Minerals

20 pages, 46214 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Iron and Carbon Isotope Constraints on the Formation Pathway of Iron-Rich Carbonates within the Dagushan Iron Formation, North China Craton

by Xiaoxue Tong, Kaarel Mänd, Yuhao Li, Lianchang Zhang, Zidong Peng, Qiang Wu, Pengbo Li, Mingguo Zhai, Leslie J. Robbins, Changle Wang and Kurt O. Konhauser

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010094 - 19 Jan 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4370

Abstract

Banded iron formations (BIFs) are enigmatic chemical sedimentary rocks that chronicle the geochemical and microbial cycling of iron and carbon in the Precambrian. However, the formation pathways of Fe carbonate, namely siderite, remain disputed. Here, we provide photomicrographs, Fe, C and O isotope [...] Read more.

Banded iron formations (BIFs) are enigmatic chemical sedimentary rocks that chronicle the geochemical and microbial cycling of iron and carbon in the Precambrian. However, the formation pathways of Fe carbonate, namely siderite, remain disputed. Here, we provide photomicrographs, Fe, C and O isotope of siderite, and organic C isotope of the whole rock from the ~2.52 Ga Dagushan BIF in the Anshan area, China, to discuss the origin of siderite. There are small magnetite grains that occur as inclusions within siderite, suggesting a diagenetic origin of the siderite. Moreover, the siderites have a wide range of iron isotope compositions (δ⁵⁶Fe_Sd) from −0.180‰ to +0.463‰, and a relatively negative C isotope composition (δ¹³C_Sd = −6.20‰ to −1.57‰). These results are compatible with the reduction of an Fe(III)-oxyhydroxide precursor to dissolved Fe(II) through microbial dissimilatory iron reduction (DIR) during early diagenesis. Partial reduction of the precursor and possible mixing with seawater Fe(II) could explain the presence of siderite with negative δ⁵⁶Fe, while sustained reaction of residual Fe(III)-oxyhydroxide could have produced siderite with positive δ⁵⁶Fe values. Bicarbonate derived from both DIR and seawater may have provided a C source for siderite formation. Our results suggest that microbial respiration played an important role in the formation of siderite in the late Archean Dagushan BIF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Copper and Other Metallic Isotope Systems)

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14 pages, 3499 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Specific Refractory Gold Flotation and Bio-Oxidation Products: Research Overview

by Richmond K. Asamoah

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010093 - 19 Jan 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6483

Abstract

This paper presents a research overview, reconciling key and useful case study findings, towards uncovering major causes of gold refractoriness and maximising extraction performance of specific gold flotation and bio-oxidation products. Through systematic investigation of the ore mineralogical and gold deportment properties, leaching [...] Read more.

This paper presents a research overview, reconciling key and useful case study findings, towards uncovering major causes of gold refractoriness and maximising extraction performance of specific gold flotation and bio-oxidation products. Through systematic investigation of the ore mineralogical and gold deportment properties, leaching mechanisms, and kinetic behaviour and pulp rheology, it was observed that the predominant cause of the poor extraction efficacy of one bio-oxidised product is the presence of recalcitrant sulphate minerals (e.g., jarosite and gypsum) produced during the oxidation process. This was followed by carbonaceous matter and other gangue minerals such as muscovite, quartz, and rutile. The underpining leaching mechanism and kinetics coupled with the pulp rheology were influenced by the feed mineralogy/chemistry, time, agitation/shear rate, interfacial chemistry, pH modifier type, and mechano-chemical activation. For instance, surface exposure of otherwise unavailable gold particles by mechano-chemical activation enhanced the gold leaching rate and yield. This work reflect the remarkable impact of subtle deposit feature changes on extraction performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Moving towards the Crystal Structure, Molecular or Atomic-Scale for Green and Novel Hydrometallurgical Processing)

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13 pages, 2195 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of in-House Industrial Fluosilicic Acid Certified Reference Material: Certification of H₂SiF₆ Mass Fraction

by Said Kounbach, Mokhtar Ben Embarek, Abdeljalil Chemaa, Rachid Boulif, Rachid Benhida and Redouane Beniazza

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010092 - 19 Jan 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3115

Abstract

Fluosilicic acid is a by-product of the chemical phosphate industry, mainly during the manufacture of phosphoric acid and triple super phosphate (TSP). To ensure the accurate measurement of the H₂SiF₆ mass fraction in this by-product, method validation is required, which [...] Read more.

Fluosilicic acid is a by-product of the chemical phosphate industry, mainly during the manufacture of phosphoric acid and triple super phosphate (TSP). To ensure the accurate measurement of the H₂SiF₆ mass fraction in this by-product, method validation is required, which needs a certified reference material (CRM) with its traceability to the International System of Units (SI). This work describes the development of a certified reference material of fluosilicic acid, which is commercially unavailable. Details of all steps, such as sample preparation, homogeneity and stability studies, value assignment, establishment of metrological traceability, and uncertainty estimation of the certified reference material, are fully described. The H₂SiF₆ mass fraction in the CRM was quantified by two analytical methods, i.e., UV-VIS as a primary method of analysis and flame mode atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) as a second method. It is worth noting that the results obtained from each method were in good agreement. The CRM certified value and corresponding expanded uncertainty, obtained from the combined standard uncertainty multiplied by the coverage factor (k = 2), for a confidence interval of 95%, was (91.5 ± 11.7) g·kg⁻¹. The shelf life of the developed CRM is determined to be 1 year, provided that storage conditions are ensured. The developed CRM can be applied to validate analytical methods, improve the accuracy of measurement data as well as to establish the meteorological traceability of analytical results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phosphorus Life Cycle: From Geological Genesis, Mine Cycle, Chemical Transformation, Use as Fertilizers, and Environmental Fate)

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16 pages, 5803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mineralogical Analysis of the Kestel Mine: An Early Bronze Age Source of Tin Ore in the Taurus Mountains, Turkey

by Wayne Powell, Evren Yazgan, Michael Johnson, K. Aslıhan Yener and Ryan Mathur

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010091 - 19 Jan 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4757

Abstract

Since its discovery in 1987, the Early Bronze Kestel Mine has been a topic of archaeological and geological controversy. The initial interpretation of the extensive marble-hosted galleries as the oldest known tin mine was challenged due to the low tin grade in remaining [...] Read more.

Since its discovery in 1987, the Early Bronze Kestel Mine has been a topic of archaeological and geological controversy. The initial interpretation of the extensive marble-hosted galleries as the oldest known tin mine was challenged due to the low tin grade in remaining hematite-quartz veins, and it was suggested that Kestel was more likely mined for gold. Mineralogical analysis of the remaining mineralization was compared to a heavy mineral concentrate extracted from the soil preserved within the mine. The compositionally complex, arsenate-rich mineral assemblage from the mine sediment, contrasts with that of the remaining surface mineralization. Thus, the outcropping veins do not represent the nature of the extracted ore. Only one grain of gold was found in the heavy mineral concentrate, whereas cassiterite composed 1.5% of the sample. Cassiterite occurs in complex assemblages with arsenates, clays, hematite, quartz, and dolomite, bearing resemblance to hematite-arsenate tin mineralization that occurs near Kayseri, 60 km to the northeast. These findings indicate that although gold was a trace component of the Kestel ore, cassiterite was the mineral of interest to the Early Bronze Age miners, and that Kestel represents the earliest evidence thus far for an emerging pattern of local tin exploitation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral Deposits of the Balkan Peninsula and Western Turkey)

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19 pages, 7473 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dioskouriite, CaCu₄Cl₆(OH)₄∙4H₂O: A New Mineral Description, Crystal Chemistry and Polytypism

by Igor V. Pekov, Natalia V. Zubkova, Andrey A. Zolotarev, Vasiliy O. Yapaskurt, Sergey V. Krivovichev, Dmitry I. Belakovskiy, Inna Lykova, Marina F. Vigasina, Anatoly V. Kasatkin, Evgeny G. Sidorov and Dmitry Yu. Pushcharovsky

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010090 - 18 Jan 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3578

Abstract

A new mineral, dioskouriite, CaCu₄Cl₆(OH)₄∙4H₂O, represented by two polytypes, monoclinic (2M) and orthorhombic (2O), which occur together, was found in moderately hot zones of two active fumaroles, Glavnaya Tenoritovaya and Arsenatnaya, [...] Read more.

