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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "G: Energy and Buildings".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2020) | Viewed by 49930

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Constantinos A. Balaras

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Guest Editor

Group Energy Conservation, Institute for Environmental Research and Sustainable Development, National Observatory of Athens, 118 10 Athens, Greece
Interests: high performing buildings; sustainable cities; EUI baselines & benchmarks; environmental impact of buildings; embodied energy; indoor environmental quality; solar heating & cooling; energy audits-diagnosis; building renovations
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Special Issue Information

Dear colleagues,

Building energy audits are used to systematically collect and analyze relevant data for obtaining adequate knowledge on the energy use profile of a building or group of buildings (e.g., regional or national buildings stocks), in order to identify, quantify, prioritize, or rank cost-effective energy conservation and efficiency measures. They are also employed for the sustainability assessment of buildings, neighborhoods, cities, and regions. The findings can be used to diagnose existing problems, quantify and report on the opportunities and measures that improve the overall building performance and the environmental quality and well-being of occupants and residents, lower the operating costs for existing buildings, or verify that new projects are constructed, equipped, and operated according to higher energy and sustainability standards that meet the owner’s expectations and intent.

Topics of interest for this Special Issue include, but are not limited to:

methods and tools for building energy audits, surveys, diagnosis, inspections, assessment;
non-destructive testing, measuring, monitoring, and analysis of data;
energy efficiency and conservation measures;
calculation, measurement, and verification of energy savings;
model calibration, gap analysis;
energy performance contracts and certificates, risk analysis, and assessment;
benchmarking energy use intensity and breakdown for end uses,
financial assessment, cost analysis;
case studies and lessons learned from the field;
conservation and efficiency measures for retrofitting building stocks;
monitoring and assessing sustainable development at building or urban scale.

Dr. Constantinos A. Balaras
Guest Editor

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Keywords

building & HVAC energy audits, survey, diagnosis, inspections
energy performance
energy efficiency and conservation measures
implementation and verification
energy use and gap analysis, benchmarking
building stock modeling
building, urban, and city sustainability assessment

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 193 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Building Energy Audits—Diagnosis and Retrofitting towards Decarbonization and Sustainable Cities

by Constantinos A. Balaras

Energies 2022, 15(6), 2039; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15062039 - 10 Mar 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2554

Abstract

A collection of twelve papers published in Energies, in a Special Issue on “Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting”, was bound together and published in 2021, focusing on the built environment. The aim was to systematically collect and analyze relevant data for obtaining adequate knowledge on the energy use profile of buildings, and was extended for the sustainability assessment of the built environment. To date, all papers have been very well received, attaining a total of 97 citations and over 15,300 views. The papers addressed historic and various building types, baselines for non-residential buildings from energy performance audits and from in-situ measurements, monitoring and data analysis, assessment of indoor environmental quality, model calibration and verification of energy savings, along with an urban audit and rating method for assessing the sustainability of the built environment. Following on from the success of this Special Issue, the decision was made to reopen and extend it to include papers related to decarbonization and sustainability, at building, city, region, and national scales. This Editorial reviews the performance of the first Special Issue and outlines the second volume on Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting Towards Decarbonization and Sustainable Cities, as a Special Issue in Energies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

36 pages, 10093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Benchmarks for Embodied and Operational Energy Assessment of Hellenic Single-Family Houses

by Elena G. Dascalaki, Poulia A. Argiropoulou, Constantinos A. Balaras, Kalliopi G. Droutsa and Simon Kontoyiannidis

Energies 2020, 13(17), 4384; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13174384 - 25 Aug 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4974

