Sensors

2024

Jump to: 2023, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019

26 pages, 9828 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Robotic Solution for Precision Smoothing and Roughening of Precast Concrete Surfaces: Design and Experimental Validation

by Rui Gang, Zhongxing Duan, Lin Wang, Lemeng Nan and Jintao Song

Sensors 2024, 24(11), 3336; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24113336 - 23 May 2024

Viewed by 928

Abstract

Prefabricated construction has pioneered a new model in the construction industry, where prefabricated component modules are produced in factories and assembled on-site by construction workers, resulting in a highly efficient and convenient production process. Within the construction industry value chain, the smoothing and [...] Read more.

Prefabricated construction has pioneered a new model in the construction industry, where prefabricated component modules are produced in factories and assembled on-site by construction workers, resulting in a highly efficient and convenient production process. Within the construction industry value chain, the smoothing and roughening of precast concrete components are critical processes. Currently, these tasks are predominantly performed manually, often failing to achieve the desired level of precision. This paper designs and develops a robotic system for smoothing and roughening precast concrete surfaces, along with a multi-degree-of-freedom integrated intelligent end-effector for smoothing and roughening. Point-to-point path planning methods are employed to achieve comprehensive path planning for both smoothing and roughening, enhancing the diversity of textural patterns using B-spline curves. In the presence of embedded obstacles, a biologically inspired neural network method is introduced for precise smoothing operation planning, and the A* algorithm is incorporated to enable the robot’s escape from dead zones. Experimental validation further confirms the feasibility of the entire system and the accuracy of the machining path planning methods. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed system meets the precision requirements for smoothing and offers diversity in roughening, affirming its practicality in the precast concrete process and expanding the automation level and application scenarios of robots in the field of prefabricated construction. Full article

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2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019

17 pages, 28836 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Joint Calibration Method for Robot Measurement Systems

by Lei Wu, Xizhe Zang, Guanwen Ding, Chao Wang, Xuehe Zhang, Yubin Liu and Jie Zhao

Sensors 2023, 23(17), 7447; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23177447 - 26 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1541

Abstract

Robot measurement systems with a binocular planar structured light camera (3D camera) installed on a robot end-effector are often used to measure workpieces’ shapes and positions. However, the measurement accuracy is jointly influenced by the robot kinematics, camera-to-robot installation, and 3D camera measurement [...] Read more.

Robot measurement systems with a binocular planar structured light camera (3D camera) installed on a robot end-effector are often used to measure workpieces’ shapes and positions. However, the measurement accuracy is jointly influenced by the robot kinematics, camera-to-robot installation, and 3D camera measurement errors. Incomplete calibration of these errors can result in inaccurate measurements. This paper proposes a joint calibration method considering these three error types to achieve overall calibration. In this method, error models of the robot kinematics and camera-to-robot installation are formulated using Lie algebra. Then, a pillow error model is proposed for the 3D camera based on its error distribution and measurement principle. These error models are combined to construct a joint model based on homogeneous transformation. Finally, the calibration problem is transformed into a stepwise optimization problem that minimizes the sum of the relative position error between the calibrator and robot, and analytical solutions for the calibration parameters are derived. Simulation and experiment results demonstrate that the joint calibration method effectively improves the measurement accuracy, reducing the mean positioning error from over 2.5228 mm to 0.2629 mm and the mean distance error from over 0.1488 mm to 0.1232 mm. Full article

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33 pages, 7614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on High Precision Stiffness Modeling Method of Redundant Over-Constrained Parallel Mechanism

by Sen Wang, Haoran Li, Xueyan Han, Jiahao Wei, Tao Zhang and Shihua Li

Sensors 2023, 23(13), 5916; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23135916 - 26 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1261

Abstract

Traditional stiffness modeling methods do not consider all factors comprehensively, and the modeling methods are not unified, lacking a global stiffness model. Based on screw theory, strain energy and the virtual work principle, a static stiffness modeling method for redundant over-constrained parallel mechanisms [...] Read more.