A new mineral, dioskouriite, CaCu₄Cl₆(OH)₄∙4H₂O, represented by two polytypes, monoclinic (2M) and orthorhombic (2O), which occur together, was found in moderately hot zones of two active fumaroles, Glavnaya Tenoritovaya and Arsenatnaya, at the Second scoria cone of the Northern Breakthrough of the Great Tolbachik Fissure Eruption, Tolbachik volcano, Kamchatka, Russia. Dioskouriite seems to be a product of the interactions involving high-temperature sublimate minerals, fumarolic gas and atmospheric water vapor at temperatures not higher than 150 °C. It is associated with avdoninite, belloite, chlorothionite, eriochalcite, sylvite, halite, carnallite, mitscherlichite, chrysothallite, sanguite, romanorlovite, feodosiyite, mellizinkalite, flinteite, kainite, gypsum, sellaite and earlier hematite, tenorite and chalcocyanite in Glavnaya Tenoritovaya and with avdoninite and earlier hematite, tenorite, fluorophlogopite, diopside, clinoenstatite, sanidine, halite, aphthitalite-group sulfates, anhydrite, pseudobrookite, powellite and baryte in Arsenatnaya. Dioskouriite forms tabular, lamellar or flattened prismatic, typically sword-like crystals up to 0.01 mm × 0.04 mm × 0.1 mm combined in groups or crusts up to 1 × 2 mm² in area. The mineral is transparent, bright green with vitreous luster. It is brittle; cleavage is distinct. The Mohs hardness is ca. 3. D_meas is 2.75(1) and D_calc is 2.765 for dioskouriite-2O and 2.820 g cm⁻³ for dioskouriite-2M. Dioskouriite-2O is optically biaxial (+), α = 1.695(4), β = 1.715(8), γ = 1.750(6) and 2V_meas. = 70(10)°. The Raman spectrum is reported. The chemical composition (wt%, electron microprobe data, H₂O calculated by total difference; dioskouriite-2O/dioskouriite-2M) is: K₂O 0.03/0.21; MgO 0.08/0.47; CaO 8.99/8.60; CuO 49.24/49.06; Cl 32.53/32.66; H₂O(calc.) 16.48/16.38; -O=Cl −7.35/−7.38; total 100/100. The empirical formulae based on 14 O + Cl apfu are: dioskouriite-2O: Ca_1.04(Cu_4.02Mg_0.01)_Σ4.03[Cl_5.96(OH)_3.90O_0.14]_Σ10∙4H₂O; dioskouriite-2M: (Ca_1.00K_0.03)_Σ4.03(Cu_4.01Mg_0.08)_Σ4.09[Cl_5.99(OH)_3.83O_0.18]_Σ10∙4H₂O. Dioskouriite-2M has the space group P2₁/c, a = 7.2792(8), b = 10.3000(7), c = 20.758(2) Å, β = 100.238(11)°, V = 1531.6(2) Å³ and Z = 4; dioskouriite-2O: P2₁2₁2₁, a = 7.3193(7), b = 10.3710(10), c = 20.560(3) Å, V = 1560.6(3) Å³ and Z = 4. The crystal structure (solved from single-crystal XRD data, R = 0.104 and 0.081 for dioskouriite-2M and -2O, respectively) is unique. The structures of both polytypes are based upon identical BAB layers parallel to (001) and composed from Cu²⁺-centered polyhedra. The core of each layer is formed by a sheet A of edge-sharing mixed-ligand octahedra centered by Cu(1), Cu(2), Cu(3), Cu(5) and Cu(6) atoms, whereas distorted Cu(4)(OH)₂Cl₃ tetragonal pyramids are attached to the A sheet on both sides, along with the Ca(OH)₂(H₂O)₄Cl₂ eight-cornered polyhedra, which provide the linkage of the two adjacent layers via long Ca−Cl bonds. The Cu(4) and Ca polyhedra form the B sheet. The difference between the 2M and 2O polytypes arises as a result of different stacking of layers along the c axis. The cation array of the layer corresponds to the capped kagomé lattice that is also observed in several other natural Cu hydroxychlorides: atacamite, clinoatacamite, bobkingite and avdoninite. The mineral is named after Dioskouri, the famous inseparable twin brothers of ancient Greek mythology, Castor and Polydeuces, the same in face but different in exercises and achievements; the name is given in allusion to the existence of two polytypes that are indistinguishable in appearance but different in symmetry, unit cell configuration and XRD pattern. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection New Minerals)

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20 pages, 5721 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selective Flotation of Elemental Sulfur from Pressure Acid Leaching Residue of Zinc Sulfide

by Guiqing Liu, Kaixi Jiang, Bangsheng Zhang, Zhonglin Dong, Fan Zhang, Fang Wang, Tao Jiang and Bin Xu

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010089 - 18 Jan 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4577

Abstract

An efficient flotation process was developed to selectively recover elemental sulfur from a high-sulfur pressure acid leaching residue of zinc sulfide concentrate. The process mineralogy analysis showed that the sulfur content reached 46.21%, and 81.97% of the sulfur existed as elemental sulfur which [...] Read more.

An efficient flotation process was developed to selectively recover elemental sulfur from a high-sulfur pressure acid leaching residue of zinc sulfide concentrate. The process mineralogy analysis showed that the sulfur content reached 46.21%, and 81.97% of the sulfur existed as elemental sulfur which was the major mineral in the residue and primarily existed as pellet aggregate and biconical euhedral crystal. An elemental sulfur concentrate product with 99.9% of recovery and 83.46% of purity was obtained using the flotation process of one-time blank rougher, two-time agent-added roughers, and two-time cleaners with Z-200 as collector and Na₂S + ZnSO₄ + Na₂SO₃ as depressant. The flotation experiment using return water indicated that the cycle use of return water had no adverse effect on the flotation performance of elemental sulfur. The process mineralogy analysis manifested that main minerals in the residue directionally went into the flotation products. Most of elemental sulfur entered the concentrate while other minerals almost completely went into the tailing. Main valuable elements lead, zinc, and silver entered the tailing with sulfides and could be recovered by lead smelting. The proposed process can realize the comprehensive recovery of valuable components in the high-sulfur residue and thus it has wide industrial application prospect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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17 pages, 6726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Competitive Adsorption of Chromate and Sulfate on Ni-Substituted Magnetite Surfaces: An ATR-FTIR Study

by Xiaoju Lin, Gaoling Wei, Xiaoliang Liang, Jing Liu, Lingya Ma and Jianxi Zhu

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010088 - 18 Jan 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3270

Abstract

With similar chemical properties and geometrical configurations, sulfate and chromate display interesting competitive adsorption on mineral surfaces. Although such issues have been investigated on several Fe (hydr)oxide surfaces, e.g., ferrihydrite, goethite and hematite, the competitive adsorption on magnetite surfaces and the constraint mechanism [...] Read more.

