Energies

2024

Jump to: 2023, 2022, 2021

16 pages, 3945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Testing the Stability of NASICON Solid Electrolyte in Seawater Batteries

by Mihaela Iordache, Anisoara Oubraham, Simona Borta, George Ungureanu and Adriana Marinoiu

Energies 2024, 17(21), 5241; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17215241 - 22 Oct 2024

Viewed by 625

Abstract

Rechargeable batteries play a crucial role in the utilization of renewable energy sources. Energy storage systems (ESSs) are designed to store renewable energy efficiently for immediate use. The market for energy storage systems heavily relies on lithium-ion batteries due to their high energy [...] Read more.

Rechargeable batteries play a crucial role in the utilization of renewable energy sources. Energy storage systems (ESSs) are designed to store renewable energy efficiently for immediate use. The market for energy storage systems heavily relies on lithium-ion batteries due to their high energy density, capacity, and competitiveness. However, the increasing cost and limited availability of lithium make long-term use challenging. As an alternative to Li-ion batteries, rechargeable seawater batteries are gaining attention due to their abundant and complementary sodium ion active materials. This study focuses on the preparation and characterization of Na_3.0Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂- and Na_3.15Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂-type ceramic membranes and testing their stability in seawater batteries used as solid electrolyte. From the surface analysis, it was observed that the Na_3.15Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂ powder showed a specific surface area of 2.94 m²/g compared to 2.69 m²/g for the Na_3.0Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂ powder. The measured NASICON samples achieved ionic conductivities between 7.42 × 10⁻⁵ and 4.4 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm compared to the NASICON commercial membrane with an ionic conductivity of 3.9 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm. Battery testing involved charging/discharging at various constant current values (0.6–2.0 mA), using Pt/C as the catalyst and seawater as the catholyte. Full article

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21 pages, 739 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zero-Trust Zero-Communication Defence against Hybrid Cyberattacks in Distributed Energy Resources Using Mean Field Reinforcement Leaning

by Zejian Zhou, Dongliang Duan and Hao Xu

Energies 2024, 17(20), 5057; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17205057 - 11 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1055

Abstract

As the evolution of smart grids accelerates, distributed energy resources (DERs) emerge as key elements in the transformation of global energy systems. However, the integration of these technologies introduces significant cybersecurity vulnerabilities, notably false data injection (FDI) and a direct load-altering attack (DLAA). [...] Read more.

As the evolution of smart grids accelerates, distributed energy resources (DERs) emerge as key elements in the transformation of global energy systems. However, the integration of these technologies introduces significant cybersecurity vulnerabilities, notably false data injection (FDI) and a direct load-altering attack (DLAA). Traditional load-altering attacks require a huge attack load and, thus, are not practical to implement. In contrast, in modern DER environments where households become “prosumers” with high-power energy generation, the implications of such attacks are substantially amplified. This paper considers a hybrid cyberattack that includes both FDI and a DLAA, and presents a hierarchical, optimal load adjustment framework that addresses these security concerns. A centralized optimizer first calculates the ideal load-shedding strategies for each substation, which are then securely broadcast to households. To address the complexities at the individual household level, we introduce a novel reinforcement learning algorithm termed Mean Field Deep Deterministic Policy Gradients (MF-DDPG). This algorithm employs mean-field game theory to enable decentrally coordinated decision-making among each household, making it particularly effective in zero-trust scenarios. Through this multifaceted approach, we offer a robust countermeasure against load-altering attacks, thereby enhancing the resilience and stability of advanced smart grids. Full article

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22 pages, 8885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Operational Reliability of Different Types of Switching Substations Using the Monte Carlo Method

by Franjo Pranjić and Peter Virtič

Energies 2024, 17(13), 3142; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17133142 - 26 Jun 2024

Viewed by 958

Abstract

This study investigates the operational reliability of different types of switching substations within the context of power systems, employing the Monte Carlo method for analysis. The research focuses on evaluating the reliability of high-voltage substations, including single-busbar systems, double-busbar systems, and switchgears with [...] Read more.

This study investigates the operational reliability of different types of switching substations within the context of power systems, employing the Monte Carlo method for analysis. The research focuses on evaluating the reliability of high-voltage substations, including single-busbar systems, double-busbar systems, and switchgears with a ring-type power supply. By conducting simulations and analyzing statistical data on device reliability, the study aims to identify the most reliable implementation of switching substations. The results are presented through graphical representations and comparative tables, highlighting the impact of factors such as the number of switching elements and their connection on operational reliability. The findings indicate that configurations with a greater number of busbars and a parallel connection of switching elements exhibit higher operational reliability. The study provides insights to inform decision-making in the construction of new switching substations, emphasizing the importance of stable operation within power systems. Full article

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18 pages, 1857 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applying the Integral Controllability Property in a Multi-Loop Control for Stable Voltage Regulation in an Active Distribution Network

by Giuseppe Fusco and Mario Russo

Energies 2024, 17(11), 2455; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112455 - 21 May 2024

Viewed by 940

Abstract

Distributed Energies Resources (DERs) can be controlled for supporting the voltage regulation at nodes of an Active Distribution Network (ADN) where they are connected. However, since the ADN is a Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) system with coupled dynamics, the controller of a DER mutually [...] Read more.

Distributed Energies Resources (DERs) can be controlled for supporting the voltage regulation at nodes of an Active Distribution Network (ADN) where they are connected. However, since the ADN is a Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) system with coupled dynamics, the controller of a DER mutually interacts with all other controllers through the distribution lines. These interactions lead to operating conflicts which may drive the ADN to work close to its voltage stability boundaries. To achieve a stable voltage regulation without new investment in the existing ADNs, the present paper proposes a straightforward decentralized design of the multi-loop controllers based on the property of integral controllability. The main feature of the method is that the design problem can be expressed by a single parameter designed both for reducing the effects of the undesired coupling and for increasing the degree of robust stability in the presence of parameter uncertainty in the matrix plant. Simulation studies are developed to illustrate the design result and the performance achieved under different operating conditions. The performance is also compared with the one obtained by another method in terms of the integral absolute error. Full article

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17 pages, 7586 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Simulation Studies on Stable Polarity Reversal in Aged HVDC Mass-Impregnated Cables

by Sun-Jin Kim, Seol Lee, Woo-Sung Choi and Bang-Wook Lee

Energies 2024, 17(10), 2352; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17102352 - 13 May 2024

Viewed by 859

Abstract

Mass-impregnated (MI) cables have been used for many years as cables in high-voltage direct current (HVDC) systems. In line commutated converter (LCC) HVDC systems, polarity reversal for power flow control can induce significant electrical stress on MI cables. Furthermore, the mass oil and [...] Read more.