Abstract

Building energy performance benchmarking increases awareness and enables stakeholders to make better informed decisions for designing, operating, and renovating sustainable buildings. In the era of nearly zero energy buildings, the embodied energy along with operational energy use are essential for evaluating the environmental impacts and building performance throughout their lifecycle. Key metrics and baselines for the embodied energy intensity in representative Hellenic houses are presented in this paper. The method is set up to progressively cover all types of buildings. The lifecycle analysis was performed using the well-established SimaPro software package and the EcoInvent lifecycle inventory database, complemented with national data from short energy audits carried out in Greece. The operational energy intensity was estimated using the national calculation engine for assessing the building’s energy performance and the predictions were adapted to obtain more realistic estimates. The sensitivity analysis for different type of buildings considered 16 case studies, accounting for representative construction practices, locations (climate conditions), system efficiencies, renovation practices, and lifetime of buildings. The results were used to quantify the relative significance of operational and embodied energy, and to estimate the energy recovery time for popular energy conservation and energy efficiency measures. The derived indicators reaffirm the importance of embodied energy in construction materials and systems for new high performing buildings and for renovating existing buildings to nearly zero energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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25 pages, 9245 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Examining the Impact of Daylighting and the Corresponding Lighting Controls to the Users of Office Buildings

by Lambros T. Doulos, Aris Tsangrassoulis, Evangelos-Nikolaos Madias, Spyros Niavis, Antonios Kontadakis, Panagiotis A. Kontaxis, Vassiliki T. Kontargyri, Katerina Skalkou, Frangiskos Topalis, Evangelos Manolis, Maro Sinou and Stelios Zerefos

Energies 2020, 13(15), 4024; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13154024 - 4 Aug 2020

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 3879

Abstract

Daylight utilization significantly contributes to energy savings in office buildings. However, daylight integration requires careful design so as to include variations in daylight availability and maintain a balance between factors such as lighting quality and heat gain or loss. Designers with proper planning can not only improve the visual environment and create higher-quality spaces, but simultaneously minimize energy costs for buildings. The utilization of photosensors can exploit the benefits of daylighting by dimming the lighting system, so that no excessive luminous flux is produced, thus leading to energy savings as well as visual contentment. However, the human factor is crucial for the proper function of a lighting control system. Without its acceptance from the users, energy savings can be minimized or even negligible. The objective of this paper is to present a post-occupancy evaluation regarding occupant satisfaction and acceptance in relation to daylighting in offices equipped with automated daylight controls. In addition, the response of the users was compared with lighting measurements that were performed during the post-occupancy evaluation. Three case studies of office buildings with installed daylight-harvesting systems were examined. The age of the occupants was a crucial factor concerning their satisfaction in relation to the lighting levels. Aged users were more comfortable with lighting levels over 500lx, while young users were satisfied with 300lx. The impact of different control algorithms was outlined, with the integral reset algorithm performing poorly. The acceptance of the users for the closed loop systems maintained the expected energy savings of the daylight harvesting technique. Most of the occupants preferred to use daylight as a light source combined with artificial light but having the control to either override or switch it on and off at will. The results shown that a post-occupancy survey along with lighting measurements are significant for making an office environment a humancentric one. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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22 pages, 16938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applied Research of the Hygrothermal Behaviour of an Internally Insulated Historic Wall without Vapour Barrier: In Situ Measurements and Dynamic Simulations

by Mirco Andreotti, Dario Bottino-Leone, Marta Calzolari, Pietromaria Davoli, Luisa Dias Pereira, Elena Lucchi and Alexandra Troi

Energies 2020, 13(13), 3362; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13133362 - 1 Jul 2020

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 3755

Abstract

The hygrothermal behaviour of an internally insulated historic wall is still hard to predict, mainly because the physical characteristics of the materials composing the historic wall are unknown. In this study, the hygrothermal assessment of an internally thermal insulated masonry wall of an historic palace located in Ferrara, in Italy, is shown. In situ non-destructive monitoring method is combined with a hygrothermal simulation tool, aiming to better analyse and discuss future refurbishment scenarios. In this context, the original U-value of the wall (not refurbished) is decreased from 1.44 W/m²K to 0.26 W/m²K (10 cm stone wool). Under the site specific conditions of this wall, not reached by the sun or rain, it was verified that even in the absence of vapour barrier, no frost damage is likely to occur and the condensation risk is very limited. Authors proposed further discussion based on simulation. The results showed that the introduction of a second gypsum board to the studied technology compensated such absence, while the reduction of the insulation material thickness provides a reduction of RH peaks in the interstitial area by 1%; this second solution proved to be more efficient, providing a 3% RH reduction and the avoidance of further thermal losses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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15 pages, 8489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human Comfort-Based-Home Energy Management for Demand Response Participation

by Herie Park

Energies 2020, 13(10), 2463; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13102463 - 14 May 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 2924