With similar chemical properties and geometrical configurations, sulfate and chromate display interesting competitive adsorption on mineral surfaces. Although such issues have been investigated on several Fe (hydr)oxide surfaces, e.g., ferrihydrite, goethite and hematite, the competitive adsorption on magnetite surfaces and the constraint mechanism have seldom been studied. This impedes the understanding of the transfer and fate of chromate and sulfate on magnetite surfaces, as magnetite is not only a useful adsorbent but also an efficient reductant to decrease the mobility and toxicity of chromium. In the present study, the geometries of the competitive adsorption of chromate and sulfate on Ni-substituted magnetite surfaces over a pH range of 4–9 were investigated using in situ attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and two-dimensional correlation analysis. In individual adsorption, nonprotonated monodentate mononuclear (NMM) complexes dominated chromate adsorption, accompanied by a few bidentate binuclear (BB) complexes. For sulfate, NMM complexes and outer-sphere (OS) species predominated under acidic and neutral–alkaline conditions, respectively. The above variation in adsorption configuration resulted in the different adsorption competitiveness between chromate and sulfate at different pH values. Specifically, the NMM complexes of chromate were substituted by NMM sulfate complexes under acidic conditions and vice versa. However, under neutral and alkaline conditions, the OS species of sulfate scarcely affected the adsorption of chromate. The adsorption affinity of chromate and sulfate on Ni-substituted magnetite increased in the following order: OS complex (sulfate) < NMM complexes (chromate) < NMM complexes (sulfate). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral Surface Reactivity with Application to Contaminant Retention and Element Partitioning)

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16 pages, 17847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of High Proportion Unground Sea Sand Ore on the Preparation Process and Reduction Performance of Oxidized Pellets

by Gong-jin Cheng, Zhen-xing Xing, He Yang and Xiang-xin Xue

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010087 - 18 Jan 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2615

Abstract

The New Zealand sea sand ore is a kind of vanadia–titania magnetite formed by erosion in the coastal zone. Because of its coarse particle size, smooth spherical particles, complex chemical composition, it has been added to sinter as an auxiliary material. Based on [...] Read more.

The New Zealand sea sand ore is a kind of vanadia–titania magnetite formed by erosion in the coastal zone. Because of its coarse particle size, smooth spherical particles, complex chemical composition, it has been added to sinter as an auxiliary material. Based on the principle of optimizing ore blending to strengthen advantages and weaken disadvantages, this paper used New Zealand sea sand raw ore that has not undergone any pretreatment as the main material and prepared it into oxidized pellets using a disc pelletizer and explored the influence of high-proportion unground sea sand ore on the preparation process and reduction performance of oxidized pellets. The influence of unground sea sand ore on the falling strength, compressive strength, reduction swelling index, and reduction degree of pellets was analyzed by the ICPAES, XRF, XRD, SEM-EDS, and other detection methods, and the change laws and influencing factors of oxidized pellets were analyzed. With the increase of the amount of unground sea sand ore used, the falling strength and compressive strength of the green pellets first decreased and then gradually increased, while the compressive strength of the oxidized pellets first increased and then decreased. At the same time, as the amount of sea sand ore used increased, the reduction process of pellets was restricted. The reduction swelling index and the reduction degree index generally show a downward trend. However, the compressive strength of the pellets gradually increased after reduction. Through the research on the pellet-forming performance and reduction properties of unground sea sand ore, it is shown that when the amount of unground sea sand ore used was 40%, it can still be used as raw material for blast furnace ironmaking. Thus, this research provided specific data support for iron and steel enterprises to improve the ratio of unground sea sand ore and reduce production cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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29 pages, 9931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Complex Characteristic of Zircon from Granitoids of the Verkhneurmiysky Massif (Amur Region)

by Maria M. Machevariani, Alexey V. Alekseenko and Jaume Bech

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010086 - 16 Jan 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3930

Abstract

The study presents a complex characteristic of zircon from the Verkhneurmiysky intrusive series with Li-F granites. A wide range of morphological and chemical properties of zircon allowed us to obtain new information on the formation and alteration of zircon from biotite and zinnwaldite [...] Read more.

The study presents a complex characteristic of zircon from the Verkhneurmiysky intrusive series with Li-F granites. A wide range of morphological and chemical properties of zircon allowed us to obtain new information on the formation and alteration of zircon from biotite and zinnwaldite granitoids and to determine its features, which contribute to the correct definition of Li-F granites formed directly before the tin mineralization. The reviled trends of zircon morphology and composition evolution in the Verkhneurmiysky granites series are: the high-temperature morphotypes are followed by low-temperature ones with more complicated internal structure with secondary alteration zones, mineral inclusions, pores, and cracks; the increasing concentration of volatile (H₂O, F), large ion lithophile (Cs, Sr), high field strength (Hf, Nb) and rare-earth elements with decreasing crystallization temperatures and the determining role of the fluid phase (predominantly, F) in the trace element accumulation. The composition of zircon cores in biotite and zinnwaldite granites is very similar. However, the zircon rims from zinnwaldite granites are much more enriched in trace elements compared to those from biotite granites. The first study of zircon from the Verkhneurmiysky granitoids provides new data on the formation and alteration conditions of granitoids, including zinnwaldite ones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detrital Mineral U/Pb Age Dating and Geochemistry of Magmatic Products in Basin Sequences: State of the Art and Progress)

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21 pages, 12179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Geological Model of the Touro Cu Deposit, A World-Class Mafic-Siliciclastic VMS Deposit in the NW of the Iberian Peninsula

by Mónica Arias, Pablo Nuñez, Daniel Arias, Pablo Gumiel, Cesar Castañón, Jorge Fuertes-Blanco and Agustin Martin-Izard

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010085 - 16 Jan 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4094

Abstract

The Touro volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposit is located in the NW of the Iberian Variscan massif in the Galicia-Trás-os-Montes Zone, an amalgamation of several allochthonous terrains. The Órdenes complex is the most extensive of the allochthone complexes, and amphibolites and paragneisses host [...] Read more.

The Touro volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposit is located in the NW of the Iberian Variscan massif in the Galicia-Trás-os-Montes Zone, an amalgamation of several allochthonous terrains. The Órdenes complex is the most extensive of the allochthone complexes, and amphibolites and paragneisses host the deposit, characterized as being massive or semimassive (stringers) sulfides, mostly made up of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. The total resources are 103 Mt, containing 0.41% copper. A 3D model of the different orebodies and host rocks was generated using data from 1090 drill core logs. The model revealed that the structure of the area is a N–S-trending antiform. The orebodies crop out in the limbs and in the hinge zone. The mineralized structures are mostly tabular, up to 100 m in thickness and subhorizontal. Based on the petrography, geochemistry and the 3D model, the Touro deposit is classified as a VMS of the mafic-siliciclastic type formed in an Ordovician back-arc setting, which was buried and metamorphosed in Middle Devonian. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D-Modelling of Crustal Structures and Mineral Deposit Systems)

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16 pages, 4477 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Fly Ash Utilisation in Mullite Fabrication: Development of Novel Percolated Mullite

by Pramod Koshy, Naomi Ho, Vicki Zhong, Luisa Schreck, Sandor Alex Koszo, Erik J. Severin and Charles Christopher Sorrell

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010084 - 16 Jan 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3451

Abstract

Fly ash is an aluminosilicate and the major by-product from coal combustion in power stations; its increasing volumes are major economic and environmental concerns, particularly since it is one of the largest mineral resources based on current estimates. Mullite (3Al₂O₃ [...] Read more.

