Alloys

For additive manufactured parts, it is important to measure homogeneity and demonstrate representative parts can be printed faster while maintaining key mechanical properties. In this work, a multiscale characterization of microstructural and mechanical properties was carried out to gain a thorough understanding of a range of powder bed fusion-laser beam (PBF-LB)-manufactured Scalmalloy for future optimization of the processing parameters. The relationship between microstructure, including porosity, grain structure, and precipitates, and mechanical properties, is investigated. The stress-relieved samples were characterized mainly using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) suite, uniaxial tensile tests and nanoindentation. The results show the multiple strengthening mechanisms in Scalmalloy, including solid solution strengthening, grain size, precipitates and dislocations strengthening, demonstrated through a combination of the nanoindentation measurements with microstructural analysis at the local scale. The current work suggests potential mechanisms for further improvement of the strength and ductility in PBF-LB-Scalmalloy. Full article

Laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) is a metal additive manufacturing (AM) technique that produces a unique microstructure significantly different from wrought microstructure. Inconel 625 (IN625) is an alloy widely used to manufacture complex parts, but it comes with its own unique challenges. The alloy is prone to precipitation under elevated temperatures, which makes designing suitable heat treatment to tailor the desired microstructure and mechanical properties critical. Traditional heat treatment for wrought IN625 cannot be applied to L-PBF IN625; therefore, it is vital to understand the evolution of precipitates on the way to complete recrystallization. This study focuses on these precipitates in IN625 produced by the L-PBF technique. Heat treatments at 700 °C, 900 °C, and 1050 °C were performed separately to encourage the precipitation of strengthening γ″, the detrimental δ phase, and the dissolution of precipitates, respectively. γ″ precipitates were found in the as-printed condition and at 700 °C. δ precipitates were detected at 700 and 900 °C. Carbides and Al-rich oxides were observed in all conditions of L-PBF IN625. Texture analysis showed grain growth along the build direction with strong (100) texture at temperatures up to 900 °C. Weak and random texture with equiaxed grains was observed at 1050 °C, which is similar to wrought IN625. Full article

The fatigue behavior of a fully processed, non-oriented electrical steel sheet is investigated in dependence on shear-cutting parameters and a subsequent heat treatment. For this, stress-controlled fatigue tests are performed before and after annealing at 700 °C for a total of six different shear-cutting settings. For all parameters, the fatigue strength of shear-cut sheets is improved by the heat treatment. This is due to reduction in a large part of the strain hardening region as well as the reduction in tensile residual stresses. Both were introduced during shear cutting and act detrimental to the fatigue strength. However, the intensity of this improvement depends on the shear-cutting parameters. This is related to the corresponding edge surfaces characteristically being formed during shear cutting. Specimens cut with a worn cutting tool show a more pronounced increase in fatigue life. In contrast, specimens produced with a sharp-edged cutting tool and high cutting clearance hardly benefit from the heat treatment. This appears to be caused by differences in surface topography, in particular coarse topographical damage in the form of grain breakouts. If these occur during shear cutting, the crack formation is not significantly delayed by additional annealing. Full article

Co-Cr-Mo alloy as a human body implant material has a long history, because of its excellent corrosion resistance and biocompatibility, and is widely used in human hip joint materials. Co-Cr-Mo alloy in the human body is often in a passivation state; the formation of dense oxide film on the alloy surface prevents further corrosion of the alloy. The main component of the passivation film is the oxide of Cr, so a layer of oxide film formed by Cr on the surface of Co-Cr-Mo alloy is the reason for its good corrosion resistance. In biocompatibility, cytotoxicity is the first choice and necessary option for biological evaluation, and cytotoxicity can quickly detect the effect of materials on cells in a relatively short time. Therefore, this research conducted a comparative evaluation on the corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of forged Co-Cr-Mo alloys produced in domestic and foreign alloys in line with medical standards. Three simulated human body fluids and Princeton electrochemical station were selected for corrosion resistance experiments, and it was found that the corrosion resistance of four alloys in sodium citrate solution inside and outside China would be reduced. All the alloys exhibit secondary passivation behavior in Hanks solution, which improves the corrosion resistance of the alloys. According to the self-corrosion potential Ecorr analysis, the corrosion resistance of domestic B alloy is the best, while that of foreign R31537 alloy is poor. In the biocompatibility experiment, the biocompatibility of Co-Cr-Mo alloy was evaluated through the measurement of contact Angle and cytotoxicity reaction. The experimental results show that Co-Cr-Mo alloy is a hydrophilic material, and the contact Angle of foreign R31537 alloy is smaller, indicating that the surface of R31537 alloy is more suitable for cell adhesion and spreading. According to the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the cytotoxicity experiment, the toxic reaction grade of domestic A, B and R31537 alloy is grade 1, the toxic reaction grade of C alloy is grade 2, and C alloy has a slight toxic reaction. Full article