Mass-impregnated (MI) cables have been used for many years as cables in high-voltage direct current (HVDC) systems. In line commutated converter (LCC) HVDC systems, polarity reversal for power flow control can induce significant electrical stress on MI cables. Furthermore, the mass oil and kraft paper comprising the impregnated insulation have significantly different coefficients of thermal expansion. Load fluctuations in the cable lead to expansion and contraction of the mass, creating pressure within the insulation and causing redistribution of the impregnant. During this process, shrinkage cavities can form within the butt gaps. Since the dielectric strength of the cavities is lower than that of the surrounding impregnation, cavitation phenomena in impregnated paper insulation are considered a factor in degrading insulation performance. Consequently, this study analyzes the electrical conductivity of thermally aged materials and investigates the transient electric field characteristics within the cable. Additionally, it closely analyzes the formation and dissolution of cavities in MI cables during polarity reversal based on a numerical model of pressure behavior in porous media. The conductivity of the impregnated paper indicates that it has excellent resistance to thermal degradation. Simulation results for various load conditions highlight that the interval of load-off time and the magnitude of internal pressure significantly influence the cavitation phenomenon. Lastly, the study proposes stable system operation methods to prevent cavitation in MI cables. Full article

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23 pages, 10457 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Small-Scale Battery Energy Storage System for Testing Algorithms Aimed at Peak Power Reduction

by Krzysztof Sozański, Szymon Wermiński and Jacek Kaniewski

Energies 2024, 17(9), 2217; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17092217 - 4 May 2024

Viewed by 1341

Abstract

This study describes a laboratory model of a battery energy storage system (BESS) designed for testing algorithms aimed at reducing peak power consumption in railway traction substations. The system comprises a DC/DC converter and battery energy storage. This article details a laboratory model [...] Read more.

This study describes a laboratory model of a battery energy storage system (BESS) designed for testing algorithms aimed at reducing peak power consumption in railway traction substations. The system comprises a DC/DC converter and battery energy storage. This article details a laboratory model of a bidirectional buck-boost DC/DC converter, which is used to transfer energy between the battery energy storage and a DC line. It presents an analysis of DC/DC converter systems along with simulation studies. Furthermore, the results of laboratory tests on the DC/DC converter model are also provided. The control algorithm of the system in the traction substation is focused on reducing peak power, offering benefits such as lower charges for the railway operator due to the possibility of reducing contracted power requirements. From the perspective of the power grid, the reduction in power fluctuations and, consequently, voltage sags, is advantageous. This paper includes a description of a hardware simulator for verifying the system’s control algorithms. The verification of the control algorithms was performed through experimental tests conducted on a laboratory model (a hardware simulator) of the system for dynamic load reduction in traction substations, on a power scale of 1:1000 (5.5 kW). The experimental tests on the laboratory model (hardware simulator) demonstrated the effectiveness of the algorithm in reducing the peak power drawn from the power source. Full article

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23 pages, 2981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Influence of Insulation Moisture during Long-Term Exploitation of Transformers on Their Reliability as Determined by Alternating Current Electrical Parameters

by Pawel Zukowski, Konrad Kierczynski, Przemyslaw Rogalski, Vitalii Bondariev, Marek Zenker, Rafal Pajak, Marek Szrot, Pawel Molenda and Tomasz N. Koltunowicz

Energies 2024, 17(8), 1952; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17081952 - 19 Apr 2024

Viewed by 940

Abstract

This paper presents the results of the study of the direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) electrical properties of an electrical pressboard–bio-insulating oil–water composite in a wide range of water content and temperatures used in electric power transformers. These parameters allow the [...] Read more.

This paper presents the results of the study of the direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) electrical properties of an electrical pressboard–bio-insulating oil–water composite in a wide range of water content and temperatures used in electric power transformers. These parameters allow the level of insulation reliability to be determined after many years of operation of power transformers. To analyse the experimental results, a model of the DC and AC conductivities of nanocomposites based on the quantum-mechanical phenomenon of electron tunnelling was used. It was found that in a low-frequency region, the conductivities of AC and DC and their activation energy are equal. The relaxation times of AC conductivity and permittivity are also equal. It was found that the dependence of the DC conductivity on the distance between water molecules is an exponential function. On the basis of the model of conductivity by electron tunnelling between potential wells, the average number of water molecules in a nanodroplet, located in a composite of electrical pressboard–bio-insulating oil–moisture was determined to be (126 ± 20). It was found that the measured dependencies of DC and AC conductivity, permeability and dielectric relaxation times are consistent with the results of computer simulations performed on the basis of the model. This study showed that the composite of pressboard impregnated with bio-oil spontaneously transforms through water absorption into a pressboard–bio-oil–water nanocomposite. These will serve as the basis for the application of actual conductivity and dielectric relaxation mechanisms to improve the accuracy of moisture estimation in the solid component of power transformer insulation carried out on the basis of measurements of DC and AC properties. This will improve the operational safety of the transformers, minimise the occurrence of transformer failure and the associated environmental pollution. Full article

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14 pages, 2912 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Short-Circuit Ratio on Control Parameter Settings of DFIG Wind Turbines

by Joaquín Pedra, Luis Sainz and Lluís Monjo

Energies 2024, 17(8), 1825; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17081825 - 11 Apr 2024

Viewed by 933

Abstract

This work deals with doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) modeling and stability when connected to weak AC grids. A detailed state-space model that includes the phase-locked loop (PLL) is developed. This work aims to determine the influence of the network’s strength on DFIG [...] Read more.