Fly ash is an aluminosilicate and the major by-product from coal combustion in power stations; its increasing volumes are major economic and environmental concerns, particularly since it is one of the largest mineral resources based on current estimates. Mullite (3Al₂O₃·2SiO₂) is the only stable phase in the Al₂O₃-SiO₂ system and is used in numerous applications owing to its high-temperature chemical and mechanical stabilities. Hence, fly ash offers a potential economical resource for mullite fabrication, which is confirmed by a review of the current literature. This review details the methodologies to utilise fly ash with different additives to fabricate what are described as porous interconnected mullite skeletons or dense mullite bodies of approximately stoichiometric compositions. However, studies of pure fly ash examined only high-Al₂O₃ forms and none of these works reported long-term, high-temperature, firing shrinkage data for these mullite bodies. In the present work, high-SiO₂ fly ashes were used to fabricate percolated mullite, which is demonstrated by the absence of firing shrinkage upon long-term high-temperature soaking. The major glass component of the fly ash provides viscosities suitably high for shape retention but low enough for ionic diffusion and the minor mullite component provides the nucleating agent to grow mullite needles into a direct-bonded, single-crystal, continuous, needle network that prevents high-temperature deformation and isolates the residual glass in the triple points. These attributes confer outstanding long-term dimensional stability at temperatures exceeding 1500 °C, which is unprecedented for mullite-based compositions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilisation of Industrial Byproducts for Materials and Metallurgical Applications)

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23 pages, 13990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prospectivity Mapping for Magmatic-Related Seafloor Massive Sulfide on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Applying Weights-of-Evidence Method Based on GIS

by Lushi Liu, Jilong Lu, Chunhui Tao and Shili Liao

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010083 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6999

Abstract

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge belongs to slow-spreading ridges. Hannington predicted that there were a large number of mineral resources on slow-spreading ridges; however, seafloor massive sulfide deposits usually develop thousands of meters below the seafloor, which make them extremely difficult to explore. Therefore, it [...] Read more.

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge belongs to slow-spreading ridges. Hannington predicted that there were a large number of mineral resources on slow-spreading ridges; however, seafloor massive sulfide deposits usually develop thousands of meters below the seafloor, which make them extremely difficult to explore. Therefore, it is necessary to use mineral prospectivity mapping to narrow the exploration scope and improve exploration efficiency. Recently, Fang and Shao conducted mineral prospectivity mapping of seafloor massive sulfide on the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, but the mineral prospectivity mapping of magmatic-related seafloor massive sulfide on the whole Mid-Atlantic Ridge scale has not yet been carried out. In this study, 11 types of data on magmatic-related seafloor massive sulfide mineralization were collected on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, namely water depth, slope, oceanic crust thickness, large faults, small faults, ridge, bedrock age, spreading rate, Bouguer gravity, and magnetic and seismic point density. Then, the favorable information was extracted from these data to establish 11 predictive maps and to create a mineral potential model. Finally, the weights-of-evidence method was applied to conduct mineral prospectivity mapping. Weight values indicate that oceanic crust thickness, large faults, and spreading rate are the most important prospecting criteria in the study area, which correspond with important ore-controlling factors of magmatic-related seafloor massive sulfide on slow-spreading ridges. This illustrates that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a typical slow-spreading ridge, and the mineral potential model presented in this study can also be used on other typical slow-spreading ridges. Seven zones with high posterior probabilities but without known hydrothermal fields were delineated as prospecting targets. The results are helpful for narrowing the exploration scope on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and can guide the investigation of seafloor massive sulfide resources efficiently. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genesis and Exploration for Submarine Sulphide Deposits)

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14 pages, 3524 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Strength Evolution Characteristics of Cemented Tailings Backfill from the Perspective of Porosity

by Hongwei Deng, Yao Liu, Weiyou Zhang, Songtao Yu and Guanglin Tian

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010082 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2676

Abstract

At present, the filling mining method is widely used. To study strength evolution laws of cemented tailings backfill (CTB) under different curing ages, in the experiment, mine tailings were used as aggregates, ordinary Portland cement (PC32.5) was used as cementing materials, and different [...] Read more.

At present, the filling mining method is widely used. To study strength evolution laws of cemented tailings backfill (CTB) under different curing ages, in the experiment, mine tailings were used as aggregates, ordinary Portland cement (PC32.5) was used as cementing materials, and different additives (lime and fly ash) were added to make filling samples with the solids mass concentration at 74% and the cement-sand ratios 1:4, 1:6 and 1:8. Based on the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technology, the porosity test of filling samples with curing ages of 3 d, 7 d and 28 d was carried out, and the uniaxial compressive strength test was carried out on the servo universal material testing machine. The relationship between the uniaxial compressive strength and porosity of backfills and the curing age in the three groups was studied, and change laws of the porosity variation and strength growth rate of backfills were analyzed. Based on the variation in porosity, the strength evolution model of the CTB under different curing ages was established, and the model was fitted and verified with test data. Results show that the uniaxial compressive strength, porosity, porosity variation, and strength growth rate of the three groups of backfills gradually increase with the increase of the curing age, the porosity of backfill basically increases with the decrease of the cement–sand ratio, and the porosity of backfill decreases with the increase of the curing age. Porosity variations and relative strength values of the three groups of backfills under different cement-sand ratios obey an exponential function, and the two have a good correlation, indicating that the established filling strength evolution model can well reflect strength evolution laws of the CTB with the change of curing age. Full article

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18 pages, 45757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Air Entrainment on Cemented Mine Backfill Properties: Analysis Based on Response Surface Methodology

by Mohammed Hefni and Ferri Hassani

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010081 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2350

Abstract

As part of an extensive research program exploring the potential benefits of using air-entraining admixtures in mine backfill, the experimental study presented in this paper investigates the effect of cement and entrained air dosages on mine backfill unconfined compressive strength (UCS), fresh density, [...] Read more.

As part of an extensive research program exploring the potential benefits of using air-entraining admixtures in mine backfill, the experimental study presented in this paper investigates the effect of cement and entrained air dosages on mine backfill unconfined compressive strength (UCS), fresh density, and dry density. Backfill specimens were prepared using silica sand, normal Portland cement, water, and an entrained air admixture. An experimental design with response surface methodology was adopted to develop predictive mathematical models and analyze the results. The results demonstrated that an entrained air dosage of 3.5% could improve the UCS of the mine backfill owing to better dispersion of cement particles. However, a further increase in the dosage reduced the UCS as well as the fresh and dry densities by approximately 200 and 120 kg/m³, respectively. Study results imply that using air-entraining admixtures can potentially enhance mine backfill flowability and reduce the density, thus providing safer and more sustainable working conditions in an underground mining environment. Full article

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15 pages, 3014 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of Hydronium-Potassium Jarosites: The Effect of pH and Aging Time on Their Structural, Morphological, and Electrical Properties

by Elías Hernández-Lazcano, E. Cerecedo-Sáenz, J. Hernández-Ávila, Norman Toro, T. V. K. Karthik, D. Mendoza-Anaya, M. E. Fernández-García, V. Rodríguez-Lugo and E. Salinas-Rodríguez

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010080 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2911

Abstract

Structural and morphological properties of hydronium-potassium jarosite microstructures were investigated in this work, and their electrical properties were evaluated. All the microstructures were synthesized at a very low temperature of 70 °C with a reduced reaction time of 3 h. An increase in [...] Read more.

Structural and morphological properties of hydronium-potassium jarosite microstructures were investigated in this work, and their electrical properties were evaluated. All the microstructures were synthesized at a very low temperature of 70 °C with a reduced reaction time of 3 h. An increase in the pH from 0.8 to 2.1 decreased the particle sizes from 3 µm to 200 nm and an increase in the aging time from zero, three, and seven days resulted in semispherical, spherical, and euhedral jarosite structures, respectively. The Rietveld analysis also confirmed that the amount of hydronium substitution by potassium in the cationic site increased with an increase in pH. The percentages of hydronium jarosite (JH)/potassium jarosite (JK) for pH values of 0.8, 1.1, and 2.1 were 77.72/22.29%, 82.44/17.56%, and 89.98/10.02%, respectively. Microstructures obtained in this work were tested as alternative anode materials and the voltage measured using these electrodes made with hydronium-potassium jarosite microstructures and graphite ranged from 0.89 to 1.36 V. The results obtained in this work show that with reduced particle size and euhedral morphology obtained, modified jarosite microstructures can be used as anode materials for improving the lifetime of lithium-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interactions of Polymers with Minerals Surfaces)

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20 pages, 10488 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Charge State of Pt in Binary Compounds and Synthetic Minerals Determined by X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy and Quantum Chemical Calculations

by Polina V. Evstigneeva, Alexander L. Trigub, Dmitriy A. Chareev, Max S. Nickolsky and Boris R. Tagirov

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010079 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3231

Abstract

The binary synthetic compounds of Pt with chalcogens (O, S, Se, Te), pnictogens (As, Sb, Bi), and intermetallic compounds with Ga, In, and Sn of various stoichiometry were studied via X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). The partial atomic charges of Pt in the compounds [...] Read more.