Abstract

The residential building sector is encouraged to participate in demand response (DR) programs owing to its flexible and effective energy resources during peak hours with the help of a home energy management system (HEMS). Although the HEMS contributes to reducing energy consumption of the building and the participation of occupants in energy saving programs, unwanted interruptions and strict guidance from the system cause inconvenience to the occupants further leading to their limited participation in the DR programs. This paper presents a human comfort-based control approach for home energy management to promote the DR participation of households. Heating and lighting systems were chosen to be controlled by human comfort factors such as thermal comfort and visual comfort. Case studies were conducted to validate the proposed approach. The results showed that the proposed approach could effectively reduce the energy consumption during the DR period and improve the occupants’ comfort. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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16 pages, 1285 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Effects of Retrofitting the Educational Facilities Located in South-Eastern Poland

by Anna Życzyńska, Zbigniew Suchorab, Jan Kočí and Robert Černý

Energies 2020, 13(10), 2449; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13102449 - 13 May 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2289

Abstract

One way to decrease the greenhouse gas emissions in the building sector is to improve the building energy performance, which can be mainly achieved by the reduction of energy consumption. In the case of the existing objects, this goal could be achieved by the thermo-modernization of the building partitions and equipment. This article concerns the issue of heat consumption for heating purposes after a comprehensive retrofitting of nine educational buildings (two kindergartens and seven schools) located in south-eastern Poland where both the total efficiency of the heating installation and the thermal insulation of building partitions were improved. The evaluation of the real energy effects was made on the basis of the measurements performed over the 8 year period of operation for each building. The obtained values were compared with the boundary values of the factors that were in force in Poland during the period when all of the buildings were retrofitted. Additionally, they were compared with the results of theoretical calculations included in the energy audits of the example of three objects and an attempt to describe the reasons for the discrepancies was made. All obtained results were discussed with the available literature sources and summarized with the suitable conclusions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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22 pages, 5816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measured and Simulated Energy Use in a Secondary School Building in Sweden—A Case Study of Validation, Airing, and Occupancy Behaviour

by Jessika Steen Englund, Mathias Cehlin, Jan Akander and Bahram Moshfegh

Energies 2020, 13(9), 2325; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13092325 - 7 May 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3461

Abstract

In this case study, the energy performance of a secondary school building from the 1960s in Gävle, Sweden, was modelled in the building energy simulation (BES) tool IDA ICE version 4.8 prior to major renovation planning. The objectives of the study were to validate the BES model during both occupied and unoccupied periods, investigate how to model airing and varying occupancy behaviour, and finally investigate energy use to identify potential energy-efficiency measures. The BES model was validated by using field measurements and evidence-based input. Thermal bridges, infiltration, mechanical ventilation, domestic hot water circulation losses, and space heating power were calculated and measured. A backcasting method was developed to model heat losses due to airing, opening windows and doors, and other occupancy behaviour through regression analysis between daily heat power and outdoor temperature. Validation results show good agreement: 3.4% discrepancy between space heating measurements and simulations during an unoccupied week. Corresponding monthly discrepancy varied between 5.5% and 10.6% during three months with occupants. Annual simulation indicates that the best potential renovation measures are changing to efficient windows, improved envelope airtightness, new controls of the HVAC system, and increased external wall thermal insulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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29 pages, 3878 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Baselines for Energy Use and Carbon Emission Intensities in Hellenic Nonresidential Buildings

by Kalliopi G. Droutsa, Constantinos A. Balaras, Spyridon Lykoudis, Simon Kontoyiannidis, Elena G. Dascalaki and Athanassios A. Argiriou

Energies 2020, 13(8), 2100; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13082100 - 23 Apr 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4125

