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Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food

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A special issue of Antioxidants (ISSN 2076-3921). This special issue belongs to the section "Aberrant Oxidation of Biomolecules".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 January 2021) | Viewed by 60611

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Dr. Marc Pignitter

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Department of Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
Interests: lipid oxidation; antioxidants; food processing and storage; shelf life; oxidative stability; biological activity of oxidized lipids; foodomics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

According to the Web of Science Core Collection (April 2020), approximately 11,900 articles about lipid oxidation in the category “food science technology” have been published so far. Since the 1990s, the number of publications per year has been constantly growing from 22 in 1990 to 992 publications in 2019. A huge effort has been put in unraveling the mechanism of lipid oxidation and developing analytical methods to detect lipid oxidation products. Lipid peroxides and their scission products are commonly measured to evaluate the progress of lipid oxidation in a food system. Due to the huge array of oxidized lipids formed and degraded during lipid deterioration, not only one but rather two or more methods are applied to study rancidity. However, to get a comprehensive picture of oxidized lipids formed in different food systems under different conditions, holistic approaches, such as oxidative lipidomics, might need to be applied. Although -omics technology is still in its fledgling stage in the field of food lipid oxidation, it might be an indispensable tool to investigate the formation of hydroperoxides, but also pathways other than downstream products of lipid hydroperoxides without the need of harsh sample workup, which is known to affect the oxidative status of food samples.
In addition to tracking and controlling the formation of oxidized lipids, interactions between oxidized lipids and antioxidants, the chemical fate of antioxidants, and any reactions of the oxidized lipids and the antioxidants with different food systems, such as bulk oil, w/o emulsions or protein-rich food matrix, are the focus of this Special Issue. In a protein-rich food matrix, lipid oxidation is known to be associated with protein oxidation, which might lead to cross-linking reactions, amino acid side chain modification or protein fragmentation with a detrimental impact on food quality.
To better understand the chemical interactions and kinetic properties of the reactions between antioxidants and oxidized lipids in different food systems, studies analyzing the spatial and temporal distribution of oxidized lipids and antioxidants are highly welcome.
The aim of the Special Issue is to report current insights into mechanisms of lipid oxidation, the mode of actions of synthetic and natural antioxidants (e.g., free radical scavenging, chelating, carbonyl-amine reactions), and any interaction between oxidized lipids, antioxidants and the food system (e.g., peptides) by a holistic view of the food system. The Special Issue provides the latest research on strategies to control lipid oxidation in complex food.

Dr. Marc Pignitter
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Lipid oxidation
Antioxidants
Analytical methods
Food quality
Polyphenols
Co-oxidation of lipids and proteins
Food emulsions
Food lipids

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 902 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Oxidative Stability, Microbial Safety, and Sensory Properties of Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) Oil Infused with Spices and Herbs

by Dyana Odeh, Klara Kraljić, Andrea Benussi Skukan and Dubravka Škevin

Antioxidants 2021, 10(5), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10050785 - 15 May 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4087

Abstract

In our study, we assessed whether the addition of basil, fennel, oregano, rosemary, and chili can improve oxidative stability and sensory properties of flaxseed oil (FO) during 180 days of storage or induce oil contamination by microorganisms. Results showed that addition of spices and herbs in FO affected the hydrolytic changes, but far less than 2% of free fatty acids after storage, which was in line with regulations. Further, the addition of spices and herbs in FO decreased peroxide value (even up to 68.7% in FO with oregano) vs. FO whose value increased during storage, indicating increased oxidative stability and prolongation of shelf life of infused oils. The antioxidant activity of the infused oils ranged from 56.40% to 97.66%. In addition, the phenol content was higher in all infused oils (6.81–22.92 mg/kg) vs. FO (5.44 mg/kg), indicating that herbs and spices could scavenge free radicals and inhibit lipid peroxidation, while sensory analysts showed that FO infused with chili had the lowest bitterness intensity. According to the presence of certain microorganisms, results highlighted the need to develop new methods for inactivating microorganisms that would not only provide a microbial safety, but also preserve the beneficial properties of the oils/products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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11 pages, 1105 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Utilization of Astaxanthin as a Synthetic Antioxidant Replacement for Emulsified Sausages

by Jin-Kyu Seo, Rashida Parvin, Junyoung Park and Han-Sul Yang

Antioxidants 2021, 10(3), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10030407 - 8 Mar 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2351