The binary synthetic compounds of Pt with chalcogens (O, S, Se, Te), pnictogens (As, Sb, Bi), and intermetallic compounds with Ga, In, and Sn of various stoichiometry were studied via X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). The partial atomic charges of Pt in the compounds were computed using quantum chemical density functional theory (DFT) based methods: the Bader (QTAIM) method, and the density-derived electrostatic and chemical (DDEC6) approach. Strong positive correlations were established between the calculated partial atomic charges of Pt and the electronegativity (χ) of ligands. The partial charge of Pt in PtL₂ compounds increases much sharply when the ligand electronegativity increases than the Pt partial charge in PtL compounds. The effect of the ligand-to-Pt atomic ratio on the calculated Pt partial charge depended on ligand electronegativity. The DDEC6 charge of Pt increases sharply with the growth of the number of ligands in PtS_n (n = 1, 2; electronegativity χ(S) >> χ(Pt)), weakly depends on the phase composition in PtTe_n (n = 1, 2; χ(Te) is slightly lower than χ(Pt)), and decreases (becomes more negative) with increase of the ligand-to-Pt ratio in intermetallic compounds with electron donors (χ(L) < χ(Pt), L = Ga, In, Sn). According to XANES spectroscopy, the number of 5d (L_2,3 absorption edges) and 6p (L₁-edge) electrons at the Pt site decreased when ligand electronegativity increased in chalcogenides and pnictides groups. An increase of the ligand-to-Pt ratio resulted in the increase of the Pt L₃-edge white line intensity and area in all studied compounds. In the case of chalcogenides and pnictides, this behavior was consistent with the electronegativity rule as it indicated a loss of Pt 5d electrons caused by the increase of the number of ligands, i.e., acceptors of electrons. However, in the case of ligands–electron donors (Te, Sn, Ga, In) this observation is in apparent contradiction with the electronegativity arguments as it indicates the increase of the number of Pt 5d-shell vacancies (holes) with the increase of the number of the ligands, for which the opposite trend is expected. This behavior can be explained in the framework of the charge compensation model. The loss of the Pt d-electrons in compounds with low ligand electronegativity (χ(Pt) > χ(L)) was overcompensated by the gain of the hybridized s-p electron density, which was confirmed by Pt L₁ - edge spectra analysis. As a result, the total electron density at the Pt site followed the electronegativity rule, i.e., it increased with the growth of the number of the ligands-electron donors. The empirical correlations between the Pt partial atomic charges and parameters of XANES spectral features were used to identify the state of Pt in pyrite, and can be applied to determine the state of Pt in other ore minerals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy of Synthetic and Natural Minerals)

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24 pages, 15020 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Viscosity and Strength Properties of Cemented Tailings Backfill with Fly Ash and Its Strength Predicted

by Jie Wang, Jianxin Fu, Weidong Song and Yongfang Zhang

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010078 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2713

Abstract

It is of great significance to study the effect of solid contents (SC), binder-to-tailings (b/t) ratio, types and dosage of fly ash (FA) on the viscosity (V) and uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of backfill. It can improve filling efficiency and reduce [...] Read more.

It is of great significance to study the effect of solid contents (SC), binder-to-tailings (b/t) ratio, types and dosage of fly ash (FA) on the viscosity (V) and uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of backfill. It can improve filling efficiency and reduce filling costs to understand the relationship between SC, b/t ratio, FA dosage and viscosity, and UCS of backfill. Consequently, this paper carried out uniaxial compression tests and rheological tests on five different types of backfill specimens. Experimental results indicate that, with the increase of SC, the viscosity and UCS of all backfill samples increases as a power function. With the decrease of b/t ratio, the viscosity and UCS of all backfill samples decreases as an exponential function. The coupling effect of SC and b/t ratio has a great influence on the viscosity and UCS of backfill samples. The relationship between SC, b/t ratio and viscosity, and UCS is a quadratic polynomial function. The order of the viscosity of the backfill slurry is: pure tailings < backfill slurry mixed with Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) < backfill slurry mixed with FA1 < backfill slurry mixed with FA2. The higher the FA dosage, the greater the viscosity. The order of the UCS of backfill is: backfill with OPC > backfill with FA1 > backfill with FA2. The higher the FA dosage, the smaller the UCS. The UCS of all backfill samples increased with the increase of curing time (CT). The relations between the viscosity and UCS of backfill present the positively linear functions. It is feasible to use viscosity to predict the UCS of backfill, and the error between the UCS predicted value and the test value is mostly controlled within 10%. Ultimately, the findings of the experimental work will provide a scientific reference for the mine to design the strength of the backfill. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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32 pages, 5008 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eoarchean to Neoproterozoic Detrital Zircons from the South of Meiganga Gold-Bearing Sediments (Adamawa, Cameroon): Their Closeness with Rocks of the Pan-African Cameroon Mobile Belt and Congo Craton

by Nguo Sylvestre Kanouo, Arnaud Patrice Kouske, Gabriel Ngueutchoua, Akella Satya Venkatesh, Prabodha Ranjan Sahoo and Emmanuel Archelaus Afanga Basua

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010077 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4703

Abstract

The core of detrital zircons from the southern Meiganga gold-bearing placers were analyzed by Laser Ablation Split Stream analytical techniques to determine their trace element abundances and U-Pb ages. The obtained data were used to characterize each grain, determine its formation condition, and [...] Read more.

The core of detrital zircons from the southern Meiganga gold-bearing placers were analyzed by Laser Ablation Split Stream analytical techniques to determine their trace element abundances and U-Pb ages. The obtained data were used to characterize each grain, determine its formation condition, and try to trace the provenance. The Hf (5980 to 12,010 ppm), Y (27–1650 ppm), U (25–954 ppm), Th (8–674 ppm), Ti (2–256 ppm), Ta, Nb, and Sr (mainly <5 ppm), Th/U (0.06–2.35), Ti zircon temperature (617–1180 °C), ∑REE (total rare earth element) (98–1030 ppm), and Eu/Eu* (0.03 to <1.35) are predominant values for igneous crustal-derived zircons, with very few from mantle sources and of metamorphic origin. Crustal igneous zircons are mainly inherited grains crystallized in granitic magmas (with some charnockitic and tonalitic affinities) and a few from syenitic melts. Mantle zircons were crystallized in trace element depleted mantle source magmatic intrusion during crustal opening. Metamorphic zircons grown in sub-solidus solution in equilibrium with garnet “syn-metamorphic zircons” and in equilibrium with anatectic melts “anatectic zircons” during crustal tectono-metamorphic events. The U-Pb (3671 ± 23–612 ± 11 Ma) ages distinguish: Eoarchean to Neoproterozoic igneous zircons; Neoarchean to Mid Paleoproterozoic anatectic zircons; and Late Neoproterozoic syn-metamorphic grains. The Mesoarchean to Middle Paleoproterozoic igneous zircons are probably inherited from pyroxene-amphibole-bearing gneiss (TTGs composition) and amphibole-biotite gneiss, whose features are similar to those of the granites, granodiorites, TTG, and charnockites found in the Congo Craton, south Cameroon. The youngest igneous zircons could be grains eroded from Pan-African intrusion(s) found locally. Anatectic and syn-metamorphic zircons could have originated from amphibole-biotite gneiss underlying the zircon-gold bearing placers and from locally found migmatized rocks that are from the Cameroon mobile belt, which could be used as proxies for tracking gold. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detrital Mineral U/Pb Age Dating and Geochemistry of Magmatic Products in Basin Sequences: State of the Art and Progress)

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22 pages, 46060 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Lavrion Mines: A Unique Site of Geological and Mineralogical Heritage

by Panagiotis Voudouris, Vasilios Melfos, Constantinos Mavrogonatos, Adonis Photiades, Eugenia Moraiti, Branko Rieck, Uwe Kolitsch, Alexandre Tarantola, Christophe Scheffer, Denis Morin, Olivier Vanderhaeghe, Paul G. Spry, James Ross, Konstantinos Soukis, Markos Vaxevanopoulos, Igor V. Pekov, Nikita V. Chukanov, Andreas Magganas, Marianna Kati, Athanasios Katerinopoulos and Stefanos Zaimis Show full author list Hide full author list

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010076 - 14 Jan 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 9300

Abstract

The Lavrion area corresponds to the western part of the Attic-Cycladic metamorphic belt, in the back-arc region of the active Hellenic subduction zone. Between the Eocene and the Miocene, metamorphic rocks (mainly marbles and schists) underwent several stages of metamorphism and deformation due [...] Read more.

