of the proposed sensor are related with the changes in the surrounding medium. By means of a particular experimental procedure, commercial liquids are employed to obtain the calibration curve. Thus, a mathematical equation is obtained to extract the dielectric permittivity of liquid materials with unknown dielectric properties. A good match between simulated and experimental results is obtained, as well as a high Q-factor, compact size, good sensitivity and high repeatability for use in sensing applications. Sensors like the one here presented could lead to promising solutions for characterizing materials, particularly in determining material properties and quality in the food industry, bio-sensing and other applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antenna Technologies for Microwave Sensors)

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4 pages, 169 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Privacy and Security for Resource-Constrained IoT Devices and Networks: Research Challenges and Opportunities

by Shancang Li, Houbing Song and Muddesar Iqbal

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1935; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081935 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4022

Abstract

With the exponential growth of the Internet of Things (IoT) and cyber-physical systems (CPS), a wide range of IoT applications have been developed and deployed in recent years. To match the heterogeneous application requirements in IoT and CPS systems, many resource-constrained IoT devices [...] Read more.

With the exponential growth of the Internet of Things (IoT) and cyber-physical systems (CPS), a wide range of IoT applications have been developed and deployed in recent years. To match the heterogeneous application requirements in IoT and CPS systems, many resource-constrained IoT devices are deployed, in which privacy and security have emerged as difficult challenges because the devices have not been designed to have effective security features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Privacy and Security for Resource Constrained IoT Devices and Networks)

21 pages, 3360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

UAV-Based Digital Terrain Model Generation under Leaf-Off Conditions to Support Teak Plantations Inventories in Tropical Dry Forests. A Case of the Coastal Region of Ecuador

by Fernando J. Aguilar, José R. Rivas, Abderrahim Nemmaoui, Alberto Peñalver and Manuel A. Aguilar

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1934; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081934 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5746

Abstract

Remote sensing is revolutionizing the way in which forests studies are conducted, and recent technological advances, such as Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), are providing more efficient methods to assist in REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest [...] Read more.

Remote sensing is revolutionizing the way in which forests studies are conducted, and recent technological advances, such as Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), are providing more efficient methods to assist in REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) monitoring and forest sustainable management. The aim of this work was to develop and test a methodology based on SfM from UAV to generate high quality Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) on teak plantations (Tectona grandis Linn. F.) situated in the Coastal Region of Ecuador (dry tropical forest). UAV overlapping images were collected using a DJI Phantom 4 Advanced^© quadcopter during the dry season (leaf-off phenological stage) over 58 teak square plots of 36 m side belonging to three different plantations located in the province of Guayas (Ecuador). A workflow consisting of SfM absolute image alignment based on field surveyed ground control points, very dense point cloud generation, ground points filtering and outlier removal, and DTM interpolation from labeled ground points, was accomplished. A very accurate Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) derived ground points were employed as ground reference to estimate the UAV-SfM DTM vertical error in each reference plot. The plot-level obtained DTMs presented low vertical bias and random error (−3.1 cm and 11.9 cm on average, respectively), showing statistically significant greater error in those reference plots with basal area and estimated vegetation coverage above 15 m²/ha and 60%, respectively. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study aimed at monitoring of teak plantations located in dry tropical forests from UAV images. It provides valuable information that recommends carrying out the UAV image capture during the leaf-off season to obtain UAV-SfM derived DTMs suitable to serve as ground reference in supporting teak plantations inventories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAV-based 3D Mapping)

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37 pages, 32881 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Remote Sensing Approaches for Monitoring Blue Carbon Ecosystems: Mangroves, Seagrassesand Salt Marshes during 2010–2018

by Tien Dat Pham, Junshi Xia, Nam Thang Ha, Dieu Tien Bui, Nga Nhu Le and Wataru Tekeuchi

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1933; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081933 - 24 Apr 2019

Cited by 111 | Viewed by 21260

Abstract

Blue carbon (BC) ecosystems are an important coastal resource, as they provide a range of goods and services to the environment. They play a vital role in the global carbon cycle by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change. [...] Read more.

Blue carbon (BC) ecosystems are an important coastal resource, as they provide a range of goods and services to the environment. They play a vital role in the global carbon cycle by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change. However, there has been a large reduction in the global BC ecosystems due to their conversion to agriculture and aquaculture, overexploitation, and removal for human settlements. Effectively monitoring BC ecosystems at large scales remains a challenge owing to practical difficulties in monitoring and the time-consuming field measurement approaches used. As a result, sensible policies and actions for the sustainability and conservation of BC ecosystems can be hard to implement. In this context, remote sensing provides a useful tool for mapping and monitoring BC ecosystems faster and at larger scales. Numerous studies have been carried out on various sensors based on optical imagery, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), light detection and ranging (LiDAR), aerial photographs (APs), and multispectral data. Remote sensing-based approaches have been proven effective for mapping and monitoring BC ecosystems by a large number of studies. However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review on the applications of remote sensing techniques for mapping and monitoring BC ecosystems. The main goal of this review is to provide an overview and summary of the key studies undertaken from 2010 onwards on remote sensing applications for mapping and monitoring BC ecosystems. Our review showed that optical imagery, such as multispectral and hyper-spectral data, is the most common for mapping BC ecosystems, while the Landsat time-series are the most widely-used data for monitoring their changes on larger scales. We investigate the limitations of current studies and suggest several key aspects for future applications of remote sensing combined with state-of-the-art machine learning techniques for mapping coastal vegetation and monitoring their extents and changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Earth Observation: Special Focus on Natural Resources and the Environment)