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of astaxanthin (AX) on the quality and sensory characteristics of emulsified pork sausages during cold storage. The changes of Peroxide value (PV), 2-thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), thiol content, texture profile analysis, instrumental color, and sensorial qualities were assessed on specific storage days. The emulsified sausages with added AX exhibited significantly (p < 0.05) higher redness values and total color differences (ΔE) on all storage days. Sensory values recorded the reddest color and greater overall acceptability scores to the sample with AX. In addition, AX had a significantly (p < 0.05) greater effect on PV, TBARS, and thiol content of sausages, compared with the control (CON). AX showed higher oxidation stability than CON for regression coefficient, and the level of inhibition of malondialdehyde formation was similar to that of butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) on storage days. Synthetically, AX had a desirable consequence on antioxidant activity and color of emulsified sausages; therefore, it can be used as a multifunctional additive in emulsified pork sausages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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19 pages, 2261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect on the Antioxidant, Lipoperoxyl Radical Scavenger Capacity, Nutritional, Sensory and Microbiological Traits of an Ovine Stretched Cheese Produced with Grape Pomace Powder Addition

by Raimondo Gaglio, Ignazio Restivo, Marcella Barbera, Pietro Barbaccia, Marialetizia Ponte, Luisa Tesoriere, Adriana Bonanno, Alessandro Attanzio, Antonino Di Grigoli, Nicola Francesca, Giancarlo Moschetti and Luca Settanni

Antioxidants 2021, 10(2), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10020306 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3056

Abstract

An innovative ovine cheese enriched with red grape pomace powder (GPP) was produced to improve the functional properties of Vastedda cheese typology. Vastedda cheese making was performed adding GPP and four selected Lactococcus lactis strains (Mise36, Mise94, Mise169 and Mise190). For each strain, 40 L of pasteurized ewe’s milk was divided into two aliquots representing control and experimental trials. Control cheese (CC) production did not contain GPP, while the experimental cheese (EC) production was enriched with 1% (w/w) GPP. GPP did not slow down starter development and acid generation. Plate counts and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-PCR analysis confirmed the dominance of the starters in all trials. The evolution of the physicochemical parameters showed that EC productions were characterized by lower fat content, higher protein content, and higher values of secondary lipid oxidation. Sensory evaluation indicated that the cheeses produced with the strain Mise94 were those more appreciated by the judges. Thus, the last cheeses were investigated for some functional aspects: GPP enrichment significantly increased antioxidant activity and lipoperoxyl radical scavenger capacity, confirming that grape polyphenol inclusion in cheese represents an optimal strategy for the valorization of ovine cheeses as well as winemaking industry by-products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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14 pages, 1298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative and Predictive Modelling of Lipid Oxidation in Mayonnaise

by Donny W. H. Merkx, Andries Swager, Ewoud J. J. van Velzen, John P. M. van Duynhoven and Marie Hennebelle

Antioxidants 2021, 10(2), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10020287 - 15 Feb 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3611

Abstract

Food emulsions with high amounts of unsaturated fats, such as mayonnaise, are prone to lipid oxidation. In the food industry, typically accelerated shelf life tests are applied to assess the oxidative stability of different formulations. Here, the appearance of aldehydes at the so-called onset time, typically weeks, is considered a measure for oxidative stability of food emulsions, such as mayonnaise. To enable earlier assessment of compromised shelf-life, a predictive model for volatile off-flavor generation is developed. The model is based on the formation kinetics of hydroperoxides, which are early oxidation products and precursors of volatile aldehydes, responsible for off-flavor. Under accelerated shelf-life conditions (50 °C), hydroperoxide (LOOH) concentration over time shows a sigmoidal curvature followed by an acceleration phase that occurs at a LOOH-concentration between 38–50 mmol/kg, here interpreted as a critical LOOH concentration (CC_LOOH). We hypothesize that the time at which CC_LOOH was reached is related to the onset of aldehyde generation and that the characterization of the LOOH-generation curvature could be based on reaction kinetics in the first days. These hypotheses are tested using semi-empirical models to describe the autocatalytic character of hydroperoxide formation in combination with the CC_LOOH. The Foubert function is selected as best describing the LOOH-curvature and is hence used to accurately predict onset of aldehyde generation, in most cases within several days of shelf-life. Furthermore, we find that the defining parameters of this model could be used to recognize antioxidant mechanisms at play. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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17 pages, 1736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Flaxseed Oil Cake Extract on Oxidative Stability of Microencapsulated Flaxseed Oil in Spray-Dried Powders

by Emilia Drozłowska, Artur Bartkowiak, Paulina Trocer, Mateusz Kostek, Alicja Tarnowiecka-Kuca, Grzegorz Bienkiewicz and Łukasz Łopusiewicz