The Lavrion area corresponds to the western part of the Attic-Cycladic metamorphic belt, in the back-arc region of the active Hellenic subduction zone. Between the Eocene and the Miocene, metamorphic rocks (mainly marbles and schists) underwent several stages of metamorphism and deformation due to collision and collapse of the Cycladic belt. Exhumation during the Miocene was accommodated by the movement of a large-scale detachment fault system, which also enhanced emplacement of magmatic rocks, leading to the formation of the famous Lavrion silver deposits. The area around the mines shows the stacking of nappes, with ore deposition mainly localized within the marbles, at marble-schist contacts, below, within, or above the detachment. The Lavrion deposit comprises five genetically-related but different styles of mineralization, a feature never observed in another ore deposit elsewhere, containing the highest number of different elements of any known mining district. The local geology, tectonic, and magmatic activity were fundamental factors in determining how and when the mineralization formed. Other key factors, such as the rise and the fall of sea level, which resulted from climate change over the last million years, were also of major importance for the subsequent surface oxidation at Lavrion that created an unmatched diversity of secondary minerals. As a result, the Lavrion deposit contains 638 minerals of which Lavrion is type-locality for 23 of them, which is nearly 12% of all known species. Apart from being famous for its silver exploitation, this mining district contains more minerals than any other district on Earth. The unique geological, mineralogical, and educational (mining, archaeological, and environmental) features suggest that it is highly suitable to be developed as a future UNESCO Global Geopark. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Minerals in Cultural and Geological Heritage)

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5 pages, 207 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for Special Issue: Alkali Activated Materials: Advances, Innovations, Future Trends

by Kostas A. Komnitsas and Georgios Bartzas

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010075 - 14 Jan 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2852

Abstract

Alkali activated materials (AAMs), also named geopolymers or inorganic polymers, are materials that are produced when alkaline solutions react with precursors containing aluminosilicate phases [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alkali Activated Materials: Advances, Innovations, Future Trends)

14 pages, 2286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genomic Analysis of a Newly Isolated Acidithiobacillus ferridurans JAGS Strain Reveals Its Adaptation to Acid Mine Drainage

by Jinjin Chen, Yilan Liu, Patrick Diep and Radhakrishnan Mahadevan

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010074 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3478

Abstract

Acidithiobacillus ferridurans JAGS is a newly isolated acidophile from an acid mine drainage (AMD). The genome of isolate JAGS was sequenced and compared with eight other published genomes of Acidithiobacillus. The pairwise mutation distance (Mash) and average nucleotide identity (ANI) revealed that [...] Read more.

Acidithiobacillus ferridurans JAGS is a newly isolated acidophile from an acid mine drainage (AMD). The genome of isolate JAGS was sequenced and compared with eight other published genomes of Acidithiobacillus. The pairwise mutation distance (Mash) and average nucleotide identity (ANI) revealed that isolate JAGS had a close evolutionary relationship with A. ferridurans JCM18981, but whole-genome alignment showed that it had higher similarity in genomic structure with A. ferrooxidans species. Pan-genome analysis revealed that nine genomes were comprised of 4601 protein coding sequences, of which 43% were core genes (1982) and 23% were unique genes (1064). A. ferridurans species had more unique genes (205–246) than A. ferrooxidans species (21–234). Functional gene categorizations showed that A. ferridurans strains had a higher portion of genes involved in energy production and conversion while A. ferrooxidans had more for inorganic ion transport and metabolism. A high abundance of kdp, mer and ars genes, as well as mobile genetic elements, was found in isolate JAGS, which might contribute to its resistance to harsh environments. These findings expand our understanding of the evolutionary adaptation of Acidithiobacillus and indicate that A. ferridurans JAGS is a promising candidate for biomining and AMD biotreatment applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel and Emerging Strategies for Sustainable Mine Tailings and Acid Mine Drainage Management)

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14 pages, 5622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Uranium Minerals and Pyrite and Its Genetic Significance in the Mianhuakeng Deposit, Northern Guangdong Province

by Lirong Li, Zhengqi Wang and Deru Xu

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010073 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3627

Abstract

Granite-related uranium ore is an important uranium resource type in China and worldwide. Whether the uranium geochemical theory “U⁶⁺ oxidative migration and U⁴⁺ reductive precipitation” is applicable to the granite-related uranium mineralization theory has not been determined. Detailed field and petrographic [...] Read more.

Granite-related uranium ore is an important uranium resource type in China and worldwide. Whether the uranium geochemical theory “U⁶⁺ oxidative migration and U⁴⁺ reductive precipitation” is applicable to the granite-related uranium mineralization theory has not been determined. Detailed field and petrographic work, as well as scanning electron microscopy energy spectrum analysis, are conducted in this study to analyze the relationship between uranium minerals and pyrite from different ore types and evaluate the mechanism for the precipitation and enrichment of uranium in the Mianhuakeng uranium deposit of northern Guangdong. Uranium ore bodies in the Mianhuakeng deposit generally occur as vein-filling or vein-disseminated types. Four different kinds of ores are recognized: fluorite, carbonate, siliceous, and reddening types. Despite differences in the mineral assemblages, veined ores share similar characteristics and show that uranium minerals (1) occur in the central part or periphery of vein-filling ores or in interphase arrangements with syn-ore fluorite, quartz, or calcite veins; (2) occur as veinlets or are disseminated in cataclastic altered granite; (3) are inlaid with gangue minerals, primarily calcite, fluorite, and microcrystalline quartz; and (4) are closely associated with pyrite in aggregates or relatively independent states, forming straight boundaries with syn-ore gangue minerals that have euhedral and intact crystals and show mosaic growth features. All these results indicate that both pyrite and uranium minerals are co-crystallized products of the ore-forming fluid. Combined with previous research suggesting that the reducing fluid was sourced from mantle, this study shows that decreased pressure and temperature, as well as changes in pH and the solubility (saturation) of changes, rather than the redox reaction, caused the uranium precipitation in the Mianhuakeng deposit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geology of Uranium Deposits)

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12 pages, 30691 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multibeam Bathymetry and Distribution of Clay Minerals on Surface Sediments of a Small Bay in Terra Nova Bay, Antarctica

by Jaewoo Jung, Youngtak Ko, Joohan Lee, Kiho Yang, Young Kyu Park, Sunghan Kim, Heungsoo Moon, Hyoung Jun Kim and Kyu-Cheul Yoo

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010072 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3275

Abstract

The second Antarctic station of South Korea was constructed at Terra Nova Bay, East Antarctica, but local seafloor morphology and clay mineralogical characteristics are still not fully understood. Its small bay is connected to a modern Campbell Glacier, cliffs, and raised beaches along [...] Read more.