This work deals with doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) modeling and stability when connected to weak AC grids. A detailed state-space model that includes the phase-locked loop (PLL) is developed. This work aims to determine the influence of the network’s strength on DFIG stability through the short-circuit ratio (SCR). The critical values of the proportional control parameters of the grid-side and rotor-side converters (RSC and GSC), as well as PLL, which make the system unstable, are calculated for different SCR values. Finally, PSCAD/EMTDC dynamic simulations are used to validate the critical control parameters obtained by studying the eigenvalues of the DFIG state-space model regarding system stability. Full article

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19 pages, 4725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Approach for Validation of a Directional Overcurrent Protection Scheme in a Ring Distribution Network with Integration of Distributed Energy Resources Using Digital Twins

by Eduardo Gómez-Luna, Jorge De La Cruz and Juan C. Vasquez

Energies 2024, 17(7), 1677; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17071677 - 1 Apr 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1083

Abstract

This article introduces a new approach for validating directional overcurrent protection schemes in ring-topology electrical distribution systems with distributed energy resources (DERs). The proposed protection scheme incorporates overcurrent and directional functions and addresses DER-induced challenges such as variable short circuit levels. This study [...] Read more.

This article introduces a new approach for validating directional overcurrent protection schemes in ring-topology electrical distribution systems with distributed energy resources (DERs). The proposed protection scheme incorporates overcurrent and directional functions and addresses DER-induced challenges such as variable short circuit levels. This study employs real-time and offline simulations to evaluate the performance of the protection coordination scheme using a digital twin under DER-supplied loads. The utilization of digital twins offers the possibility to simulate different scenarios, providing real-time responses to dynamic changes and allowing for informed decision-making in response to disturbances or faults. This study aims to present a new approach to validate the performance of the proposed protection scheme when the load is entirely supplied by DERs, highlighting issues such as false trips and protection system blindness resulting from changes in short circuit currents. The results show a breakdown in the coordination of the protection scheme during the fault conditions, demonstrating the effectiveness of digital twins in validating the protection scheme’s performance. Performing an analysis in the electromagnetic transient (EMT) domain improves the validation and refines the results. Full article

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2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021

29 pages, 3065 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Solar Power Scenario Generation Methods with Focus on Weather Classifications, Temporal Horizons, and Deep Generative Models

by Markos A. Kousounadis-Knousen, Ioannis K. Bazionis, Athina P. Georgilaki, Francky Catthoor and Pavlos S. Georgilakis

Energies 2023, 16(15), 5600; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155600 - 25 Jul 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2166

Abstract

Scenario generation has attracted wide attention in recent years owing to the high penetration of uncertainty sources in modern power systems and the introduction of stochastic optimization for handling decision-making problems. These include unit commitment, optimal bidding, online supply–demand management, and long-term planning [...] Read more.

Scenario generation has attracted wide attention in recent years owing to the high penetration of uncertainty sources in modern power systems and the introduction of stochastic optimization for handling decision-making problems. These include unit commitment, optimal bidding, online supply–demand management, and long-term planning of integrated renewable energy systems. Simultaneously, the installed capacity of solar power is increasing due to its availability and periodical characteristics, as well as the flexibility and cost reduction of photovoltaic (PV) technologies. This paper evaluates scenario generation methods in the context of solar power and highlights their advantages and limitations. Furthermore, it introduces taxonomies based on weather classification techniques and temporal horizons. Fine-grained weather classifications can significantly improve the overall quality of the generated scenario sets. The performance of different scenario generation methods is strongly related to the temporal horizon of the target domain. This paper also conducts a systematic review of the currently trending deep generative models to assess introduced improvements, as well as to identify their limitations. Finally, several research directions are proposed based on the findings and drawn conclusions to address current challenges and adapt to future advancements in modern power systems. Full article

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19 pages, 447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Recursive Conic Approximation for Solving the Optimal Power Flow Problem in Bipolar Direct Current Grids

by Oscar Danilo Montoya, Luis Fernando Grisales-Noreña and Jesús C. Hernández

Energies 2023, 16(4), 1729; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041729 - 9 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1481

Abstract

This paper proposes a recursive conic approximation methodology to deal with the optimal power flow (OPF) problem in unbalanced bipolar DC networks. The OPF problem is formulated through a nonlinear programming (NLP) representation, where the objective function corresponds to the minimization of the [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a recursive conic approximation methodology to deal with the optimal power flow (OPF) problem in unbalanced bipolar DC networks. The OPF problem is formulated through a nonlinear programming (NLP) representation, where the objective function corresponds to the minimization of the expected grid power losses for a particular load scenario. The NLP formulation has a non-convex structure due to the hyperbolic equality constraints that define the current injection/absorption in the constant power terminals as a function of the powers and voltages. To obtain an approximate convex model that represents the OPF problem in bipolar asymmetric distribution networks, the conic relation associated with the product of two positive variables is applied to all nodes with constant power loads. In the case of nodes with dispersed generation, a direct replacement of the voltage variables for their expected operating point is used. An iterative solution procedure is implemented in order to minimize the error introduced by the voltage linearization in the dispersed generation sources. The 21-bus grid is employed for all numerical validations. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed conic model, the power flow problem is solved, considering that the neutral wire is floating and grounded, and obtaining the same numerical results as the traditional power flow methods (successive approximations, triangular-based, and Taylor-based approaches): expected power losses of 95.4237 and 91.2701 kW, respectively. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed convex model for solving the OPF problem, three combinatorial optimization methods are implemented: the sine-cosine algorithm (SCA), the black-hole optimizer (BHO), and the vortex search algorithm (VSA). Numerical results show that the proposed convex model finds the global optimal solution with a value of 22.985 kW, followed by the VSA with a value of 22.986 kW. At the same time, the BHO and SCA are stuck in locally optimal solutions (23.066 and 23.054 kW, respectively). All simulations were carried out in a MATLAB programming environment. Full article

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14 pages, 376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Day-Ahead Dispatch of Photovoltaic Sources in Monopolar DC Networks via an Iterative Convex Approximation

by Oscar Danilo Montoya, Luis Fernando Grisales-Noreña and Jesús C. Hernández

Energies 2023, 16(3), 1105; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031105 - 19 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1182

Abstract

The objective of this research is to propose an efficient energy management system for photovoltaic (PV) generation units connected to monopolar DC distribution networks via convex optimization while considering a day-ahead dispatch operation scenario. A convex approximation is used which is based on [...] Read more.