Abstract

This work exploits data from 30,000 energy performance certificates of whole nonresidential (NR) buildings in Greece. The available information is analyzed for 30 different NR building uses (e.g., hotels, schools, sports facilities, hospitals, retails, offices) and four main services (space heating, space cooling, domestic hot water and lighting). Data are screened in order to exclude outliers and checked for consistency with the Hellenic NR building stock. The average energy use and CO₂ emission intensities for all building uses are calculated, as well as the respective energy ratings in order to gain a better understanding of the NR sector. Finally, in an attempt to determine whether these values are representative for the various Hellenic NR building uses, their temporal evolution is investigated. The average primary energy use intensity is 448.0 kWh/m² for all NR buildings, while the CO₂ emissions reach 147.5 kgCO₂/m². The derived energy baselines reveal that indoor sports halls/swimming pools have the highest energy use, while private cram schools/conservatories have the lowest, due to their operational patterns. Generally, from the four services taken into account, lighting is the most energy consuming, followed by cooling, heating and finally domestic hot water. For a total of 11 building uses, more data from the certificates will be necessary for deriving representative baselines, but, when it comes to buildings categories, more data are required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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25 pages, 2700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mainstreaming Energy Communities in the Transition to a Low-Carbon Future: A Methodological Approach

by Sara Torabi Moghadam, Maria Valentina Di Nicoli, Santiago Manzo and Patrizia Lombardi

Energies 2020, 13(7), 1597; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13071597 - 1 Apr 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3611

Abstract

Innovations in technical, financial, and social areas are crucial prerequisites for an effective and sustainable energy transition. In this context, the construction of a new energy structure and the motivation of the consumer towards a change in their consumption behaviours to balance demand with a volatile energy supply are important issues. At the same time, Consumer Stock Ownership Plans (CSOPs) in renewable energies sources (RESs) have proven to be an essential cornerstone in the overall success of energy transition. Indeed, when consumers acquire ownership in RES, they become prosumers, participating in the phase of production and distribution of energy. Prosumers provide benefits by (1) generating a part of the energy they consume, (2) reducing their overall expenditure for energy, and (3) receiving a second source of income from the sale of excess production. Supporting Consumer Co-Ownership in Renewable Energies (SCORE) is an ongoing Horizon 2020 project with the aim of overcoming the usage of energy from fossil sources in favour of RES, promoting the creation of energy communities (EC) and facilitating co-ownership of renewable energies (RE) for consumers. SCORE hereby particularly emphasises the inclusion of women, low-income households, and vulnerable groups affected by fuel poverty that are as a rule excluded from RE investments. In this framework, the main goal of the present study is to illustrate the general procedure and process of EC creation. In particular, this paper focuses on the description of the methodological approach in implementing the CSOP model which consists of three main phases: the identification and description of selected buildings (preparation phase), the preliminary and feasibility analysis phase, and finally the phase of target group involvement. SCORE first started in three pilot regions in Italy, Czech Republic, and Poland, and later, with the aim of extending the methodology, in various other cities across Europe. In this study, Italian pilot study sites were chosen as a case study to develop and test the methodology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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14 pages, 4532 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Moisture Influence on the Thermal Operation of the Late 19th Century Brick Facade, in a Historic Building in the City of Zamora

by Alejandro Cabeza-Prieto, María Soledad Camino-Olea, María Ascensión Rodríguez-Esteban, Alfredo Llorente-Álvarez and María Paz Sáez Pérez

Energies 2020, 13(6), 1307; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13061307 - 11 Mar 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2580

Abstract

To improve the energy performance of restored cultural heritage buildings, it is necessary to know the real values of thermal conductivity of its envelope, mainly of the facades, and to study an intervention strategy that does not interfere with the preservation of their cultural and architectural values. The brick walls with which a large number of these buildings were constructed, usually absorb water, leading to their deterioration, whereas the heat transmission through them is much higher (than when they are dry). This aspect is often not taken into account when making interventions to improve the energy efficiency of these buildings, which makes them ineffective. This article presents the results of an investigation that analyzes thermal behavior buildings of the early 20^th century in the city of Zamora, Spain. It has been concluded that avoiding moisture in brick walls not only prevents its deterioration but represents a significant energy saving, especially in buildings that have porous brick masonry walls and with significant thicknesses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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36 pages, 3611 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Urban Sustainability Audits and Ratings of the Built Environment

by Constantinos A. Balaras, Kalliopi G. Droutsa, Elena G. Dascalaki, Simon Kontoyiannidis, Andrea Moro and Elena Bazzan