The second Antarctic station of South Korea was constructed at Terra Nova Bay, East Antarctica, but local seafloor morphology and clay mineralogical characteristics are still not fully understood. Its small bay is connected to a modern Campbell Glacier, cliffs, and raised beaches along the coastline. Fourteen sampling sites to collect surface sediments were chosen in the small bay for grain size and clay mineral analyses to study the sediment source and sediment-transport process with multibeam bathymetry and sub-bottom profiles. Under the dominant erosional features (streamlined feature and meltwater channel), icebergs are the major geological agent for transport and deposition of coarse-sized sediments along the edge of glaciers in summer, and thus the study area can reveal the trajectory of transport by icebergs. Glacier meltwater is an important agent to deposit the clay-sized detritus and it results from the dominance of the illite content occurring along the edge of Campbell Glacier Tongue. The high smectite content compared to Antarctic sediments may be a result of the source of the surrounding volcanic rocks around within the Melbourne Volcanic Province. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clays, Clay Minerals and Geology)

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19 pages, 5029 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Provenance and Sedimentary Context of Clay Mineralogy in an Evolving Forearc Basin, Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene and Eocene Mudstones, San Joaquin Valley, California

by Andrew Hurst, Michael J. Wilson, Antonio Grippa, Lyudmyla Wilson, Giuseppe Palladino, Claudia Belviso and Francesco Cavalcante

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010071 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2894

Abstract

Mudstone samples from the Moreno (Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene) and Kreyenhagen (Eocene) formations are analysed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) to determine their mineralogy. Smectite (Reichweite R0) is the predominant phyllosilicate present, 48% to 71.7% bulk rock mineralogy (excluding carbonate cemented and [...] Read more.

Mudstone samples from the Moreno (Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene) and Kreyenhagen (Eocene) formations are analysed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) to determine their mineralogy. Smectite (Reichweite R0) is the predominant phyllosilicate present, 48% to 71.7% bulk rock mineralogy (excluding carbonate cemented and highly bio siliceous samples) and 70% to 98% of the <2 μm clay fraction. Opal CT and less so cristobalite concentrations cause the main deviations from smectite dominance. Opal A is common only in the Upper Kreyenhagen. In the <2 μm fraction, the Moreno Fm is significantly more smectite-rich than the Kreyenhagen Fm. Smectite in the Moreno Fm was derived from the alteration of volcaniclastic debris from contemporaneous rhyolitic-dacitic magmatic arc volcanism. No tuff is preserved. Smectite in the Kreyenhagen Fm was derived from intense sub-tropical weathering of granitoid-dioritic terrane during the hypothermal period in the early to mid-Eocene; the derivation from local volcanism is unlikely. All samples had chemical indices of alteration (CIA) indicative of intense weathering of source terrane. Ferriferous enrichment and the occurrence of locally common kaolinite are contributory evidence for the intensity of weathering. Low concentration (max. 7.5%) of clinoptilolite in the Lower Kreyenhagen is possibly indicative of more open marine conditions than in the Upper Kreyenhagen. There is no evidence of volumetrically significant silicate diagenesis. The main diagenetic mineralisation is restricted to low-temperature silica phase transitions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clays, Clay Minerals and Geology)

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11 pages, 1979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Anomalous Seismic Behavior of Aqueous Fluids Released during Dehydration of Chlorite in Subduction Zones

by Geeth Manthilake, Julien Chantel, Nicolas Guignot and Andrew King

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010070 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2578

Abstract

Dehydration and fluid circulation are integral parts of subduction tectonics that govern the dynamics of the wedge mantle. The knowledge of the elastic behavior of aqueous fluid is crucial to understand the fluid–rock interactions in the mantle through velocity profiles. In this study, [...] Read more.

Dehydration and fluid circulation are integral parts of subduction tectonics that govern the dynamics of the wedge mantle. The knowledge of the elastic behavior of aqueous fluid is crucial to understand the fluid–rock interactions in the mantle through velocity profiles. In this study, we investigated the elastic wave velocities of chlorite at high pressure beyond its dehydrating temperature, simulating the progressive dehydration of hydrous minerals in subduction zones. The dehydration resulted in an 8% increase in compressional (Vp) and a 5% decrease in shear wave (Vs) velocities at 950 K. The increase in Vp can be attributed to the stiffening of the sample due to the formation of secondary mineral phases followed by the dehydration of chlorite. The fluid-bearing samples exhibited Vp/Vs of 2.45 at 950 K. These seismic parameters are notably different from the major mantle minerals or hydrous silicate melts and provide unique seismic criteria for detecting mantle fluids through seismic tomography. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crystallography and Physical Chemistry of Minerals & Nanominerals)

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11 pages, 765 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Possibility of Hydrometallurgical Processing of Low-Grade Ores in the Oxidation Zone of the Malmyzh Cu-Au Porphyry Deposit

by Arthur Sekisov and Anna Rasskazova

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010069 - 12 Jan 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2563

Abstract

The geochemical features of the ores present in the oxidation zone of the gold-copper Malmyzh mineral deposit are characterized. This deposit is located in the the Nanaian region of the Khabarovsk Territory in the Russian Federation, and a technological assessment of ores present [...] Read more.

The geochemical features of the ores present in the oxidation zone of the gold-copper Malmyzh mineral deposit are characterized. This deposit is located in the the Nanaian region of the Khabarovsk Territory in the Russian Federation, and a technological assessment of ores present was carried out. The initial gold content in the oxidized ore is 0.1–1.2 ppm, and the leachability of gold from different size fractions by hot cyanide revealed the fact that the ore is not refractory and characterized by increased cyanide consumption. The results demonstrated a high gold content in fine size fractions. Different leaching reagents were applied for oxidized ore testing. These reagents were used both for oxidative pretreatment and leaching process. Activation of solutions was carried out by electrolysis and UV radiation. Different reagent combinations were tested in laboratory with the highest gold recovery (94%) provided by the chloride system with peroxide-sulfuric pretreatment of the oxidized ore. The same reagent combination resulted in 91–94% gold recovery during the column leaching of crushed (−10 mm) ore. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heap Leaching of Minerals: Current Applications and New Developments)

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32 pages, 23030 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zones of PGE–Chromite Mineralization in Relation to Crystallization of the Pados-Tundra Ultramafic Complex, Serpentinite Belt, Kola Peninsula, Russia

by Andrei Y. Barkov, Andrey A. Nikiforov, Larisa P. Barkova, Vladimir N. Korolyuk and Robert F. Martin

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010068 - 12 Jan 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3532

Abstract

The lopolithic Pados-Tundra layered complex, the largest member of the Serpentinite belt–Tulppio belt (SB–TB) megastructure in the Fennoscandian Shield, is characterized by (1) highly magnesian compositions of comagmatic dunite–harzburgite–orthopyroxenite, with primitive levels of high-field-strength elements; (2) maximum values of Mg# in olivine (Ol, [...] Read more.