Traditional stiffness modeling methods do not consider all factors comprehensively, and the modeling methods are not unified, lacking a global stiffness model. Based on screw theory, strain energy and the virtual work principle, a static stiffness modeling method for redundant over-constrained parallel mechanisms (PMs) with clearance was proposed that considers the driving stiffness, branch deformation, redundant driving, joint clearance and joint contact deformation. First, the driving stiffness and branch deformation were considered. According to the strain energy and Castiliano’s second theorem, the global stiffness matrix of the ideal joint mechanism was obtained. The offset of the branch was analyzed according to the restraint force of each branch. The mathematical relationship between the joint clearance and joint contact deformation and the end deformation was established. Based on the probability statistical model, the uncertainty of the offset value of the clearance joint and the contact area of the joint caused by the coupling of the branch constraint force was solved. Finally, taking a 2UPR-RR-2RPU redundant PM as an example, a stiffness simulation of the mechanism was carried out using the finite element method. The research results show that the high-precision stiffness modeling method proposed in this paper is correct, and provides an effective method for evaluating the stiffness performance of the PM. Full article

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16 pages, 17867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Evaluation of Capacitive Smart Transducer for a Forestry Crane Gripper

by Narendiran Anandan, Dailys Arronde Pérez, Tobias Mitterer and Hubert Zangl

Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2747; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052747 - 2 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2130

Abstract

Stable grasps are essential for robots handling objects. This is especially true for “robotized” large industrial machines as heavy and bulky objects that are unintentionally dropped by the machine can lead to substantial damages and pose a significant safety risk. Consequently, adding a [...] Read more.

Stable grasps are essential for robots handling objects. This is especially true for “robotized” large industrial machines as heavy and bulky objects that are unintentionally dropped by the machine can lead to substantial damages and pose a significant safety risk. Consequently, adding a proximity and tactile sensing to such large industrial machinery can help to mitigate this problem. In this paper, we present a sensing system for proximity/tactile sensing in gripper claws of a forestry crane. In order to avoid difficulties with respect to the installation of cables (in particular in retrofitting of existing machinery), the sensors are truly wireless and can be powered using energy harvesting, leading to autarkic, i.e., self-contained, sensors. The sensing elements are connected to a measurement system which transmits the measurement data to the crane automation computer via Bluetooth low energy (BLE) compliant to IEEE 1451.0 (TEDs) specification for eased logical system integration. We demonstrate that the sensor system can be fully integrated in the grasper and that it can withstand the challenging environmental conditions. We present experimental evaluation of detection in various grasping scenarios such as grasping at an angle, corner grasping, improper closure of the gripper and proper grasp for logs of three different sizes. Results indicate the ability to detect and differentiate between good and poor grasping configurations. Full article

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2022

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27 pages, 3466 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating the HFACS Framework and Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping for In-Flight Startle Causality Analysis

by Abiodun Brimmo Yusuf, Ah-Lian Kor and Hissam Tawfik

Sensors 2022, 22(3), 1068; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22031068 - 29 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3006

Abstract

This paper discusses the challenge of modeling in-flight startle causality as a precursor to enabling the development of suitable mitigating flight training paradigms. The article presents an overview of aviation human factors and their depiction in fuzzy cognitive maps (FCMs), based on the [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the challenge of modeling in-flight startle causality as a precursor to enabling the development of suitable mitigating flight training paradigms. The article presents an overview of aviation human factors and their depiction in fuzzy cognitive maps (FCMs), based on the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) framework. The approach exemplifies system modeling with agents (causal factors), which showcase the problem space’s characteristics as fuzzy cognitive map elements (concepts). The FCM prototype enables four essential functions: explanatory, predictive, reflective, and strategic. This utility of fuzzy cognitive maps is due to their flexibility, objective representation, and effectiveness at capturing a broad understanding of a highly dynamic construct. Such dynamism is true of in-flight startle causality. On the other hand, FCMs can help to highlight potential distortions and limitations of use case representation to enhance future flight training paradigms. Full article

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2021

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12 pages, 4134 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Omnidirectional Fingertip Pressure Sensor Using Hall Effect

by Moo-Jung Seo and Jae-Chern Yoo

Sensors 2021, 21(21), 7072; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21217072 - 25 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3156

Abstract

When grasping objects with uneven or varying shapes, accurate pressure measurement on robot fingers is critical for precise robotic gripping operations. However, measuring the pressure from the sides of the fingertips remains challenging owing to the poor omnidirectionality of the pressure sensor. In [...] Read more.