This study investigates the corrosion behavior of Grade 23 Ti6Al4V alloys produced through laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) when exposed to simulated body fluid at room temperature, focusing on the role of unmelted particles. This research aims to understand how these microstructural features, resulting from the additive manufacturing process, influence the corrosion resistance of the alloys. It was observed that unmelted particles serve as critical sites for initiating localized corrosion, including pitting, which significantly compromises the material’s overall durability. Electrochemical testing and detailed surface analysis revealed that these particles, alongside other defects such as voids, exacerbate the susceptibility to corrosion in biomedical environments where high material reliability is paramount. Weight loss measurements conducted over exposure periods of 48 h, 96 h, and 144 h demonstrated a progressive increase in corrosion, correlating with the presence of unmelted particles. These findings underscore the importance of optimizing L-PBF processing parameters to minimize the formation of unmelted particles, thereby enhancing corrosion resistance and extending the operational lifespan of Ti6Al4V implants in biomedical applications. Full article

Additive manufacturing is a promising and actively developing method for the synthesis of metal products. The development of techniques for the production of spherical powder particles with specified properties from metals and alloys represents a significant challenge in the field of additive manufacturing. A new method for the production of titanium powders with spherical particles has been proposed, including the method of hydrogenation and dehydrogenation with subsequent spheroidization in thermal plasma. Titanium sponge, used as a feedstock, was saturated with hydrogen using the energy-efficient self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) method. The resulting hydride was then mechanically ground and then dehydrogenated by thermal decomposition in a vacuum furnace. The resulting precursor was subjected to plasma treatment, which resulted in a product (titanium powder) with a high degree of spheroidization. The physical, chemical, and technological parameters of the titanium powders were investigated. It was found that the final product, spherical titanium powder, has the necessary properties for use in additive manufacturing technologies. Full article

The paper presents the results of the study of the processes of self-propagating high-temperature synthesis of Zr-1%B alloy and its refining by electron beam melting. Experiments on the influence of boron’s amorphous and crystalline modifications on the safety parameters of the synthesis process of Zr-1%B alloy necessitated the conversion of amorphous boron into crystalline form by electron beam melting, with an increase in its purity from 94% to 99.9%. High efficiency of vacuum induction and electron beam equipment was demonstrated, which provided a high purity of the Zr-1%B alloy of at least 99.9%. The alloy ingots had a uniform distribution of the alloying element (boron) all over the volume. The obtained alloy is suitable for the production of materials with thermal neutron capture cross-sections of up to 40 barns for neutron protection. Full article

Abstract: The refractory complex concentrated alloy (RCCA) 5Al–5Cr–5Ge–1Hf–6Mo–33Nb–19Si–20Ti–5Sn–1W (at.%) was studied in the as-cast and heat-treated conditions. The partitioning of solutes in the as-cast and heat-treated microstructures and relationships between solutes, between solutes and the parameters VEC and Δχ, and between these parameters, most of which are reported for the first time for metallic UHTMs, were shown to be important for the properties of the stable phases A15–Nb₃X and the D8_m βNb₅Si₃. The nano-hardness and Young’s modulus of the A15–Nb₃X and the D8_m βNb₅Si₃ of the heat-treated alloy were measured using nanoindentation and changes in these properties per solute addition were discussed. The aforementioned relationships, the VEC versus Δχ maps and the VEC, Δχ, time, or VEC, Δχ, Young’s modulus or VEC, Δχ, nano-hardness diagrams of the phases in the as-cast and heat-treated alloy, and the properties of the two phases demonstrated the importance of synergy and entanglement of solutes, parameters and phases in the microstructure and properties of the RCCA. The significance of the new data and the synergy and entanglement of solutes and phases for the design of metallic ultra-high temperature materials were discussed. Full article