The lopolithic Pados-Tundra layered complex, the largest member of the Serpentinite belt–Tulppio belt (SB–TB) megastructure in the Fennoscandian Shield, is characterized by (1) highly magnesian compositions of comagmatic dunite–harzburgite–orthopyroxenite, with primitive levels of high-field-strength elements; (2) maximum values of Mg# in olivine (Ol, 93.3) and chromian spinel (Chr, 57.0) in the Dunite block (DB), which exceed those in Ol (91.7) and Chr (42.5) in the sills at Chapesvara, and (3) the presence of major contact-style chromite–IPGE-enriched zones hosted by the DB. A single batch of primitive, Al-undepleted komatiitic magma crystallized normally as dunite close to the outer contact, then toward the center. A similar magma gave rise to Chapesvara and other suites of the SB–TB megastructure. Crystallization proceeded from the early Ol + Chr cumulates to the later Ol–Opx and Opx cumulates with accessory Chr in the Orthopyroxenite zone. The accumulation of Chr resulted from efficient cooling along boundaries of the Dunite block. The inferred front of crystallization advanced along a path traced by vectors of Ol and Chr compositions. Grains and aggregates of Chr were mainly deposited early after the massive crystallization of olivine. Chromium, Al, Zn and H₂O, all incompatible in Ol, accumulated to produce podiform segregations or veins of chromitites. This occurred episodically along the moving front of crystallization. Crystallization occurred rapidly owing to heat loss at the contact and to a shallow level of emplacement. The Chr layers are not continuous but rather heterogeneously distributed pods or veins of Chr–Ol–clinochlore segregations. Isolated portions of melt enriched in H₂O and ore constituents accumulated during crystallization of Ol. Levels of fO₂ in the melt and, consequently, the content of ferric iron in Chr, increased progressively, as in other intrusions of the SB–TB megastructure. The komatiitic magma vesiculated intensely, which led to a progressive loss of H₂ and buildup in fO₂. In turn, this led to the appearance of anomalous Chr–Ilm parageneses. Diffuse rims of Chr grains, abundant in the DB, contain elevated levels of Fe³⁺ and enrichments in Ni and Mn. In contrast, Zn is preferentially partitioned into the core, leading to a decoupling of Zn from Mn, also known at Chapesvara. The sulfide species display a pronounced Ni-(Co) enrichment in assemblages of cobaltiferous pentlandite, millerite (and heazlewoodite at Khanlauta), deposited at ≤630 °C. The oxidizing conditions have promoted the formation of sulfoselenide phases of Ru in the chromitites. The attainment of high degrees of oxidation during crystallization of a primitive parental komatiitic magma accounts for the key characteristics of Pados-Tundra and related suites of the SB–TB megastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chromite Deposits: Mineralogy, Petrology and Genesis)

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30 pages, 66849 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ochre-Based Pigments in the Tablinum of the House of the Bicentenary (Herculaneum, Italy) between Decorative Technology and Natural Disasters

by Michele Secco, Leslie Rainer, Kiernan Graves, Arlen Heginbotham, Gilberto Artioli, Francesca Piqué and Ivana Angelini

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010067 - 11 Jan 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3831

Abstract

Ochre-based pigments have been employed since the first artistic expressions of mankind, with widespread diffusion during the Roman civilization. Such prominent use influenced their technological development, focused on functional and aesthetic optimization through complex manufacturing procedures. Furthermore, their appearance is also influenced by [...] Read more.

Ochre-based pigments have been employed since the first artistic expressions of mankind, with widespread diffusion during the Roman civilization. Such prominent use influenced their technological development, focused on functional and aesthetic optimization through complex manufacturing procedures. Furthermore, their appearance is also influenced by degradation processes, sometimes driven by natural disasters such as the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, in which yellow ochres of Vesuvian sites were sometimes converted to red by thermal alteration. In this contribution, a multi-analytical approach was adopted based on preliminary non-invasive investigations complemented by laboratory analyses to characterize the painted surfaces of the tablinum of the House of the Bicentenary (Herculaneum) with a particular focus on the ochre-based monochrome backgrounds. The study was aimed at (a) reconstructing the original color scheme of the walls and (b) deciphering the complex decorative techniques adopted by Roman craftsmen. The analytical results allowed testing and defining analytical procedures for the discrimination between the original and converted red pigments. Furthermore, these studies indicated that specific decorative technologies were adopted according to aesthetic, functional, and economic purposes, including the utilization of various qualities of ochre with different compositional and textural properties, and the mixture of ochre pigments with other compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral Pigments in the Historical and Archaeological Context: from Invasive to Non-invasive Analyses)

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21 pages, 8075 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Removal of Pb from Water: The Effectiveness of Gypsum and Calcite Mixtures

by Ana Roza Llera, Amalia Jimenez and Lurdes Fernández-Díaz

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010066 - 11 Jan 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2818

Abstract

Anthropogenic lead pollution is an environmental problem that threatens the quality of soils and waters and endangers living organisms in numerous surface and subsurface habitats. Lead coprecipitation on mineral surfaces through dissolution-recrystallization processes has long-term effects on lead bioavailability. Gypsum and calcite are [...] Read more.

Anthropogenic lead pollution is an environmental problem that threatens the quality of soils and waters and endangers living organisms in numerous surface and subsurface habitats. Lead coprecipitation on mineral surfaces through dissolution-recrystallization processes has long-term effects on lead bioavailability. Gypsum and calcite are among the most abundant and reactive rock forming minerals present in numerous geological settings. In this work, we studied the interaction of slightly acidic (pH_i = 5.5) Pb-bearing aqueous solutions ([Pb]_i = 1 and 10 mM) with crystals of gypsum and/or calcite under atmospheric conditions. This interaction resulted in a reduction of the concentration of lead in the liquid phase due to the precipitation of newly formed Pb-bearing solid phases. The extent of this Pb removal mainly depended on the nature of the primary mineral phase involved in the interaction. Thus, when gypsum was the only solid phase initially present in the system, the Pb-bearing liquid-gypsum interaction resulted in Pb removals in the 98–99.8% range, regardless of [Pb]_i. In contrast, when the interaction took place with calcite, Pb removal strongly depended on [Pb]_i. It reached 99% when [Pb]_i = 1 mM, while it was much more modest (~13%) when [Pb]_i = 10 mM. Interestingly, Pb-removal was maximized for both [Pb]_i (99.9% for solutions with [Pb]_i = 10 mM and 99.7% for solutions with [Pb]_i = 1 mM) when Pb-polluted solutions simultaneously interacted with gypsum and calcite crystals. Despite the large Pb removals found in most of the cases studied, the final Pb concentration ([Pb]_f) in the liquid phase was always well above the maximum permitted in drinking water (0.01 ppm), with the minimum ([Pb]_f = 0.7 ppm) being obtained for solutions with [Pb]_i = 1 mM after their interaction with mixtures of gypsum and calcite crystals. This result suggests that integrating the use of mixtures of gypsum-calcite crystals might help to develop more efficient strategies for in-situ decontaminating Pb-polluted waters through mineral coprecipitation processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral Surface Reactivity with Application to Contaminant Retention and Element Partitioning)

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34 pages, 11204 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stream Sediments of the Pestrinsk Silver-Bearing System (Northeastern Russia)

by Artem S. Makshakov and Raisa G. Kravtsova

Minerals 2021, 11(1), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010065 - 11 Jan 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2823

Abstract

The composition, structure, and formation features of the exogenous anomalous geochemical fields (AGCFs) identified through stream sediments (SSs) are considered here within the Pestrinsk silver-bearing system and the Goltsovy silver-polymetallic deposit. The research was performed in the southern part of the Balygychan-Sugoy trough [...] Read more.

The composition, structure, and formation features of the exogenous anomalous geochemical fields (AGCFs) identified through stream sediments (SSs) are considered here within the Pestrinsk silver-bearing system and the Goltsovy silver-polymetallic deposit. The research was performed in the southern part of the Balygychan-Sugoy trough (northeastern Russia). The exogenous AGCFs of the main indicator elements of ores, formed in cryolithogenesis zone conditions, were studied. We used the results of multi-scale areal geochemical surveys of SSs. A survey of SSs at 1:200,000 scale was found to be effective at the stage of regional forecasting. Indeed, it is characterized by simplicity and the possibility of obtaining information operatively regarding the metallogeny of the area. It was found that at the local forecast stage, when prospecting for mineralization, the most effective was a survey of SSs at 1:50,000 scale. The AGCFs identified during this survey were distinguished by a richer component composition, higher contrast, and closer relationship with ores. During the lithochemical sampling of the watercourse heads, where alluvial sediments were found to be almost completely absent, a positive result was obtained by the bryolithochemical method, which is based on moss sampling together with a fine fraction of alluvium held by a moss cushion. The method enabled the sampling of watercourse heads and thus yielded information about the presence or absence of anomalous concentration fields of ore elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)

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