When grasping objects with uneven or varying shapes, accurate pressure measurement on robot fingers is critical for precise robotic gripping operations. However, measuring the pressure from the sides of the fingertips remains challenging owing to the poor omnidirectionality of the pressure sensor. In this study, we propose an omnidirectional sensitive pressure sensor using a cone-shaped magnet slider and Hall sensor embedded in a flexible elastomer, which guarantees taking pressure measurements from any side of the fingertip. The experimental results indicate that the proposed pressure sensor has a high sensitivity (61.34 mV/kPa) in a wide sensing range (4–90 kPa) without blind spots on the fingertip, which shows promising application prospects in robotics. Full article

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15 pages, 800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Data-Efficient Sensor Upgrade Path Using Knowledge Distillation

by Pieter Van Molle, Cedric De Boom, Tim Verbelen, Bert Vankeirsbilck, Jonas De Vylder, Bart Diricx, Pieter Simoens and Bart Dhoedt

Sensors 2021, 21(19), 6523; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21196523 - 29 Sep 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2085

Abstract

Deep neural networks have achieved state-of-the-art performance in image classification. Due to this success, deep learning is now also being applied to other data modalities such as multispectral images, lidar and radar data. However, successfully training a deep neural network requires a large [...] Read more.

Deep neural networks have achieved state-of-the-art performance in image classification. Due to this success, deep learning is now also being applied to other data modalities such as multispectral images, lidar and radar data. However, successfully training a deep neural network requires a large reddataset. Therefore, transitioning to a new sensor modality (e.g., from regular camera images to multispectral camera images) might result in a drop in performance, due to the limited availability of data in the new modality. This might hinder the adoption rate and time to market for new sensor technologies. In this paper, we present an approach to leverage the knowledge of a teacher network, that was trained using the original data modality, to improve the performance of a student network on a new data modality: a technique known in literature as knowledge distillation. By applying knowledge distillation to the problem of sensor transition, we can greatly speed up this process. We validate this approach using a multimodal version of the MNIST dataset. Especially when little data is available in the new modality (i.e., 10 images), training with additional teacher supervision results in increased performance, with the student network scoring a test set accuracy of 0.77, compared to an accuracy of 0.37 for the baseline. We also explore two extensions to the default method of knowledge distillation, which we evaluate on a multimodal version of the CIFAR-10 dataset: an annealing scheme for the hyperparameter

α

and selective knowledge distillation. Of these two, the first yields the best results. Choosing the optimal annealing scheme results in an increase in test set accuracy of 6%. Finally, we apply our method to the real-world use case of skin lesion classification. Full article

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17 pages, 457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Adaptive Dynamic Programming Toolbox

by Xiaowei Xing and Dong Eui Chang

Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5609; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165609 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3969

Abstract

The paper develops the adaptive dynamic programming toolbox (ADPT), which is a MATLAB-based software package and computationally solves optimal control problems for continuous-time control-affine systems. The ADPT produces approximate optimal feedback controls by employing the adaptive dynamic programming technique and solving the Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman [...] Read more.

The paper develops the adaptive dynamic programming toolbox (ADPT), which is a MATLAB-based software package and computationally solves optimal control problems for continuous-time control-affine systems. The ADPT produces approximate optimal feedback controls by employing the adaptive dynamic programming technique and solving the Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman equation approximately. A novel implementation method is derived to optimize the memory consumption by the ADPT throughout its execution. The ADPT supports two working modes: model-based mode and model-free mode. In the former mode, the ADPT computes optimal feedback controls provided the system dynamics. In the latter mode, optimal feedback controls are generated from the measurements of system trajectories, without the requirement of knowledge of the system model. Multiple setting options are provided in the ADPT, such that various customized circumstances can be accommodated. Compared to other popular software toolboxes for optimal control, the ADPT features computational precision and time efficiency, which is illustrated with its applications to a highly non-linear satellite attitude control problem. Full article

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26 pages, 5389 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deep ConvNet: Non-Random Weight Initialization for Repeatable Determinism, Examined with FSGM

by Richard N. M. Rudd-Orthner and Lyudmila Mihaylova

Sensors 2021, 21(14), 4772; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21144772 - 13 Jul 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2289

Abstract

A repeatable and deterministic non-random weight initialization method in convolutional layers of neural networks examined with the Fast Gradient Sign Method (FSGM). Using the FSGM approach as a technique to measure the initialization effect with controlled distortions in transferred learning, varying the dataset [...] Read more.

