International Journal of Molecular Sciences

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12 pages, 1096 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Analysis of Variants in the General Population Reveals That PMM2 Is Extremely Tolerant to Missense Mutations and That Diagnosis of PMM2-CDG Can Benefit from the Identification of Modifiers

by Valentina Citro, Chiara Cimmaruta, Maria Monticelli, Guglielmo Riccio, Bruno Hay Mele, Maria Vittoria Cubellis and Giuseppina Andreotti

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(8), 2218; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19082218 - 30 Jul 2018

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6689

Abstract

Type I disorders of glycosylation (CDG), the most frequent of which is phosphomannomutase 2 (PMM2-CDG), are a group of diseases causing the incomplete N-glycosylation of proteins. PMM2-CDG is an autosomal recessive disease with a large phenotypic spectrum, and is associated with mutations [...] Read more.

Type I disorders of glycosylation (CDG), the most frequent of which is phosphomannomutase 2 (PMM2-CDG), are a group of diseases causing the incomplete N-glycosylation of proteins. PMM2-CDG is an autosomal recessive disease with a large phenotypic spectrum, and is associated with mutations in the PMM2 gene. The biochemical analysis of mutants does not allow a precise genotype–phenotype correlation for PMM2-CDG. PMM2 is very tolerant to missense and loss of function mutations, suggesting that a partial deficiency of activity might be beneficial under certain circumstances. The patient phenotype might be influenced by variants in other genes associated with the type I disorders of glycosylation in the general population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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10 pages, 245 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phosphokinome Analysis of Barth Syndrome Lymphoblasts Identify Novel Targets in the Pathophysiology of the Disease

by Prasoon Agarwal, Laura K. Cole, Abin Chandrakumar, Kristin D. Hauff, Amir Ravandi, Vernon W. Dolinsky and Grant M. Hatch

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(7), 2026; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19072026 - 12 Jul 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4879

Abstract

Barth Syndrome (BTHS) is a rare X-linked genetic disease in which the specific biochemical deficit is a reduction in the mitochondrial phospholipid cardiolipin (CL) as a result of a mutation in the CL transacylase tafazzin. We compared the phosphokinome profile in Epstein-Barr-virus-transformed lymphoblasts [...] Read more.

Barth Syndrome (BTHS) is a rare X-linked genetic disease in which the specific biochemical deficit is a reduction in the mitochondrial phospholipid cardiolipin (CL) as a result of a mutation in the CL transacylase tafazzin. We compared the phosphokinome profile in Epstein-Barr-virus-transformed lymphoblasts prepared from a BTHS patient with that of an age-matched control individual. As expected, mass spectrometry analysis revealed a significant (>90%) reduction in CL in BTHS lymphoblasts compared to controls. In addition, increased oxidized phosphatidylcholine (oxPC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) levels were observed in BTHS lymphoblasts compared to control. Given the broad shifts in metabolism associated with BTHS, we hypothesized that marked differences in posttranslational modifications such as phosphorylation would be present in the lymphoblast cells of a BTHS patient. Phosphokinome analysis revealed striking differences in the phosphorylation levels of phosphoproteins in BTHS lymphoblasts compared to control cells. Some phosphorylated proteins, for example, adenosine monophosphate kinase, have been previously validated as bonafide modified phosphorylation targets observed in tafazzin deficiency or under conditions of reduced cellular CL. Thus, we report multiple novel phosphokinome targets in BTHS lymphoblasts and hypothesize that alteration in the phosphokinome profile may provide insight into the pathophysiology of BTHS and potential therapeutic targets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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15 pages, 2699 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Yeast-Based Screen to Identify Natural Compounds with a Potential Therapeutic Effect in Hailey-Hailey Disease

by Graziella Ficociello, Azzurra Zonfrilli, Samantha Cialfi, Claudio Talora and Daniela Uccelletti

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(6), 1814; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19061814 - 20 Jun 2018

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5366

Abstract

The term orthodisease defines human disorders in which the pathogenic gene has orthologs in model organism genomes. Yeasts have been instrumental for gaining insights into the molecular basis of many human disorders, particularly those resulting from impaired cellular metabolism. We and others have [...] Read more.