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26 pages, 1810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatio–Temporal Image Representation of 3D Skeletal Movements for View-Invariant Action Recognition with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks

by Huy Hieu Pham, Houssam Salmane, Louahdi Khoudour, Alain Crouzil, Pablo Zegers and Sergio A. Velastin

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1932; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081932 - 24 Apr 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6960

Abstract

Designing motion representations for 3D human action recognition from skeleton sequences is an important yet challenging task. An effective representation should be robust to noise, invariant to viewpoint changes and result in a good performance with low-computational demand. Two main challenges in this [...] Read more.

Designing motion representations for 3D human action recognition from skeleton sequences is an important yet challenging task. An effective representation should be robust to noise, invariant to viewpoint changes and result in a good performance with low-computational demand. Two main challenges in this task include how to efficiently represent spatio–temporal patterns of skeletal movements and how to learn their discriminative features for classification tasks. This paper presents a novel skeleton-based representation and a deep learning framework for 3D action recognition using RGB-D sensors. We propose to build an action map called SPMF (Skeleton Posture-Motion Feature), which is a compact image representation built from skeleton poses and their motions. An Adaptive Histogram Equalization (AHE) algorithm is then applied on the SPMF to enhance their local patterns and form an enhanced action map, namely Enhanced-SPMF. For learning and classification tasks, we exploit Deep Convolutional Neural Networks based on the DenseNet architecture to learn directly an end-to-end mapping between input skeleton sequences and their action labels via the Enhanced-SPMFs. The proposed method is evaluated on four challenging benchmark datasets, including both individual actions, interactions, multiview and large-scale datasets. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms previous state-of-the-art approaches on all benchmark tasks, whilst requiring low computational time for training and inference. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep Learning-Based Image Sensors)

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11 pages, 2923 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A High Sensitivity FBG Strain Sensor Based on Flexible Hinge

by Mingyao Liu, Wenzhi Wang, Han Song, Shiguang Zhou and Weijian Zhou

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1931; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081931 - 24 Apr 2019

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 5053

Abstract

For the purpose of improving the sensitivity of the fiber Bragg grating (FBG)-based strain sensor. A novel FBG-based strain sensor with high sensibility was designed by means of a flexible hinge bridge displacement magnification structure. This sensor can be used to accurately measure [...] Read more.

For the purpose of improving the sensitivity of the fiber Bragg grating (FBG)-based strain sensor. A novel FBG-based strain sensor with high sensibility was designed by means of a flexible hinge bridge displacement magnification structure. This sensor can be used to accurately measure the strain of a mechanical structure surface. In this paper, the strain sensitization amplification factor of the sensor was calculated by using the flexible matrix method and the strain energy theory. The magnification had been verified by using simulation analysis and experimental results, and the error between theoretical calculation and simulation analysis was less than 7%. The result shows that the strain sensitivity of the sensor is 10.84 pm/με, which is about 10 times to that of the bare FBG sensor. This sensor is sensitive to micro-strain, so it can be well applied to health monitoring of a mechanical system. Full article

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28 pages, 4548 KiB

Open AccessArticle

IMU-Based Automated Vehicle Slip Angle and Attitude Estimation Aided by Vehicle Dynamics

by Lu Xiong, Xin Xia, Yishi Lu, Wei Liu, Letian Gao, Shunhui Song, Yanqun Han and Zhuoping Yu

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1930; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081930 - 24 Apr 2019

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 8932

Abstract

The slip angle and attitude are vital for automated driving. In this paper, a systematic inertial measurement unit (IMU)-based vehicle slip angle and attitude estimation method aided by vehicle dynamics is proposed. This method can estimate the slip angle and attitude simultaneously and [...] Read more.