Light alloys based on magnesium are widely used in most areas of science and technology. However, magnesium powder alloys are quite difficult to sinter due to the stable film of oxides that counteracts diffusion. Therefore, finding a method to activate magnesium sintering is urgent. This study examines the effect of adding 5 wt. % and 10 wt. % zinc to the sintering pattern of magnesium powders at 430 °C; a dwell of 30 min was used to homogenize at the densification’s temperature. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to characterize the alloy’s microstructure, while the phase composition was characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and energy dispersion spectroscopy (EDS). The sintering densities of Mg–5Zn and Mg–10Zn were found to be 88% and 92%, respectively. The results show that after sintering, a heterophase structure of the alloy is formed based on a solid solution and phases MgZn and Mg₅₀Zn₂₁. To establish the sintering mechanism, the interaction at the MgO and Zn melt phase interface was analyzed using the sessile drop method. The minimum contact angle—65°—was discovered at 500 °C with a 20 min holding time. It was demonstrated that the sintering process in the Mg–Zn system proceeds through the following stages: (1) penetration of zinc into oxide-free surfaces; (2) crystallization of a solid solution, intermetallics; and (3) the removal of magnesium oxide from the particle surface, with oxide particles deposited on the surface of the sample. Full article

An innovative technology for the direct reduction of copper slag was studied while smelting Cu-Fe alloy by carbon to recover the main valuable elements from the copper smelting slag. The melting temperature of samples first decreased, followed by an increase in Fe₃O₄ content in slag. The melting temperature reached the minimum temperature of 1157 °C once the Fe₃O₄ content was about 8 wt%. The recovery rate of copper and iron first increased gradually, followed by a rapid increase in the modifier (CaO). Subsequently, the rise in the recovery rate slowed down. The reduction rate of copper and iron only increased by 1.61% and 1.05% from 5 wt% CaO to 10 wt% CaO, but significantly increased by 8.89% and 14.21% from 10 wt% CaO to 25 wt% CaO, and remained almost unchanged beyond 25 wt% CaO. This could be attributed to the reaction between modifier (CaO) and silicate in acidic copper slag to generate low melting point composite oxide while replacing free iron oxides, improving the melting properties and reduction reaction. Meanwhile, the recovery rates of copper and iron increased with the increase of reaction time, reaction temperature, and reduction agent in a certain range. To obtain good element yield, the optimum conditions for reducing copper and iron from the molten copper slag were determined to be 1500 °C, 14 wt% C, 20–25 wt% CaO, and 60–80 min. The recovery rates of iron and copper reached about 90% and 85%, and the contents of iron and copper in alloy reached about 91–93 wt% and 5–7 wt%, respectively. The tailing was mainly composed of Ca₃Si₃O₉, Ca(Mg,Al)(Si,Al)₂O₆, and SiO₂, which could be used as a raw material for cement and pelletizing. Full article

In this investigation, the effects of different annealing temperatures (180, 200, 220, 240, 260, and 280 °C) on the microstructure evolution and properties of an extruded Mg–2.0Zn–1.0Y–0.5Zr (wt%) magnesium alloys were determined. Optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), immersion corrosion, electrochemical corrosion experiments, and tensile testing were performed. Research has found that combining hot extrusion with subsequent low-temperature annealing significantly improves the strength, plasticity, and corrosion resistance of alloys due to grain refinement and a reduced dislocation density. The alloy was completely recrystallized at an annealing temperature of 240 °C for 4 h after solid solution extrusion, and the grains were fine and uniform, demonstrating the best comprehensive properties. Its corrosion rate, ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation were 0.454 ± 0.023 mm/y, 346.7 ± 8.9 MPa, 292.4 ± 6.9 MPa, and 19.0 ± 0.4%, respectively. The corrosion mechanism of the specimens under extruded and annealed conditions was analyzed. After annealing at 240 °C for 4 h, the dislocation and bimodal grain structure of the samples were almost eliminated, resulting in uniform and fine grains, which were conducive to the formation of a more uniform and denser oxide film, thus improving the corrosion resistance of the alloy. Full article