A repeatable and deterministic non-random weight initialization method in convolutional layers of neural networks examined with the Fast Gradient Sign Method (FSGM). Using the FSGM approach as a technique to measure the initialization effect with controlled distortions in transferred learning, varying the dataset numerical similarity. The focus is on convolutional layers with induced earlier learning through the use of striped forms for image classification. Which provided a higher performing accuracy in the first epoch, with improvements of between 3–5% in a well known benchmark model, and also ~10% in a color image dataset (MTARSI2), using a dissimilar model architecture. The proposed method is robust to limit optimization approaches like Glorot/Xavier and He initialization. Arguably the approach is within a new category of weight initialization methods, as a number sequence substitution of random numbers, without a tether to the dataset. When examined under the FGSM approach with transferred learning, the proposed method when used with higher distortions (numerically dissimilar datasets), is less compromised against the original cross-validation dataset, at ~31% accuracy instead of ~9%. This is an indication of higher retention of the original fitting in transferred learning. Full article

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19 pages, 11590 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Camera-Based Position Correction System for Autonomous Production Line Inspection

by Amit Kumar Bedaka, Shao-Chun Lee, Alaa M. Mahmoud, Yong-Sheng Cheng and Chyi-Yeu Lin

Sensors 2021, 21(12), 4071; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21124071 - 13 Jun 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3844

Abstract

Visual inspection is an important task in manufacturing industries in order to evaluate the completeness and quality of manufactured products. An autonomous robot-guided inspection system was recently developed based on an offline programming (OLP) and RGB-D model system. This system allows a non-expert [...] Read more.

Visual inspection is an important task in manufacturing industries in order to evaluate the completeness and quality of manufactured products. An autonomous robot-guided inspection system was recently developed based on an offline programming (OLP) and RGB-D model system. This system allows a non-expert automatic optical inspection (AOI) engineer to easily perform inspections using scanned data. However, if there is a positioning error due to displacement or rotation of the object, this system cannot be used on a production line. In this study, we developed an automated position correction module to locate an object’s position and correct the robot’s pose and position based on the detected error values in terms of displacement or rotation. The proposed module comprised an automatic hand–eye calibration and the PnP algorithm. The automatic hand–eye calibration was performed using a calibration board to reduce manual error. After calibration, the PnP algorithm calculates the object position error using artificial marker images and compensates for the error to a new object on the production line. The position correction module then automatically maps the defined AOI target positions onto a new object, unless the target position changes. We performed experiments that showed that the robot-guided inspection system with the position correction module effectively performed the desired task. This smart innovative system provides a novel advancement by automating the AOI process on a production line to increase productivity. Full article

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25 pages, 5082 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soft-Sensor for Class Prediction of the Percentage of Pentanes in Butane at a Debutanizer Column

by Iratxe Niño-Adan, Itziar Landa-Torres, Diana Manjarres, Eva Portillo and Lucía Orbe

Sensors 2021, 21(12), 3991; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21123991 - 9 Jun 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2667

Abstract

Refineries are complex industrial systems that transform crude oil into more valuable subproducts. Due to the advances in sensors, easily measurable variables are continuously monitored and several data-driven soft-sensors are proposed to control the distillation process and the quality of the resultant subproducts. [...] Read more.

Refineries are complex industrial systems that transform crude oil into more valuable subproducts. Due to the advances in sensors, easily measurable variables are continuously monitored and several data-driven soft-sensors are proposed to control the distillation process and the quality of the resultant subproducts. However, data preprocessing and soft-sensor modelling are still complex and time-consuming tasks that are expected to be automatised in the context of Industry 4.0. Although recently several automated learning (autoML) approaches have been proposed, these rely on model configuration and hyper-parameters optimisation. This paper advances the state-of-the-art by proposing an autoML approach that selects, among different normalisation and feature weighting preprocessing techniques and various well-known Machine Learning (ML) algorithms, the best configuration to create a reliable soft-sensor for the problem at hand. As proven in this research, each normalisation method transforms a given dataset differently, which ultimately affects the ML algorithm performance. The presented autoML approach considers the features preprocessing importance, including it, and the algorithm selection and configuration, as a fundamental stage of the methodology. The proposed autoML approach is applied to real data from a refinery in the Basque Country to create a soft-sensor in order to complement the operators’ decision-making that, based on the operational variables of a distillation process, detects 400 min in advance with