The objective of this research is to propose an efficient energy management system for photovoltaic (PV) generation units connected to monopolar DC distribution networks via convex optimization while considering a day-ahead dispatch operation scenario. A convex approximation is used which is based on linearization via Taylor’s series expansion to the hyperbolic relations between voltages and powers in the demand nodes. A recursive solution methodology is introduced via sequential convex programming to minimize the errors introduced by the linear approximation in the power balance constraints. Numerical results in the DC version of the IEEE 33-bus grid demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed convex model when compared to different combinatorial optimization methods, with the main advantage that the optimal global solution is found thanks to the convexity of the solution space and the reduction of the error via an iterative solution approach. Different objective functions are analyzed to validate the effectiveness of the proposed iterative convex methodology (ICM), which corresponds to technical (energy losses reduction), economic (energy purchasing and maintenance costs), and environmental (equivalent emissions of CO

_{2}

to the atmosphere in conventional sources) factors. The proposed ICM finds reductions of about

43.9754 %

in daily energy losses,

26.9957 %

in energy purchasing and operating costs, and

27.3771 %

in CO

_{2}

emissions when compared to the benchmark case in the DC version of the IEEE 33-bus grid. All numerical validations were carried out in the MATLAB programming environment using the SEDUMI and SDPT3 tools for convex programming and our own scripts for metaheuristic methods. Full article

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17 pages, 320 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Power Flow Solution for Bipolar DC Networks Using a Recursive Quadratic Approximation

by Oscar Danilo Montoya, Walter Gil-González and Jesus C. Hernández

Energies 2023, 16(2), 589; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020589 - 4 Jan 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 1487

Abstract

The problem regarding of optimal power flow in bipolar DC networks is addressed in this paper from the recursive programming stand of view. A hyperbolic relationship between constant power terminals and voltage profiles is used to resolve the optimal power flow in bipolar [...] Read more.

The problem regarding of optimal power flow in bipolar DC networks is addressed in this paper from the recursive programming stand of view. A hyperbolic relationship between constant power terminals and voltage profiles is used to resolve the optimal power flow in bipolar DC networks. The proposed approximation is based on the Taylors’ Taylor series expansion. In addition, nonlinear relationships between dispersed generators and voltage profiles are relaxed based on the small voltage voltage-magnitude variations in contrast with power output. The resulting optimization model transforms the exact nonlinear non-convex formulation into a quadratic convex approximation. The main advantage of the quadratic convex reformulation lies in finding the optimum global via recursive programming, which adjusts the point until the desired convergence is reached. Two test feeders composed of 21 and 33 buses are employed for all the numerical validations. The effectiveness of the proposed recursive convex model is verified through the implementation of different metaheuristic algorithms. All the simulations are carried out in the MATLAB programming environment using the convex disciplined tool known as CVX with the SEDUMI and SDPT3 solvers. Full article

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2022

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2021

16 pages, 4442 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Real-Time Fault-Tolerant Control Approach to Ensure the Resiliency of a Self-Healing Multilevel Converter

by Sajjad Ahmadi, Philippe Poure, Davood Arab Khaburi and Shahrokh Saadate

Energies 2022, 15(13), 4721; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15134721 - 28 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1649

Abstract

Ensuring service continuity in safety critical applications is crucial. In some of these applications, multilevel converters play a vital role. In this regard, this research work presents a self-healing fault-tolerant control approach to ensure the resiliency of a neutral-point clamped converter when a [...] Read more.

Ensuring service continuity in safety critical applications is crucial. In some of these applications, multilevel converters play a vital role. In this regard, this research work presents a self-healing fault-tolerant control approach to ensure the resiliency of a neutral-point clamped converter when a semiconductor component encounters an open circuit fault. The defective semiconductor can be a power switch or a clamping diode. By applying the proposed real-time fault-tolerance control, the rated output voltage and output current are restored during post-fault operation. Furthermore, the total harmonic distortion value of the output voltage during application of the real time self-healing control does not increase when compared with that during healthy operation. Since the realization of the proposed control strategy does not require any bidirectional switch, a fast transition between the healthy and fault-tolerant operation is accomplished. Moreover, the proposed structure can ensure service continuity in case of a fault event in the anti-parallel diodes, something which has been overlooked in previously conducted research works. Full article

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23 pages, 4356 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Scalable IoT Architecture for Monitoring IEQ Conditions in Public and Private Buildings

by Isidro Calvo, Aitana Espin, Jose Miguel Gil-García, Pablo Fernández Bustamante, Oscar Barambones and Estibaliz Apiñaniz

Energies 2022, 15(6), 2270; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15062270 - 21 Mar 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4297

Abstract

This paper presents a scalable IoT architecture based on the edge–fog–cloud paradigm for monitoring the Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) parameters in public buildings. Nowadays, IEQ monitoring systems are becoming important for several reasons: (1) to ensure that temperature and humidity conditions are adequate, [...] Read more.

This paper presents a scalable IoT architecture based on the edge–fog–cloud paradigm for monitoring the Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) parameters in public buildings. Nowadays, IEQ monitoring systems are becoming important for several reasons: (1) to ensure that temperature and humidity conditions are adequate, improving the comfort and productivity of the occupants; (2) to introduce actions to reduce energy consumption, contributing to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG); and (3) to guarantee the quality of the air—a key concern due to the COVID-19 worldwide pandemic. Two kinds of nodes compose the proposed architecture; these are the so-called: (1) smart IEQ sensor nodes, responsible for acquiring indoor environmental measures locally, and (2) the IEQ concentrators, responsible for collecting the data from smart sensor nodes distributed along the facilities. The IEQ concentrators are also responsible for configuring the acquisition system locally, logging the acquired local data, analyzing the information, and connecting to cloud applications. The presented architecture has been designed using low-cost open-source hardware and software—specifically, single board computers and microcontrollers such as Raspberry Pis and Arduino boards. WiFi and TCP/IP communication technologies were selected, since they are typically available in corporative buildings, benefiting from already available communication infrastructures. The application layer was implemented with MQTT. A prototype was built and deployed at the Faculty of Engineering of Vitoria-Gasteiz, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), using the existing network infrastructure. This prototype allowed for collecting data within different academic scenarios. Finally, a smart sensor node was designed including low-cost sensors to measure temperature, humidity, eCO₂, and VOC. Full article

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20 pages, 3358 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Investigation and Cogging Torque Reduction in a Novel Modular Stator PM Flux Reversal Machine

by Surat Khan, Abdin Pasund, Naseer Ahmad, Shoaib Ahmed, Hamid Ali Khan, Khalid Mehmood Cheema and Ahmad H. Milyani

Energies 2022, 15(6), 2261; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15062261 - 19 Mar 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2570

Abstract

In this research paper, various performances of five different rotor pole topologies of the proposed novel modular stator (MS) permanent magnet (PM) flux reversal machine were investigated. The proposed design had concentrated, non-overlapping winding, which offered high average torque capability at a wide [...] Read more.