Antioxidants 2021, 10(2), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10020211 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5714

Abstract

The objective of the study was to investigate the application of flaxseed oil cake extract (FOCE) for oxidative stabilization of flaxseed oil in spray-dried emulsions. Two variants of powders with 10% and 20% of flaxseed oil (FO), FOCE, and wall material (maltodextrin and starch Capsul^®) were produced by spray-drying process at 180 °C. The oxidative stability of FO was monitored during four weeks of storage at 4 °C by peroxide value (PV) and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) measurements. Additionally, the fatty acids content (especially changes in α-linolenic acid content), radical scavenging activity, total polyphenolics content, color changes and free amino acids content were evaluated. Obtained results indicated that FOCE could be an adequate antioxidant dedicated for spray-dried emulsions, especially with a high content of FO (20%). These results have important implications for the flaxseed oil encapsulation with natural antioxidant agents obtained from plant-based agro-industrial by product, meeting the goals of circular economy and the idea of zero waste. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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16 pages, 1661 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lipid Oxidation and Colour Stability of Lamb and Yearling Meat (Muscle longissimus lumborum) from Sheep Supplemented with Camelina-Based Diets after Short-, Medium-, and Long-Term Storage

by Eric N. Ponnampalam, Kym L. Butler, Stephanie K. Muir, Tim E. Plozza, Matthew G. Kerr, Wayne G. Brown, Joe L. Jacobs and Matthew I. Knight

Antioxidants 2021, 10(2), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10020166 - 22 Jan 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2609

Abstract

This study investigated the impact of feeding pelleted diets containing camelina (Camelina sativa L. Crantz) hay (CAHP) or camelina meal (CAMP) as a supplement compared with a control pellet (CONP) diet, without vitamin E fortification. The fatty acid profile, retail colour, and lipid oxidative stability of lamb and yearling meat (m. longissimus lumborum) stored for short-, medium-, or long-periods (2 days (fresh), 45 days and 90 days) under chilled to semi-frozen conditions were determined. The CAMP diet altered key fatty acids (p < 0.05) in a nutritionally beneficial manner for human health compared to the other diets, with increased total omega-3, decreased omega-6 fatty acids and decreased omega-6/omega-3 ratio of muscle. Muscle vitamin E concentration was lower (p < 0.05) for both camelina diets (CAMP and CAHP) when compared with the CONP diet, with the average concentrations less than 1 mg/kg muscle for all three treatments. Animal type and storage length were factors that all affected (p < 0.05) colour and lipid oxidative stability of meat. These results emphasise the importance of vitamin E concentration in meat stored for extended periods under semi-frozen conditions to maintain desirable meat colour during retail display, and to avoid off-flavour development of the cooked meat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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17 pages, 969 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ingredient-Dependent Extent of Lipid Oxidation in Margarine

by Sarah Fruehwirth, Sandra Egger, Dennis Kurzbach, Jakob Windisch, Franz Jirsa, Thomas Flecker, Miriam Ressler, Agnes T. Reiner, Nesrin Firat and Marc Pignitter

Antioxidants 2021, 10(1), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10010105 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4063

Abstract

This study reports the impact of margarine-representative ingredients on its oxidative stability and green tea extract as a promising antioxidant in margarine. Oil-in-water emulsions received much attention regarding factors that influence their oxidative stability, however, water-in-oil emulsions have only been scarcely investigated. Margarine, a widely consumed water-in-oil emulsion, consists of 80–90% fat and is thermally treated when used for baking. As different types of margarine contain varying additives, their impact on the oxidative stability of margarine during processing is of pressing importance. Thus, the influence of different ingredients, such as emulsifiers, antioxidants, citric acid, β-carotene and NaCl on the oxidative stability of margarine, heated at 80 °C for 1 h to accelerate lipid oxidation, was analyzed by the peroxide value and oxidation induction time. We found that monoglycerides influenced lipid oxidation depending on their fatty acyl chain. α-Tocopheryl acetate promoted lipid oxidation, while rosemary and green tea extract led to the opposite. Whereas green tea extract alone showed the most prominent antioxidant effect, combinations of green tea extract with citric acid, β-carotene or NaCl increased lipid oxidation in margarine. Complementary, NMR data suggested that polyphenols in green tea extracts might decrease lipid mobility at the surface of the water droplets, which might lead to chelating of transition metals at the interface and decreasing lipid oxidation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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17 pages, 2192 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acetone as Indicator of Lipid Oxidation in Stored Margarine

by Sarah Fruehwirth, Sandra Egger, Thomas Flecker, Miriam Ressler, Nesrin Firat and Marc Pignitter