98.925 %

precision if the resultant product does not reach the quality standards. Full article

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30 pages, 2884 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Dimensional Comparison between Evolutionary Algorithm and Deep Reinforcement Learning Methodologies for Autonomous Surface Vehicles with Water Quality Sensors

by Samuel Yanes Luis, Daniel Gutiérrez-Reina and Sergio Toral Marín

Sensors 2021, 21(8), 2862; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21082862 - 19 Apr 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3380

Abstract

The monitoring of water resources using Autonomous Surface Vehicles with water-quality sensors has been a recent approach due to the advances in unmanned transportation technology. The Ypacaraí Lake, the biggest water resource in Paraguay, suffers from a major contamination problem because of cyanobacteria [...] Read more.

The monitoring of water resources using Autonomous Surface Vehicles with water-quality sensors has been a recent approach due to the advances in unmanned transportation technology. The Ypacaraí Lake, the biggest water resource in Paraguay, suffers from a major contamination problem because of cyanobacteria blooms. In order to supervise the blooms using these on-board sensor modules, a Non-Homogeneous Patrolling Problem (a NP-hard problem) must be solved in a feasible amount of time. A dimensionality study is addressed to compare the most common methodologies, Evolutionary Algorithm and Deep Reinforcement Learning, in different map scales and fleet sizes with changes in the environmental conditions. The results determined that Deep Q-Learning overcomes the evolutionary method in terms of sample-efficiency by 50–70% in higher resolutions. Furthermore, it reacts better than the Evolutionary Algorithm in high space-state actions. In contrast, the evolutionary approach shows a better efficiency in lower resolutions and needs fewer parameters to synthesize robust solutions. This study reveals that Deep Q-learning approaches exceed in efficiency for the Non-Homogeneous Patrolling Problem but with many hyper-parameters involved in the stability and convergence. Full article

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2020

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22 pages, 12127 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Machine Learning in Air Hockey Interactive Control System

by Ching-Lung Chang, Shuo-Tsung Chen, Chuan-Yu Chang and You-Chen Jhou

Sensors 2020, 20(24), 7233; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20247233 - 17 Dec 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3329

Abstract

In recent years, chip design technology and AI (artificial intelligence) have made significant progress. This forces all of fields to investigate how to increase the competitiveness of products with machine learning technology. In this work, we mainly use deep learning coupled with motor [...] Read more.

In recent years, chip design technology and AI (artificial intelligence) have made significant progress. This forces all of fields to investigate how to increase the competitiveness of products with machine learning technology. In this work, we mainly use deep learning coupled with motor control to realize the real-time interactive system of air hockey, and to verify the feasibility of machine learning in the real-time interactive system. In particular, we use the convolutional neural network YOLO (“you only look once”) to capture the hockey current position. At the same time, the law of reflection and neural networking are applied to predict the end position of the puck Based on the predicted location, the system will control the stepping motor to move the linear slide to realize the real-time interactive air hockey system. Finally, we discuss and verify the accuracy of the prediction of the puck end position and improve the system response time to meet the system requirements. Full article

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19 pages, 3860 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A PID-Type Fuzzy Logic Controller-Based Approach for Motion Control Applications

by José R. García-Martínez, Edson E. Cruz-Miguel, Roberto V. Carrillo-Serrano, Fortino Mendoza-Mondragón, Manuel Toledano-Ayala and Juvenal Rodríguez-Reséndiz

Sensors 2020, 20(18), 5323; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20185323 - 17 Sep 2020

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 4914

Abstract

Motion control is widely used in industrial applications since machinery, robots, conveyor bands use smooth movements in order to reach a desired position decreasing the steady error and energy consumption. In this paper, a new Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) -type fuzzy logic controller (FLC) tuning [...] Read more.