In this research paper, various performances of five different rotor pole topologies of the proposed novel modular stator (MS) permanent magnet (PM) flux reversal machine were investigated. The proposed design had concentrated, non-overlapping winding, which offered high average torque capability at a wide speed range. The no-load performances such as coil test analysis, three-phase flux linkage, flux distribution, back-EMF, and cogging torque, and load analysis, such as average torque versus current density, instantaneous torque, and average electromagnetic torque, were compared. The PM modular stator machine had high cogging torque, which created vibration and noise in the machine. Different cogging torque reduction techniques, such as notching, arc, flange and hybrid technique arc flange, arc notch, notch flange, and arc notch flange, were applied to reduce the cogging torque, improve average load torque, and reduce the induced voltage, harmonics, and torque ripples. The maximum cogging torque decreased by 87.66% and 82% when the arc notch flange and notch arc techniques were applied, respectively, and the minimum effect on cogging torque by the flange technique was 20.66%. Furthermore, the arc flange technique reduced the average torque by 66.72%. The maximum induced voltage was reduced by up to 12.83% using the notch arc technique. The hybrid technique of arc notch flange reduced the harmonics content in flux by 40% and enhanced electromagnetic performance. When applying the hybrid arc notch flange technique, torque ripples were reduced to 90.11%. Full article

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25 pages, 6893 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Solar Energy in Chile: Residential Opportunities in Arica and Parinacota

by Claudia Moraga-Contreras, Lorena Cornejo-Ponce, Patricia Vilca-Salinas, Edgar Estupiñan, Alejandro Zuñiga, Rodrigo Palma-Behnke and Héctor Tapia-Caroca

Energies 2022, 15(2), 551; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020551 - 13 Jan 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3805

Abstract

Chile has set itself to achieve Greenhouse Gas emission neutrality, with at least 70% of electricity coming from renewable energy sources by 2050. To this end, institutional and regulatory frameworks have been improved, resulting in significant progress in medium and large-scale projects. However, [...] Read more.

Chile has set itself to achieve Greenhouse Gas emission neutrality, with at least 70% of electricity coming from renewable energy sources by 2050. To this end, institutional and regulatory frameworks have been improved, resulting in significant progress in medium and large-scale projects. However, solar energy production at residential level and its surplus injection to all distribution networks has been very limited. This paper analyzes the evolution of the regulatory energy policies in Chile in order to contrast it with an economic evaluation of residential projects. The analysis focuses on the city of Arica, one of the highest potential regions in terms of solar energy within the country. There, a particularly low penetration of residential solar energy usage has been observed. Based on the current situation, projections are made for Arica in 2050, through the identification of barriers and opportunities on a residential scale development. According to some recommendations, there is the need to design policies that take into account the particular characteristics of each region within the country. Full article

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2021

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2022

20 pages, 420 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Energy Storage to Reduce Transmission Losses in Meshed Power Distribution Networks

by Stanisław Mikulski and Andrzej Tomczewski

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7304; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217304 - 4 Nov 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2990

Abstract

One of the challenges which the electrical power industry has been facing nowadays is the adaptation of the power system to the energy transition which has been taking place before our very eyes. With the increasing share of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) in [...] Read more.

One of the challenges which the electrical power industry has been facing nowadays is the adaptation of the power system to the energy transition which has been taking place before our very eyes. With the increasing share of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) in energy production, the development of electromobility and the increasing environmental awareness of the society, the power system must constantly evolve to meet its expectations regarding a reliable electricity supply. This paper presents the issue of deploying energy storage facilities in the meshed power distribution network in order to reduce transmission losses. The presented multi-objective approach provides an opportunity to solve this issue using multi-objective optimisation methods such as Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II), Multiobjective Particle Swarm Optimization (MPSO) and Biased Random Keys Genetic Algorithm (BRKGA). In order to increase the efficiency optimisation process, the Pareto Adaptive

ϵ

-dominance (

p a ϵ

-dominance) was used. It was demonstrated that the use of energy storages that cooperate with RES can significantly reduce transmission losses. Full article

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21 pages, 2299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forecasting of Market Clearing Volume Using Wavelet Packet-Based Neural Networks with Tracking Signals

by Sumit Saroha, Marta Zurek-Mortka, Jerzy Ryszard Szymanski, Vineet Shekher and Pardeep Singla

Energies 2021, 14(19), 6065; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196065 - 23 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2187

Abstract

In order to analyze the nature of electrical demand series in deregulated electricity markets, various forecasting tools have been used. All these forecasting models have been developed to improve the accuracy of the reliability of the model. Therefore, a Wavelet Packet Decomposition (WPD) [...] Read more.

In order to analyze the nature of electrical demand series in deregulated electricity markets, various forecasting tools have been used. All these forecasting models have been developed to improve the accuracy of the reliability of the model. Therefore, a Wavelet Packet Decomposition (WPD) was implemented to decompose the demand series into subseries. Each subseries has been forecasted individually with the help of the features of that series, and features were chosen on the basis of mutual correlation among all-time lags using an Auto Correlation Function (ACF). Thus, in this context, a new hybrid WPD-based Linear Neural Network with Tapped Delay (LNNTD) model, with a cyclic one-month moving window for a one-year market clearing volume (MCV) forecasting has been proposed. The proposed model has been effectively implemented in two years (2015–2016) and unconstrained MCV data collected from the Indian Energy Exchange (IEX) for 12 grid regions of India. The results presented by the proposed models are better in terms of accuracy, with a yearly average MAPE of 0.201%, MAE of 9.056 MWh, and coefficient of regression (

R^{2}

) of 0.9996. Further, forecasts of the proposed model have been validated using tracking signals (TS’s) in which the values of TS’s lie within a balanced limit between −492 to 6.83, and universality of the model has been carried out effectively using multiple steps-ahead forecasting up to the sixth step. It has been found out that hybrid models are powerful forecasting tools for demand forecasting. Full article

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16 pages, 630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Quasi-Oppositional Heap-Based Optimization Technique for Power Flow Analysis by Considering Large Scale Photovoltaic Generator

by Vedik Basetti, Shriram S. Rangarajan, Chandan Kumar Shiva, Sumit Verma, Randolph E. Collins and Tomonobu Senjyu

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5382; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175382 - 30 Aug 2021

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 2084

Abstract

Load flow analysis is an essential tool for the reliable planning and operation of interconnected power systems. The constant increase in power demand, apart from the increased intermittency in power generation due to renewable energy sources without proportionate augmentation in transmission system infrastructure, [...] Read more.