Energies 2019, 12(22), 4243; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12224243 - 7 Nov 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6154

Abstract

Buildings and the built environment in cities are seen as both a source of, and solution to, today’s economic, environmental and social challenges. The audit process to collect data and rate their sustainability levels is a demanding process given the complexity of the issues involved. Stakeholders often lack advanced knowledge on the sustainability issues involved, access to practical tools that match the local priorities and the overall resources to diagnose and evaluate the current state, analyse, assess and rank different scenarios, and monitor implementation and progress towards meeting sustainable development goals and local priorities. A new multicriteria European built environment assessment method that is supported by practical tools was developed in a transnational collaborative effort to support the assessment, planning, monitoring and overall decision-making process for rating the sustainability at the building or neighbourhood scale. The assessment system addresses the main sustainability issues (e.g., site and infrastructure, urban systems, energy and natural resources, emissions and environment, service quality, social aspects, economy), which are described and quantified with an “exhaustive” list of ~180 sustainability criteria and indicators, and a manageable number of common mandatory key performance indicators. The assessment system can satisfy the public administrations’ needs for being easy to use, open access, flexible and adaptable tools in order to facilitate their efforts for developing effective sustainability plans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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23 pages, 9433 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Primary Factors Affecting Electricity Consumption in Non-Residential Buildings Using a Data-Driven Approach

by Sooyoun Cho, Jeehang Lee, Jumi Baek, Gi-Seok Kim and Seung-Bok Leigh

Energies 2019, 12(21), 4046; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12214046 - 24 Oct 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3095

Abstract

Although the latest energy-efficient buildings use a large number of sensors and measuring instruments to predict consumption more accurately, it is generally not possible to identify which data are the most valuable or key for analysis among the tens of thousands of data points. This study selected the electric energy as a subset of total building energy consumption because it accounts for more than 65% of the total building energy consumption, and identified the variables that contribute to electric energy use. However, this study aimed to confirm data from a building using clustering in machine learning, instead of a calculation method from engineering simulation, to examine the variables that were identified and determine whether these variables had a strong correlation with energy consumption. Three different methods confirmed that the major variables related to electric energy consumption were significant. This research has significance because it was able to identify the factors in electric energy, accounting for more than half of the total building energy consumption, that had a major effect on energy consumption and revealed that these key variables alone, not the default values of many different items in simulation analysis, can ensure the reliable prediction of energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

17 pages, 6308 KiB

Open AccessReview

Evaluation of School Building Energy Performance and Classroom Indoor Environment

by Jitka Mohelníková, Miloslav Novotný and Pavla Mocová

Energies 2020, 13(10), 2489; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13102489 - 15 May 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4662

Abstract

Existing building stock represents potential for energy saving renovations. Energy savings and indoor climate comfort are key demands for sustainable building refurbishment. Especially in schools, indoor comfort is an extremely important issue. A case study of energy consumption in selected school buildings in temperate climatic conditions of Central Europe region was performed. The studied buildings are representatives of various school premises constructed throughout the last century. The evaluation was based on data analysis of energy audits. The goal was aimed at assessment of the school building envelopes and their influence on energy consumption. One of the studied schools was selected for detailed evaluation. The school classroom was monitored for indoor thermal and visual environments. The monitoring was performed to compare the current state and renovation scenarios. Results of the evaluation show that the school buildings are highly inefficient even if renovated. Indoor climate in classrooms is largely influenced by windows. Solar gains affect interior thermal stability and daylighting. Thermal insulation quality of building envelopes and efficient solar shading systems appear to be fundamental tasks of school renovation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Audits-Diagnosis and Retrofitting)

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