Transition metal-ruthenium alloys are promising candidates for ultra-high-temperature structural applications. However, the mechanical and electronic characteristics of these alloys are not well understood in the literature. This study uses first-principles density functional theory calculations to explore the structural, electronic, mechanical, and phonon properties of X₃Ru (X = Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn) binary alloys in the tP16 crystallographic phase. We find that Mn₃Ru, Sc₃Ru, Ti₃Ru, V₃Ru, and Zn₃Ru have negative heats of formation and hence are thermodynamically stable. Mechanical analysis (C_ij) indicates that all tP16-X₃Ru alloys are mechanically stable except, Fe₃Ru and Cr₃Ru. Moreover, these compounds exhibit ductility and possess high melting temperatures. Furthermore, phonon dispersion curves indicate that Cr₃Ru, Co₃Ru, Ni₃Ru, and Cu₃Ru are dynamically stable, while the electronic density of states reveals all the X₃Ru alloys are metallic, with a significant overlap between the valence and conduction bands at the Fermi energy. These findings offer insights into the novel properties of the tP16 X₃Ru intermetallic alloys for the exploration of high-temperature structural applications. Full article

Residual stress is caused by non–uniform deformation caused by non–uniform force, heat and composition, which is of great significance in engineering applications. It is assumed that the residual stress is always the upper limit of the elastic limit, so the reduction of the flow stress will reduce the residual elastic stress. It is particularly important to control the flow stress in metal materials. Compared with traditional methods, the use of electropulsing treatment (EPT) technology stands out due to its energy–efficient, highly effective, straightforward and pollution–free characteristics. However, there are different opinions about the mechanism of reducing flow stress through EPT due to the conflation of the effects from pulsed currents. Herein, a clear correlation is identified between induced stress levels and the application of pulsed electrical current. It was found that the decrease in flow stress is positively correlated with the current density and the duration of electrical contact and current action time. We first systematically and comprehensively summarize the influence mechanisms of EPT on dislocations, phase, textures and recrystallization. An analysis of Joule heating, electron wind effect, and thermal–induced stress within metal frameworks under the influence of pulsed currents was conducted. And the distribution of electric, thermal and stress fields under EPT are discussed in detail based on a finite element simulation (FES). Finally, some new insights into the issues and challenges of flow stress drops caused by EPT are proposed, which is critically important for advancing related mechanism research and the revision of theories and models. Full article

In this work, the refractory complex concentrated alloy (RCCA) 3.5Al–4Cr–6Ge–1Hf–5Mo–36Nb–22Si–1.5Sn–20Ti–1W (at.%) was studied in the as cast and heat treated conditions (100 h or 200 h at 1500 °C). There was strong macrosegregation of Si in the 0.6 kg button/ingot of the cast alloy, in which A2 solid solution, D8_m βNb₅Si₃, C14-NbCr₂ Laves phase and Ti_ss and a ternary eutectic of the A2, D8_m and C14 phases were formed. The partitioning of Ti in the as cast and heat treated microstructure and its relationships with other solutes was shown to be important for the properties of the A2 solid solution and the D8_m βNb₅Si₃, which were the stable phases at 1500 °C. The near surface microstructure of the alloy was contaminated with oxygen after heat treatment under flowing Ar. For the aforementioned phases, it was shown, for the first time, that there are relationships between solutes, between solutes and the parameters VEC, Δχ and δ, between the said parameters, and between parameters and phase properties. For the contaminated with oxygen solid solution and silicide, trends in relationships between solutes, between solutes and oxygen content and between the aforementioned parameters and oxygen content also were shown for the first time. The nano-hardness and Young’s modulus of the A2 solid solution and the D8_m βNb₅Si₃ of the as cast and heat-treated alloy were measured using nanoindentation. Changes of nano-hardness and Young’s modulus of the A2 solid solution and D8_m βNb₅Si₃ per solute addition for this multiphase RCCA were discussed. The nano-hardness and Young’s modulus of the solid solution and the βNb₅Si₃, respectively, were 9.5 ± 0.2 GPa and 177.4 ± 5.5 GPa, and 17.55 ± 0.5 GPa and 250.27 ± 6.3 GPa after 200 h at 1500 °C. The aforementioned relationships and properties of the two phases demonstrated the importance of synergy and entanglement of solutes, parameters and phases in the microstructure and properties of the RCCA. Implications of synergy and entanglement for the design of metallic ultra-high temperature materials were emphasised. Full article