Load flow analysis is an essential tool for the reliable planning and operation of interconnected power systems. The constant increase in power demand, apart from the increased intermittency in power generation due to renewable energy sources without proportionate augmentation in transmission system infrastructure, has driven the power systems to function nearer to their limits. Though the power flow (PF) solution may exist in such circumstances, the traditional Newton–Raphson based PF techniques may fail due to computational difficulties owing to the singularity of the Jacobian Matrix during critical conditions and faces difficulties in solving ill-conditioned systems. To address these problems and to assess the impact of large-scale photovoltaic generator (PVG) integration in power systems on power flow studies, a derivative-free quasi-oppositional heap-based optimization (HBO) (QOHBO) technique is proposed in the present paper. In the proposed approach, the concept of quasi-oppositional learning is applied to HBO to enhance the convergence speed. The efficacy and effectiveness of the proposed QOHBO-PF technique are verified by applying it to the standard IEEE and ill-conditioned systems. The robustness of the algorithm is validated under the maximum loadability limits and high R/X ratios, comparing the results with other well-known methods suggested in the literature. The results thus obtained show that the proposed QOHBO-PF technique has less computation time, further enhancement of reliability in the presence of PVG, and has the ability to provide multiple PF solutions that can be utilized for voltage stability analysis. Full article

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13 pages, 8476 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Robust Design of Dual-Input Power System Stabilizer Using Chaotic JAYA Algorithm

by Badr M. Alshammari, Anouar Farah, Khalid Alqunun and Tawfik Guesmi

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5294; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175294 - 26 Aug 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2092

Abstract

This work aims to improve the stability of a system that consists of one generator using a dual-input stabilizer of a power system. For this purpose, a new design method based on a chaotic JAYA algorithm is proposed. This algorithm hybridizes the original [...] Read more.

This work aims to improve the stability of a system that consists of one generator using a dual-input stabilizer of a power system. For this purpose, a new design method based on a chaotic JAYA algorithm is proposed. This algorithm hybridizes the original JAYA algorithm with chaos to improve its exploration and exploitation capabilities. Indeed, the disordered numbers generated by the chaotic map are exploited to control the standard JAYA algorithm’s search equations. The issue of design is stated as an optimization problem. The proposed technique is involved in the selection of optimal values of the dual-input power system stabilizer (PSS) parameters. The efficiency of the proposed controller is assessed under various loading conditions and compared with the original JAYA, cuckoo search and particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithms. The target function consists of the integration of absolute error multiplied by the time, including the speed deviation is considered for the controller design method. The controller tuned by a chaotic JAYA algorithm is tested using a single machine infinite bus (SMIB) power system. The findings of the simulation results demonstrate the robustness and effectiveness of the suggested method in damping oscillations over an extended range of loading conditions. Full article

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22 pages, 2693 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Infeed Correction Methods for Distance Protection in Distribution Systems

by Fahd Hariri and Mariesa Crow

Energies 2021, 14(15), 4652; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154652 - 31 Jul 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3844

Abstract

The reliability and security of power systems may be jeopardized by the increase in the amounts of renewable generation and the uncertainties produced by these devices. In particular, the protection schemes of traditional power systems have been challenged by the integration of distributed [...] Read more.

The reliability and security of power systems may be jeopardized by the increase in the amounts of renewable generation and the uncertainties produced by these devices. In particular, the protection schemes of traditional power systems have been challenged by the integration of distributed generation (DG) resources. Distance relays (DRs), which have been mainly employed to protect transmission systems, are increasingly proposed as one of the solutions to protect distribution systems with a heavy penetration of DGs. However, conventional distance protection faces several drawbacks that might lead to maloperation. One of those challenges is the “infeed effect”, which causes the impedance seen by the distance relay to be larger than the actual positive-sequence line impedance between the fault and relay location. This paper proposes three new methods to estimate the distance to the fault in the presence of infeeds, whether in a radial distribution feeder or the transmission line. Unlike other solution methodologies in the literature that require communication links to estimate the distance to the fault, the proposed methods only need the local measurement (i.e., the voltage and current measurements at the location of the distance relay) to do the same. The performance of the method is demonstrated with a radial distribution system model in PSCAD™/EMTDC™. Full article

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30 pages, 1442 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of TSO and DSO Grid System Services and TSO-DSO Basic Coordination Mechanisms in the Current Decarbonization Context

by Ricardo Silva, Everton Alves, Ricardo Ferreira, José Villar and Clara Gouveia

Energies 2021, 14(15), 4451; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154451 - 23 Jul 2021

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5532

Abstract

Power systems rely on ancillary services (ASs) to ensure system security and stability. Until recently, only the conventional power generation resources connected to the transmission grids were allowed to provide these ASs managed by the transmission system operators (TSOs), while distribution system operators [...] Read more.

Power systems rely on ancillary services (ASs) to ensure system security and stability. Until recently, only the conventional power generation resources connected to the transmission grids were allowed to provide these ASs managed by the transmission system operators (TSOs), while distribution system operators (DSOs) had a more passive role, focused on guaranteeing distribution capacity to bring power to final consumers with enough quality. Now, with the decarbonization, digitalization and decentralization processes of the electrical networks, the growing integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) in distribution grids are displacing conventional generation and increasing the complexity of distribution networks’ operation, requiring the implementation of new active and coordinated management strategies between TSOs and DSOs. In this context, DERs are becoming potential new sources of flexibility for both TSOs and DSOs in helping to manage the power system. This paper proposes a systematic characterization of both traditional and potentially new ASs for TSOs, and newly expected DSO local system services to support the new distribution grid operation paradigm, reviewing, in addition, the main TSO-DSO coordination mechanisms. Full article

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17 pages, 13278 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Synergetic Sliding Mode Controller Applied to Direct Field-Oriented Control of Induction Generator-Based Variable Speed Dual-Rotor Wind Turbines

by Habib Benbouhenni and Nicu Bizon

Energies 2021, 14(15), 4437; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154437 - 22 Jul 2021

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 2748

Abstract

A synergetic sliding mode (SSM) approach is designed to address the drawbacks of the direct field-oriented control (DFOC) of the induction generators (IGs) integrated into variable speed dual-rotor wind power (DRWP) systems with the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique. Using SSM controllers [...] Read more.