Antioxidants 2021, 10(1), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10010059 - 6 Jan 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4172

Abstract

Margarine contains a minimum of 80% fat and is therefore prone to lipid oxidation. While lipid oxidation in vegetable oils and o/w emulsions has been thoroughly investigated, studies about the oxidative stability and the identification of potential indicators of lipid oxidation in margarine are scarce. To evaluate the oxidative stability and to indicate the progress of lipid oxidation, four different types of industrial margarine (M1–M4), which differed in their composition of the minor ingredients and the oil phase, were stored at 15 °C for 180 days and analyzed at days 0, 1, 7, 14, 28, 56, 99, and 180 regarding peroxides, conjugated dienes, oxidized triacylglycerols, and volatiles. The peroxide value and the conjugated dienes increased up to 4.76 ± 0.92 meq O₂/kg oil and 14.7 ± 0.49 in M2, respectively. The oxidative stability decreased by a maximum of 50.9% in M4. We detected three different epoxidized triglycerides—TAG54:1 (O), TAG54:2 (O) and TAG54:3 (O)—in M3. Acetone could be identified, for the first time, as lipid oxidation product in stored margarine by headspace-solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS). It increased in all types of margarine during storage by a maximum of 1070 ppb in M2. Acetone might be used as a new indicator for lipid oxidation in margarine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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13 pages, 2327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Spatiotemporal Mapping of Lipid and Protein Oxidation in Mayonnaise

by Suyeon Yang, Aletta A. Verhoeff, Donny W. H. Merkx, John P. M. van Duynhoven and Johannes Hohlbein

Antioxidants 2020, 9(12), 1278; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9121278 - 15 Dec 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4129

Abstract

Lipid oxidation in food emulsions is mediated by emulsifiers in the water phase and at the oil–water interface. To unravel the physico-chemical mechanisms and to obtain local lipid and protein oxidation rates, we used confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), thereby monitoring changes in both the fluorescence emission of a lipophilic dye BODIPY 665/676 and protein auto-fluorescence. Our data show that the removal of lipid-soluble antioxidants from mayonnaises promotes lipid oxidation within oil droplets as well as protein oxidation at the oil–water interface. Furthermore, we demonstrate that ascorbic acid acts as either a lipid antioxidant or pro-oxidant depending on the presence of lipid-soluble antioxidants. The effects of antioxidant formulation on local lipid and protein oxidation rates were all statistically significant (p < 0.0001). The observed protein oxidation at the oil–water interface was spatially heterogeneous, which is in line with the heterogeneous distribution of lipoprotein granules from the egg yolk used for emulsification. The impact of the droplet size on local lipid and protein oxidation rates was significant (p < 0.0001) but minor compared to the effects of ascorbic acid addition and lipid-soluble antioxidant depletion. The presented results demonstrate that CLSM can be applied for unraveling the roles of colloidal structure and transport in mediating lipid oxidation in complex food emulsions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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18 pages, 1686 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antioxidant Effects of Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Inflorescence Extract in Stripped Linseed Oil

by Carolina Cantele, Marta Bertolino, Fatema Bakro, Manuela Giordano, Małgorzata Jędryczka and Vladimiro Cardenia

Antioxidants 2020, 9(11), 1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9111131 - 14 Nov 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5777

Abstract

The ability of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) inflorescence extract to counteract lipid oxidation was studied in stripped linseed oil. The ethanolic extract was characterized in terms of terpenes (6.00 mg/mL), cannabidiol (4.99% w/w), phenolic compounds (1.80 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/mL), antiradical, and metal ion-chelating activities (50% effective concentration (EC₅₀) of 2.47 mg/mL and 0.39 mg/mL, respectively). The stripped linseed oil, used as control (CO), was mixed with hemp extract (HO) or α-tocopherol (EO) at a ratio of 0.6% (w/w) and stored for 7 days in darkness at 40 °C. Hemp extract reduced the oxidation and lipolysis processes. At the end of the storage, HO showed a significantly higher level of α-linolenic acid (ALA; 26.64 g/100 g), lower peroxide value (PV) (21.19 meq O₂/kg oil), and lower hexanal content (7.67 mmol/kg oil) than those found in the control. In contrast, EO showed a marked lipolysis (the free fatty acids increased by 42.57%) and a noticeable oxidation, since the ALA content decreased by 2.10% and a PV of 50 meq O₂/kg oil was observed. This study demonstrates that hemp inflorescences can be used as a source of natural antioxidants in vegetable oils and lipid products to retard their oxidation, especially those characterized by a high degree of unsaturation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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15 pages, 1797 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radical Scavenging Activity of Olive Oil Phenolic Antioxidants in Oil or Water Phase during the Oxidation of O/W Emulsions: An Oxidomics Approach

by Vito Michele Paradiso, Federica Flamminii, Paola Pittia, Francesco Caponio and Carla Di Mattia