Motion control is widely used in industrial applications since machinery, robots, conveyor bands use smooth movements in order to reach a desired position decreasing the steady error and energy consumption. In this paper, a new Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) -type fuzzy logic controller (FLC) tuning strategy that is based on direct fuzzy relations is proposed in order to compute the PID constants. The motion control algorithm is composed by PID-type FLC and S-curve velocity profile, which is developed in C/C++ programming language; therefore, a license is not required to reproduce the code among embedded systems. The self-tuning controller is carried out online, it depends on error and change in error to adapt according to the system variations. The experimental results were obtained in a linear platform integrated by a direct current (DC) motor connected to an encoder to measure the position. The shaft of the motor is connected to an endless screw; a cart is placed on the screw to control its position. The rise time, overshoot, and settling time values measured in the experimentation are 0.124 s, 8.985% and 0.248 s, respectively. These results presented in part 6 demonstrate the performance of the controller, since the rise time and settling time are improved according to the state of the art. Besides, these parameters are compared with different control architectures reported in the literature. This comparison is made after applying a step input signal to the DC motor. Full article

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19 pages, 1030 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cross Lingual Sentiment Analysis: A Clustering-Based Bee Colony Instance Selection and Target-Based Feature Weighting Approach

by Mohammed Abbas Mohammed Almansor, Chongfu Zhang, Wasiq Khan, Abir Hussain and Naji Alhusaini

Sensors 2020, 20(18), 5276; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20185276 - 15 Sep 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2885

Abstract

The lack of sentiment resources in poor resource languages poses challenges for the sentiment analysis in which machine learning is involved. Cross-lingual and semi-supervised learning approaches have been deployed to represent the most common ways that can overcome this issue. However, performance of [...] Read more.

The lack of sentiment resources in poor resource languages poses challenges for the sentiment analysis in which machine learning is involved. Cross-lingual and semi-supervised learning approaches have been deployed to represent the most common ways that can overcome this issue. However, performance of the existing methods degrades due to the poor quality of translated resources, data sparseness and more specifically, language divergence. An integrated learning model that uses a semi-supervised and an ensembled model while utilizing the available sentiment resources to tackle language divergence related issues is proposed. Additionally, to reduce the impact of translation errors and handle instance selection problem, we propose a clustering-based bee-colony-sample selection method for the optimal selection of most distinguishing features representing the target data. To evaluate the proposed model, various experiments are conducted employing an English-Arabic cross-lingual data set. Simulations results demonstrate that the proposed model outperforms the baseline approaches in terms of classification performances. Furthermore, the statistical outcomes indicate the advantages of the proposed training data sampling and target-based feature selection to reduce the negative effect of translation errors. These results highlight the fact that the proposed approach achieves a performance that is close to in-language supervised models. Full article

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18 pages, 3100 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Pupil Localisation and Eye Centre Estimation Using Machine Learning and Computer Vision

by Wasiq Khan, Abir Hussain, Kaya Kuru and Haya Al-askar

Sensors 2020, 20(13), 3785; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133785 - 6 Jul 2020

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 6687

Abstract

Various methods have been used to estimate the pupil location within an image or a real-time video frame in many fields. However, these methods lack the performance specifically in low-resolution images and varying background conditions. We propose a coarse-to-fine pupil localisation method using [...] Read more.

Various methods have been used to estimate the pupil location within an image or a real-time video frame in many fields. However, these methods lack the performance specifically in low-resolution images and varying background conditions. We propose a coarse-to-fine pupil localisation method using a composite of machine learning and image processing algorithms. First, a pre-trained model is employed for the facial landmark identification to extract the desired eye frames within the input image. Then, we use multi-stage convolution to find the optimal horizontal and vertical coordinates of the pupil within the identified eye frames. For this purpose, we define an adaptive kernel to deal with the varying resolution and size of input images. Furthermore, a dynamic threshold is calculated recursively for reliable identification of the best-matched candidate. We evaluated our method using various statistical and standard metrics along with a standardised distance metric that we introduce for the first time in this study. The proposed method outperforms previous works in terms of accuracy and reliability when benchmarked on multiple standard datasets. The work has diverse artificial intelligence and industrial applications including human computer interfaces, emotion recognition, psychological profiling, healthcare, and automated deception detection. Full article

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28 pages, 5165 KiB

Open AccessReview

Feature Sensing and Robotic Grasping of Objects with Uncertain Information: A Review

by Chao Wang, Xuehe Zhang, Xizhe Zang, Yubin Liu, Guanwen Ding, Wenxin Yin and Jie Zhao

Sensors 2020, 20(13), 3707; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133707 - 2 Jul 2020

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6761

Abstract

As there come to be more applications of intelligent robots, their task object is becoming more varied. However, it is still a challenge for a robot to handle unfamiliar objects. We review the recent work on the feature sensing and robotic grasping of [...] Read more.