A synergetic sliding mode (SSM) approach is designed to address the drawbacks of the direct field-oriented control (DFOC) of the induction generators (IGs) integrated into variable speed dual-rotor wind power (DRWP) systems with the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique. Using SSM controllers in the DFOC strategy, the active power, electromagnetic torque, and reactive power ripples are reduced compared to traditional DFOC using proportional-integral (PI) controllers. This proposed strategy, associated with SSM controllers, produces efficient state estimation. The effectiveness of the designed DFOC strategy has been evaluated on variable speed DRWP systems with the MPPT technique. Full article

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17 pages, 25473 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Measurements of Properties of Coupled Inductors

by Kalina Detka, Krzysztof Górecki, Piotr Grzejszczak and Roman Barlik

Energies 2021, 14(14), 4088; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144088 - 6 Jul 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3350

Abstract

This paper proposes a model of a coupled inductor which takes into account the influence of frequency, temperature, and a constant component, I_DC, of currents in the windings on the parameters of the considered element. A description of the model and [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a model of a coupled inductor which takes into account the influence of frequency, temperature, and a constant component, I_DC, of currents in the windings on the parameters of the considered element. A description of the model and methods of measuring parameters of the inductor using an impedance analyzer and a chamber for thermal measurements is given. The obtained results of measurements are compared with the results of calculations proving a satisfactory match. Full article

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26 pages, 41061 KiB

Open AccessReview

AC vs. DC Distribution Efficiency: Are We on the Right Path?

by Hasan Erteza Gelani, Faizan Dastgeer, Mashood Nasir, Sidra Khan and Josep M. Guerrero

Energies 2021, 14(13), 4039; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14134039 - 4 Jul 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5606

Abstract

The concept of DC power distribution has gained interest within the research community in the past years, especially due to the rapid prevalence of solar PVs as a tool for distributed generation in DC microgrids. Various efficiency analyses have been presented for the [...] Read more.

The concept of DC power distribution has gained interest within the research community in the past years, especially due to the rapid prevalence of solar PVs as a tool for distributed generation in DC microgrids. Various efficiency analyses have been presented for the DC distribution paradigm, in comparison to the AC counterpart, considering a variety of scenarios. However, even after a number of such comparative efficiency studies, there seems to be a disparity in the results of research efforts, wherein a definite verdict is still unavailable. Is DC distribution a more efficient choice as compared to the conventional AC system? A final verdict is absent primarily due to conflicting results. In this regard, system modeling and the assumptions made in different studies play a significant role in affecting the results of the study. The current paper is an attempt to critically observe the modeling and assumptions used in the efficiency studies related to the DC distribution system. Several research efforts are analyzed for their approach toward the system upon which they have performed efficiency studies. Subsequently, the paper proposes a model that may alleviate the shortcomings in earlier research efforts and be able to give a definite verdict regarding the comparative efficiency of DC and AC networks for residential power distribution. Full article

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Graphical abstract

23 pages, 7256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Flicker of Light Generated by Arc Furnaces

by Zbigniew Olczykowski and Zbigniew Łukasik

Energies 2021, 14(13), 3901; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133901 - 29 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2477

Abstract

Due to the dynamic nature of load changes, arc devices are receivers that generate disturbances to the network that affect the power quality. The main disturbance generated by these receivers are voltage fluctuations. One of the effects of voltage fluctuations is the flicker [...] Read more.

Due to the dynamic nature of load changes, arc devices are receivers that generate disturbances to the network that affect the power quality. The main disturbance generated by these receivers are voltage fluctuations. One of the effects of voltage fluctuations is the flicker of light caused by lighting receivers. The article presents an analysis of changes indicators flicker of light measured in networks supplying arc furnaces. The propagation of voltage fluctuations to the lines supplying lighting receivers was analyzed. The network parameters influencing the amount of light flicker were estimated. The paper presents a method for calculating the increased flicker of light when several electric arc furnaces are operated in parallel. The conclusions regarding the use of the presented research in practical applications are given in the summary. Full article

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14 pages, 339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wind Farm Cable Connection Layout Optimization with Several Substations

by Adelaide Cerveira, Eduardo J. Solteiro Pires and José Baptista

Energies 2021, 14(12), 3615; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123615 - 17 Jun 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3735

Abstract

Green energy has become a media issue due to climate changes, and consequently, the population has become more aware of pollution. Wind farms are an essential energy production alternative to fossil energy. The incentive to produce wind energy was a government policy some [...] Read more.

Green energy has become a media issue due to climate changes, and consequently, the population has become more aware of pollution. Wind farms are an essential energy production alternative to fossil energy. The incentive to produce wind energy was a government policy some decades ago to decrease carbon emissions. In recent decades, wind farms were formed by a substation and a couple of turbines. Nowadays, wind farms are designed with hundreds of turbines requiring more than one substation. This paper formulates an integer linear programming model to design wind farms’ cable layout with several turbines. The proposed model obtains the optimal solution considering different cable types, infrastructure costs, and energy losses. An additional constraint was considered to limit the number of cables that cross a walkway, i.e., the number of connections between a set of wind turbines and the remaining wind farm. Furthermore, considering a discrete set of possible turbine locations, the model allows identifying those that should be present in the optimal solution, thereby addressing the optimal location of the substation(s) in the wind farm. The paper illustrates solutions and the associated costs of two wind farms, with up to 102 turbines and three substations in the optimal solution, selected among sixteen possible places. The optimal solutions are obtained in a short time. Full article

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26 pages, 49395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Electricity Price and Quantity Uncertainty: An Application for Hedging with Forward Contracts

by Alfredo Trespalacios, Lina M. Cortés and Javier Perote

Energies 2021, 14(11), 3345; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113345 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2991

Abstract

Energy transactions in liberalized markets are subject to price and quantity uncertainty. This paper considers the spot price and energy generation to follow a bivariate semi-nonparametric distribution defined in terms of the Gram–Charlier expansion. This distribution allows us to jointly model not only [...] Read more.