The isothermal oxidation of a Fe₃₅Mn₂₁Ni₂₀Cr₁₂Al₁₂ high entropy alloy (HEA) was investigated in dry air for 50 h at 500, 600, and 700 °C after 90% cold rolling. The Fe₃₅Mn₂₁Ni₂₀Cr₁₂Al₁₂ HEA behaves according to the linear oxidation rate with rate constants of 1 × 10⁻⁶, 3 × 10⁻⁶, and 7 × 10⁻⁶ g/(cm²·s) for oxidation at 500 °C, 600 °C, and 700 °C, respectively. The activation energy for oxidation of the HEA was calculated to be 60.866 KJ/mole in the 500–700 °C temperature range. The surface morphology and phase identification of the oxide layers were characterized. The formation of MnO₂, Mn₂O₃, Mn₃O₄, Cr₂O₃, and Al₂O₃ in the oxide layers along with Fe₂O₃ is the key to the oxidation mechanism. The elemental mapping and line EDX scans were performed to identify the oxidation mechanisms. Full article

Gold and silver are, for all their chemical similarities, optically very different. Small Ag clusters show a localized surface-plasmon resonance (LSPR), whereas in Au clusters smaller than about 300 atoms, the resonance is absent due to the coupling with the interband transitions from the d electrons. This opens the possibility of tuning the cluster properties depending on their composition and chemical configuration. Earlier work on AgAu alloy clusters has shown that the outermost shell of atoms is crucial to their overall optical properties. In the present contribution, we consider the optical spectroscopic properties associated with the structural rearrangement in 55-atom AgAu alloy clusters in which the core transforms from pure silver to pure gold. Calculations using time-dependent density-functional theory are complemented by an in-depth study of the subtle effects that the chemical configuration has on the details of the materials’ d bands. Although the cluster surface remains alloyed, the geometrical changes translate into strong variations in the optical properties. Full article

Bimetallic nanoclusters have attracted great interest due to their ability to enhance the catalytic properties of nanoclusters through synergetic effects that emerge from the combination of the metal nanocluster with different transition metal (TM) species. However, their indefinite composition and broad distribution hinder the insightful understanding of the interaction between these invasive metals in bimetallic doped nanoalloys. In this study, we report a density functional theory calculation with the PBEsol exchange-correlation functional for 16-atom Ti_N−1TM (TM = Ni, Ir, Pd) nanoalloys, which provides new insights into the synergetic effect of these invasive metals. The probe into the effect of these metal impurities revealed that the replacement of a Ti atom with Ni, Ir and Pd enhances the relative stability of the nanoalloys, and the maximum stability for a lower bimetallic composition is reached for Ti₄Ir, Ti₅Pd and Ti₇Ni. The most stable nanoalloy is reached for the Ti₁₂Ir cluster in comparison with the Ti₁₂Pd and Ti₁₂Ni clusters and pure Ti₁₃ monoatomic nanocluster. This stability trend is as revealed well by both the binding energy and the dissociation energy. The average HOMO-LUMO gap for the bigger clusters revealed that the valence electrons in the HOMO can absorb lower energy, which is indicatory of a higher reactivity and lower stability. The quantum confinement is higher for the smaller clusters, which illustrates a higher stability and lower reactivity for those systems. Full article

As part of a comprehensive study on eco-friendly processing techniques, the influence of the heat treatment environment on the case hardening of AISI 1018 steel using pulverized cassava leaf was studied. The process was carried out at two different temperatures (850 °C and 950 °C) and under three environmental conditions: Process 1, the control experiment, was carried out in air only; in Process 2, the medium comprised pulverized cassava leaves; and in Process 3 a combination of pulverized cassava leaves plus barium carbonate (BaCO₃) was used as an energizer (CBC mixture). Vickers microhardness testing and scanning electron microscopy were used to evaluate the effect of the processing environment on the case hardening of the steel. As expected, regardless of the processing temperature, Process 1 resulted in little or no hardening of the steel surface. However, notable case hardening occurred when the steel specimens were subjected to either Process 2 or Process 3. Furthermore, the inclusion of barium carbonate in Process 3 significantly enhanced the case hardening effectiveness of the cassava leaf in terms of the rate of and maximum hardness achieved. A maximum enhancement was observed at 950 °C. After 1 h, the increase in hardness was 160% and 280% for Process 2 and Process 3, respectively. Upon increasing the processing time to 5 h, the increase in hardness due to Process 2 was raised to 254%, while that of Process 3 remained at approximately 280%. The diffusivity of AISI 1018 was calculated using the microhardness data. The diffusivity was highest in Process 2 samples with values of 1.568 × 10⁻⁹ m²/s at 850 °C and 1.893 × 10⁻⁹ m²/s at 950 °C. Effective case hardening of AISI 1018 steel was carried out using the medium of cassava leaf, without the addition of barium carbonate (BaCO₃) as an energizer. Full article