As there come to be more applications of intelligent robots, their task object is becoming more varied. However, it is still a challenge for a robot to handle unfamiliar objects. We review the recent work on the feature sensing and robotic grasping of objects with uncertain information. In particular, we focus on how the robot perceives the features of an object, so as to reduce the uncertainty of objects, and how the robot completes object grasping through the learning-based approach when the traditional approach fails. The uncertain information is classified into geometric information and physical information. Based on the type of uncertain information, the object is further classified into three categories, which are geometric-uncertain objects, physical-uncertain objects, and unknown objects. Furthermore, the approaches to the feature sensing and robotic grasping of these objects are presented based on the varied characteristics of each type of object. Finally, we summarize the reviewed approaches for uncertain objects and provide some interesting issues to be more investigated in the future. It is found that the object’s features, such as material and compactness, are difficult to be sensed, and the object grasping approach based on learning networks plays a more important role when the unknown degree of the task object increases. Full article

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14 pages, 7561 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wheelchair Neuro Fuzzy Control and Tracking System Based on Voice Recognition

by Mokhles M. Abdulghani, Kasim M. Al-Aubidy, Mohammed M. Ali and Qadri J. Hamarsheh

Sensors 2020, 20(10), 2872; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20102872 - 19 May 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7881

Abstract

Autonomous wheelchairs are important tools to enhance the mobility of people with disabilities. Advances in computer and wireless communication technologies have contributed to the provision of smart wheelchairs to suit the needs of the disabled person. This research paper presents the design and [...] Read more.

Autonomous wheelchairs are important tools to enhance the mobility of people with disabilities. Advances in computer and wireless communication technologies have contributed to the provision of smart wheelchairs to suit the needs of the disabled person. This research paper presents the design and implementation of a voice controlled electric wheelchair. This design is based on voice recognition algorithms to classify the required commands to drive the wheelchair. An adaptive neuro-fuzzy controller has been used to generate the required real-time control signals for actuating motors of the wheelchair. This controller depends on real data received from obstacle avoidance sensors and a voice recognition classifier. The wheelchair is considered as a node in a wireless sensor network in order to track the position of the wheelchair and for supervisory control. The simulated and running experiments demonstrate that, by combining the concepts of soft-computing and mechatronics, the implemented wheelchair has become more sophisticated and gives people more mobility. Full article

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17 pages, 29746 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of a Hyper-Redundant Robot and Teleoperation Using Mixed Reality for Inspection Tasks

by Andrés Martín-Barrio, Juan Jesús Roldán-Gómez, Iván Rodríguez, Jaime del Cerro and Antonio Barrientos

Sensors 2020, 20(8), 2181; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20082181 - 12 Apr 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 6190

Abstract

Hyper-redundant robots are highly articulated devices that present numerous technical challenges such as their design, control or remote operation. However, they offer superior kinematic skills than traditional robots for multiple applications. This work proposes an original and custom-made design for a discrete and [...] Read more.

Hyper-redundant robots are highly articulated devices that present numerous technical challenges such as their design, control or remote operation. However, they offer superior kinematic skills than traditional robots for multiple applications. This work proposes an original and custom-made design for a discrete and hyper-redundant manipulator. It is comprised of 7 sections actuated by cables and 14 degrees of freedom. It has been optimized to be very robust, accurate and capable of moving payloads with high dexterity. Furthermore, it has been efficiently controlled from the actuators to high-level strategies based on the management of its shape. However, these highly articulated systems often exhibit complex shapes that frustrate their spatial understanding. Immersive technologies emerge as a good solution to remotely and safely teleoperate the presented robot for an inspection task in a hazardous environment. Experimental results validate the proposed robot design and control strategies. As a result, it is concluded that hyper-redundant robots and immersive technologies should play an important role in the near future of automated and remote applications. Full article

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2019

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22 pages, 5324 KiB

Open AccessReview

Towards the Exploitation of Physical Compliance in Segmented and Electrically Actuated Robotic Legs: A Review Focused on Elastic Mechanisms

by Jie Chen, Zhongchao Liang, Yanhe Zhu, Chong Liu, Lei Zhang, Lina Hao and Jie Zhao

Sensors 2019, 19(24), 5351; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19245351 - 4 Dec 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7830

Abstract

Physical compliance has been increasingly used in robotic legs, due to its advantages in terms of the mechanical regulation of leg mechanics and energetics and the passive response to abrupt external disturbances during locomotion. This article presents a review of the exploitation of [...] Read more.