The slip angle and attitude are vital for automated driving. In this paper, a systematic inertial measurement unit (IMU)-based vehicle slip angle and attitude estimation method aided by vehicle dynamics is proposed. This method can estimate the slip angle and attitude simultaneously and autonomously. With accurate attitude, the slip angle can be estimated precisely even though the vehicle dynamic model (VDM)-based velocity estimator diverges for a short time. First, the longitudinal velocity, pitch angle, lateral velocity, and roll angle were estimated by two estimators based on VDM considering the lever arm between the IMU and rotation center. When this information was in high fidelity, it was applied to aid the IMU-based slip angle and attitude estimators to eliminate the accumulated error correctly. Since there is a time delay in detecting the abnormal estimation results from VDM-based estimators during critical steering, a novel delay estimation and prediction structure was proposed to avoid the outlier feedback from vehicle dynamics estimators for the IMU-based slip angle and attitude estimators. Finally, the proposed estimation method was validated under large lateral excitation experimental tests including double lane change (DLC) and slalom maneuvers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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22 pages, 423 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Internet-of-Things and Information Fusion: Trust Perspective Survey

by Farag Azzedin and Mustafa Ghaleb

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1929; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081929 - 24 Apr 2019

Cited by 65 | Viewed by 5978

Abstract

The advent of Internet-of-Things (IoT) is creating an ecosystem of smart applications and services enabled by a multitude of sensors. The real value of these IoT smart applications comes from analyzing the information provided by these sensors. Information fusion improves information completeness/quality and, [...] Read more.

The advent of Internet-of-Things (IoT) is creating an ecosystem of smart applications and services enabled by a multitude of sensors. The real value of these IoT smart applications comes from analyzing the information provided by these sensors. Information fusion improves information completeness/quality and, hence, enhances estimation about the state of things. Lack of trust and therefore, malicious activities renders the information fusion process and hence, IoT smart applications unreliable. Behavior-related issues associated with the data sources, such as trustworthiness, honesty, and accuracy, must be addressed before fully utilizing these smart applications. In this article, we argue that behavior trust modeling is indispensable to the success of information fusion and, hence, to smart applications. Unfortunately, the area is still in its infancy and needs further research to enhance information fusion. The aim of this article is to raise the awareness and the need of behavior trust modelling and its effect on information fusion. Moreover, this survey describes IoT architectures for modelling trust as well as classification of current IoT trust models. Finally, we discuss future directions towards trustworthy reliable fusion techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Data Mining and Information Fusion in Wireless Sensors Networks)

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21 pages, 322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effectiveness of Depth Data in Liveness Face Authentication Using 3D Sensor Cameras

by Ghazel Albakri and Sharifa Alghowinem

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1928; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081928 - 24 Apr 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5350

Abstract

Even though biometric technology increases the security of systems that use it, they are prone to spoof attacks where attempts of fraudulent biometrics are used. To overcome these risks, techniques on detecting liveness of the biometric measure are employed. For example, in systems [...] Read more.

Even though biometric technology increases the security of systems that use it, they are prone to spoof attacks where attempts of fraudulent biometrics are used. To overcome these risks, techniques on detecting liveness of the biometric measure are employed. For example, in systems that utilise face authentication as biometrics, a liveness is assured using an estimation of blood flow, or analysis of quality of the face image. Liveness assurance of the face using real depth technique is rarely used in biometric devices and in the literature, even with the availability of depth datasets. Therefore, this technique of employing 3D cameras for liveness of face authentication is underexplored for its vulnerabilities to spoofing attacks. This research reviews the literature on this aspect and then evaluates the liveness detection to suggest solutions that account for the weaknesses found in detecting spoofing attacks. We conduct a proof-of-concept study to assess the liveness detection of 3D cameras in three devices, where the results show that having more flexibility resulted in achieving a higher rate in detecting spoofing attacks. Nonetheless, it was found that selecting a wide depth range of the 3D camera is important for anti-spoofing security recognition systems such as surveillance cameras used in airports. Therefore, to utilise the depth information and implement techniques that detect faces regardless of the distance, a 3D camera with long maximum depth range (e.g., 20 m) and high resolution stereo cameras could be selected, which can have a positive impact on accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Applications on Face Analysis)

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15 pages, 1653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Complexity and Hardware-Friendly H.265/HEVC Encoder for Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks

by Xiantao Jiang, Jie Feng, Tian Song and Takafumi Katayama

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1927; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081927 - 24 Apr 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4295

Abstract

Real-time video streaming over vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) has been considered as a critical challenge for road safety applications. The purpose of this paper is to reduce the computation complexity of high efficiency video coding (HEVC) encoder for VANETs. Based on a novel [...] Read more.

Real-time video streaming over vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) has been considered as a critical challenge for road safety applications. The purpose of this paper is to reduce the computation complexity of high efficiency video coding (HEVC) encoder for VANETs. Based on a novel spatiotemporal neighborhood set, firstly the coding tree unit depth decision algorithm is presented by controlling the depth search range. Secondly, a Bayesian classifier is used for the prediction unit decision for inter-prediction, and prior probability value is calculated by Gibbs Random Field model. Simulation results show that the overall algorithm can significantly reduce encoding time with a reasonably low loss in encoding efficiency. Compared to HEVC reference software HM16.0, the encoding time is reduced by up to 63.96%, while the Bjontegaard delta bit-rate is increased by only 0.76–0.80% on average. Moreover, the proposed HEVC encoder is low-complexity and hardware-friendly for video codecs that reside on mobile vehicles for VANETs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors, Signal and Image Processing in Biomedicine and Assisted Living)

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