Antioxidants 2020, 9(10), 996; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9100996 - 15 Oct 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3404

Abstract

Omics approaches are recently being applied also in food lipid oxidation, to increase knowledge of oxidation and antioxidation mechanisms. The so-called oxidomics throws a wider spot of light on the complex patterns of reactions taking place in food lipids, especially in dispersed systems. This research aimed to investigate the radical scavenging activity of olive oil phenolic antioxidants (OPAs) in O/W emulsions, as affected by the phase in which they were added. This allowed one to assess whether different behaviors could be expected from antioxidants originally present in phenolic-rich olive oils compared to natural antioxidants added in the water phase during emulsion production. Hydroperoxide decomposition kinetics and the analysis of volatile pattern provided an outline of antioxidation mechanisms. Though being effective in slowing down oxidation when added both in the oil and water phase, OPAs interfered in different ways with oxidation pathways, based on the phase in which they were added. OPAs added to the water phase were more effective in slowing down hydroperoxide decomposition due to the hydrophilic radical initiator. On the other hand, OPAs present in the oil were more effective in preventing radical propagation, with relevant consequences on the volatile pattern. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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33 pages, 3625 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oxylipins Associated to Current Diseases Detected for the First Time in the Oxidation of Corn Oil as a Model System of Oils Rich in Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Groups. A Global, Broad and in-Depth Study by ¹H NMR Spectroscopy

by Jon Alberdi-Cedeño, María L. Ibargoitia and María D. Guillén

Antioxidants 2020, 9(6), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9060544 - 20 Jun 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3698

Abstract

For the first time, an important number of oxylipins have been identified and quantified in corn oil submitted to mild oxidative conditions at each time of their oxidation process. This oil can be considered as a model system of edible oils rich in polyunsaturated omega-6 groups. The study was carried out using ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H NMR), which does not require chemical modification of the sample. These newly detected oxylipins include dihydroperoxy-non-conjugated-dienes, hydroperoxy-epoxy-, hydroxy-epoxy- and keto-epoxy-monoenes as well as E-epoxy-monoenes, some of which have been associated with several diseases. Furthermore, the formation of other functional groups such as poly-formates, poly-hydroxy and poly-ether groups has also been proven. These are responsible for the polymerization and increased viscosity of the oil. Simultaneously, monitoring of the formation of well-known oxylipins, such as hydroperoxy-, hydroxy-, and keto-dienes, and of different kinds of oxygenated-alpha,beta-unsaturated aldehydes such as 4-hydroperoxy-, 4-hydroxy-, 4-oxo-2E-nonenal and 4,5-epoxy-2E-decenal, which are also related to different degenerative diseases, has been carried out. The provided data regarding the compounds identification and their sequence and kinetics of formation constitute valuable information for future studies in which lipid oxidation is involved, both in food and in other scientific fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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31 pages, 1219 KiB

Open AccessReview

Reduction of Nitrite in Meat Products through the Application of Various Plant-Based Ingredients

by Karolina Ferysiuk and Karolina M. Wójciak

Antioxidants 2020, 9(8), 711; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9080711 - 5 Aug 2020

Cited by 75 | Viewed by 11744

Abstract

Nitrite is the most commonly applied curing agent in the meat industry, and is known to affect human health. Nitrites impart a better flavor, taste and aroma; preserve the red-pinkish color of the meat; and prevent the risk of bacterial contamination of the cured meat, especially from Clostridium botulinum. Unfortunately, recent research has demonstrated some negative effects of this technique. Certain N-nitroso compounds have been shown to stimulate gastric cancer; therefore, most of the research groups are studying the effects of nitrates and nitrites. In this review, we discuss the various food sources of nitrites and nitrates and their current legal requirements for use in meat products. We also discuss the possible changes that might come up in the regulations, the concerns associated with nitrates and nitrites in meat products, and the use of plant-based nitrite and nitrate substitutes. All these topics will be considered with respect to ensuring a high level of microbiological protection, oxidative stability and acceptable sensory quality (color, taste and smell) in meat products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidants in Food)

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