Physical compliance has been increasingly used in robotic legs, due to its advantages in terms of the mechanical regulation of leg mechanics and energetics and the passive response to abrupt external disturbances during locomotion. This article presents a review of the exploitation of physical compliance in robotic legs. Particular attention has been paid to the segmented, electrically actuated robotic legs, such that a comparable analysis can be provided. The utilization of physical compliance is divided into three main categories, depending on the setting locations and configurations, namely, (1) joint series compliance, (2) joint parallel compliance, and (3) leg distal compliance. With an overview of the representative work related to each category, the corresponding working principles and implementation processes of various physical compliances are explained. After that, we analyze in detail some of the structural characteristics and performance influences of the existing designs, including the realization method, compliance profile, damping design, and quantitative changes in terms of mechanics and energetics. In parallel, the design challenges and possible future works associated with physical compliance in robotic legs are also identified and proposed. This article is expected to provide useful paradigmatic implementations and design guidance for physical compliance for researchers in the construction of novel physically compliant robotic legs. Full article

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11 pages, 897 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Finite-Time Disturbance Observer for Robotic Manipulators

by Pengfei Cao, Yahui Gan and Xianzhong Dai

Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1943; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081943 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5270

Abstract

Robotic manipulators may be subject to different types of disturbances such as unknown payloads, unmodeled dynamics, and environment interaction forces. Observing these unknown disturbances in robotic manipulators is fundamental in many robotic applications such as disturbance rejection and sensorless force control. In this [...] Read more.

Robotic manipulators may be subject to different types of disturbances such as unknown payloads, unmodeled dynamics, and environment interaction forces. Observing these unknown disturbances in robotic manipulators is fundamental in many robotic applications such as disturbance rejection and sensorless force control. In this paper, a novel disturbance observer (DOB) is introduced based on the insights from the finite-time observer (FTO) and robot dynamics. Different from the traditional DOBs, this new observer can provide the capability to track the disturbance within a finite time. The performance of the presented observer is verified by two kinds of typical disturbances for a two-link manipulator with a comparison with several existing DOBs. The simulation results show the rapidity and accuracy of the proposed FTO. Full article

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26 pages, 12995 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Adaptive Sliding-Mode Iterative Constant-force Control Method for Robotic Belt Grinding Based on a One-Dimensional Force Sensor

by Tie Zhang, Ye Yu and Yanbiao Zou

Sensors 2019, 19(7), 1635; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19071635 - 5 Apr 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5142

Abstract

To improve the processing quality and efficiency of robotic belt grinding, an adaptive sliding-mode iterative constant-force control method for a 6-DOF robotic belt grinding platform is proposed based on a one-dimension force sensor. In the investigation, first, the relationship between the normal and [...] Read more.

To improve the processing quality and efficiency of robotic belt grinding, an adaptive sliding-mode iterative constant-force control method for a 6-DOF robotic belt grinding platform is proposed based on a one-dimension force sensor. In the investigation, first, the relationship between the normal and the tangential forces of the grinding contact force is revealed, and a simplified grinding force mapping relationship is presented for the application to one-dimension force sensors. Next, the relationship between the deformation and the grinding depth during the grinding is discussed, and a deformation-based dynamic model describing robotic belt grinding is established. Then, aiming at an application scene of robot belt grinding, an adaptive iterative learning method is put forward, which is combined with sliding mode control to overcome the uncertainty of the grinding force and improve the stability of the control system. Finally, some experiments were carried out and the results show that, after ten times iterations, the grinding force fluctuation becomes less than 2N, the mean value, standard deviation and variance of the grinding force error’s absolute value all significantly decrease, and that the surface quality of the machined parts significantly improves. All these demonstrate that the proposed force control method is effective and that the proposed algorithm is fast in convergence and strong in adaptability. Full article

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