Energy transactions in liberalized markets are subject to price and quantity uncertainty. This paper considers the spot price and energy generation to follow a bivariate semi-nonparametric distribution defined in terms of the Gram–Charlier expansion. This distribution allows us to jointly model not only mean, variance, and correlation but also skewness, kurtosis, and higher-order moments. Based on this model, we propose a static hedging strategy for electricity generators that participate in a competitive market where hedging is carried out through forward contracts that include a risk premium in their valuation. For this purpose, we use Monte Carlo simulation and consider information from the Colombian electricity market as the case study. The results show that the volume of energy to be sold under long-term contracts depends on each electricity generator and the risk assessment made by the market in the forward risk premium. The conditions of skewness, kurtosis, and correlation, as well as the type of the employed risk indicator, affect the hedging strategy that each electricity generator should implement. A positive correlation between the spot price and energy production tends to increase the hedge ratio; meanwhile, negative correlation tends to reduce it. The increase of forward risk premium, on the other hand, reduces the hedge ratio. Full article

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18 pages, 5429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Economic Evaluation of Wind Power Projects in a Mix of Free and Regulated Market Environments in Brazil

by Vanderson Aparecido Delapedra-Silva, Paula Ferreira, Jorge Cunha and Herbert Kimura

Energies 2021, 14(11), 3325; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113325 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3975

Abstract

The electricity market in Brazil is basically organized under two parts: the regulated market, where energy is traded through auctions, and the free market, where market participants freely negotiate the price and quantity of electricity. Although revenues obtained in the regulated market tend [...] Read more.

The electricity market in Brazil is basically organized under two parts: the regulated market, where energy is traded through auctions, and the free market, where market participants freely negotiate the price and quantity of electricity. Although revenues obtained in the regulated market tend to be lower than in the free market, the auctions’ results show that investors still value the lesser degree of uncertainty associated with the regulated market. However, a growing interest in the free market by investors is recognized since the price of electricity tends to be higher. Therefore, this study investigates four free market price scenarios to assess the expected return for investors, using the traditional discounted cash flow approach complemented with Monte Carlo simulation to address market uncertainty. The study breaks new ground by capturing the weekly price fluctuations and including the price elasticity of demand of the free market. The results seem to indicate that the disclosure of the ceiling and floor price limits for the spot price can signal important information about the agents’ price expectation in the free market and can be used for investment project evaluation. Full article

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16 pages, 2722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real Fault Location in a Distribution Network Using Smart Feeder Meter Data

by Hamid Mirshekali, Rahman Dashti, Karsten Handrup and Hamid Reza Shaker

Energies 2021, 14(11), 3242; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113242 - 1 Jun 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3520

Abstract

Distribution networks transmit electrical energy from an upstream network to customers. Undesirable circumstances such as faults in the distribution networks can cause hazardous conditions, equipment failure, and power outages. Therefore, to avoid financial loss, to maintain customer satisfaction, and network reliability, it is [...] Read more.

Distribution networks transmit electrical energy from an upstream network to customers. Undesirable circumstances such as faults in the distribution networks can cause hazardous conditions, equipment failure, and power outages. Therefore, to avoid financial loss, to maintain customer satisfaction, and network reliability, it is vital to restore the network as fast as possible. In this paper, a new fault location (FL) algorithm that uses the recorded data of smart meters (SMs) and smart feeder meters (SFMs) to locate the actual point of fault, is introduced. The method does not require high-resolution measurements, which is among the main advantages of the method. An impedance-based technique is utilized to detect all possible FL candidates in the distribution network. After the fault occurrence, the protection relay sends a signal to all SFMs, to collect the recorded active power of all connected lines after the fault. The higher value of active power represents the real faulty section due to the high-fault current. The effectiveness of the proposed method was investigated on an IEEE 11-node test feeder in MATLAB SIMULINK 2020b, under several situations, such as different fault resistances, distances, inception angles, and types. In some cases, the algorithm found two or three candidates for FL. In these cases, the section estimation helped to identify the real fault among all candidates. Section estimation method performs well for all simulated cases. The results showed that the proposed method was accurate and was able to precisely detect the real faulty section. To experimentally evaluate the proposed method’s powerfulness, a laboratory test and its simulation were carried out. The algorithm was precisely able to distinguish the real faulty section among all candidates in the experiment. The results revealed the robustness and effectiveness of the proposed method. Full article

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21 pages, 922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning Techniques for Energy Efficiency and Anomaly Detection in Hybrid Wireless Sensor Networks

by Mohit Mittal, Rocío Pérez de Prado, Yukiko Kawai, Shinsuke Nakajima and José E. Muñoz-Expósito

Energies 2021, 14(11), 3125; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113125 - 27 May 2021

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 4522

Abstract

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are among the most popular wireless technologies for sensor communication purposes nowadays. Usually, WSNs are developed for specific applications, either monitoring purposes or tracking purposes, for indoor or outdoor environments, where limited battery power is a main challenge. To [...] Read more.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are among the most popular wireless technologies for sensor communication purposes nowadays. Usually, WSNs are developed for specific applications, either monitoring purposes or tracking purposes, for indoor or outdoor environments, where limited battery power is a main challenge. To overcome this problem, many routing protocols have been proposed through the last few years. Nevertheless, the extension of the network lifetime in consideration of the sensors capacities remains an open issue. In this paper, to achieve more efficient and reliable protocols according to current application scenarios, two well-known energy efficient protocols, i.e., Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering hierarchy (LEACH) and Energy–Efficient Sensor Routing (EESR), are redesigned considering neural networks. Specifically, to improve results in terms of energy efficiency, a Levenberg–Marquardt neural network (LMNN) is integrated. Furthermore, in order to improve the performance, a sub-cluster LEACH-derived protocol is also proposed. Simulation results show that the Sub-LEACH with LMNN outperformed its competitors in energy efficiency. In addition, the end-to-end delay was evaluated, and Sub-LEACH protocol proved to be the best among existing strategies. Moreover, an intrusion detection system (IDS) has been proposed for anomaly detection based on the support vector machine (SVM) approach for optimal feature selection. Results showed a 96.15% accuracy—again outperforming existing IDS models. Therefore, satisfactory results in terms of energy efficiency, end-to-end delay and anomaly detection analysis were attained. Full article

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