The term orthodisease defines human disorders in which the pathogenic gene has orthologs in model organism genomes. Yeasts have been instrumental for gaining insights into the molecular basis of many human disorders, particularly those resulting from impaired cellular metabolism. We and others have used yeasts as a model system to study the molecular basis of Hailey-Hailey disease (HHD), a human blistering skin disorder caused by haploinsufficiency of the gene ATP2C1 the orthologous of the yeast gene PMR1. We observed that K. lactis cells defective for PMR1 gene share several biological similarities with HHD derived keratinocytes. Based on the conservation of ATP2C1/PMR1 function from yeast to human, here we used a yeast-based assay to screen for molecules able to influence the pleiotropy associated with PMR1 deletion. We identified six compounds, Kaempferol, Indirubin, Lappaconite, Cyclocytidine, Azomycin and Nalidixic Acid that induced different major shape phenotypes in K. lactis. These include mitochondrial and the cell-wall morphology-related phenotypes. Interestingly, a secondary assay in mammalian cells confirmed activity for Kaempferol. Indeed, this compound was also active on human keratinocytes depleted of ATP2C1 function by siRNA-treatment used as an in-vitro model of HHD. We found that Kaempferol was a potent NRF2 regulator, strongly inducing its expression and its downstream target NQO1. In addition, Kaempferol could decrease oxidative stress of ATP2C1 defective keratinocytes, characterized by reduced NRF2-expression. Our results indicated that the activation of these pathways might provide protection to the HHD-skin cells. As oxidative stress plays pivotal roles in promoting the skin lesions of Hailey-Hailey, the NRF2 pathway could be a viable therapeutic target for HHD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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17 pages, 13858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rothmund-Thomson Syndrome: Insights from New Patients on the Genetic Variability Underpinning Clinical Presentation and Cancer Outcome

by Elisa A. Colombo, Andrea Locatelli, Laura Cubells Sánchez, Sara Romeo, Nursel H. Elcioglu, Isabelle Maystadt, Altea Esteve Martínez, Alessandra Sironi, Laura Fontana, Palma Finelli, Cristina Gervasini, Vanna Pecile and Lidia Larizza

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(4), 1103; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19041103 - 6 Apr 2018

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6348

Abstract

Biallelic mutations in RECQL4 gene, a caretaker of the genome, cause Rothmund-Thomson type-II syndrome (RTS-II) and confer increased cancer risk if they damage the helicase domain. We describe five families exemplifying clinical and allelic heterogeneity of RTS-II, and report the effect of pathogenic [...] Read more.

Biallelic mutations in RECQL4 gene, a caretaker of the genome, cause Rothmund-Thomson type-II syndrome (RTS-II) and confer increased cancer risk if they damage the helicase domain. We describe five families exemplifying clinical and allelic heterogeneity of RTS-II, and report the effect of pathogenic RECQL4 variants by in silico predictions and transcripts analyses. Complete phenotype of patients #39 and #42 whose affected siblings developed osteosarcoma correlates with their c.[1048_1049del], c.[1878+32_1878+55del] and c.[1568G>C;1573delT], c.[3021_3022del] variants which damage the helicase domain. Literature survey highlights enrichment of these variants affecting the helicase domain in patients with cancer outcome raising the issue of strict oncological surveillance. Conversely, patients #29 and #19 have a mild phenotype and carry, respectively, the unreported homozygous c.3265G>T and c.3054A>G variants, both sparing the helicase domain. Finally, despite matching several criteria for RTS clinical diagnosis, patient #38 is heterozygous for c.2412_2414del; no pathogenic CNVs out of those evidenced by high-resolution CGH-array, emerged as contributors to her phenotype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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15 pages, 10091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Taurine Administration Recovers Motor and Learning Deficits in an Angelman Syndrome Mouse Model

by Sara Guzzetti, Luciano Calzari, Lucia Buccarello, Valentina Cesari, Ivan Toschi, Stefania Cattaldo, Alessandro Mauro, Francesca Pregnolato, Silvia Michela Mazzola and Silvia Russo

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(4), 1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19041088 - 5 Apr 2018

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8630

Abstract

Angelman syndrome (AS, MIM 105830) is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder affecting 1:10–20,000 children. Patients show moderate to severe intellectual disability, ataxia and absence of speech. Studies on both post-mortem AS human brains and mouse models revealed dysfunctions in the extra synaptic gamma-aminobutyric acid [...] Read more.

Angelman syndrome (AS, MIM 105830) is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder affecting 1:10–20,000 children. Patients show moderate to severe intellectual disability, ataxia and absence of speech. Studies on both post-mortem AS human brains and mouse models revealed dysfunctions in the extra synaptic gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors implicated in the pathogenesis. Taurine is a free intracellular sulfur-containing amino acid, abundant in brain, considered an inhibiting neurotransmitter with neuroprotective properties. As taurine acts as an agonist of GABA-A receptors, we aimed at investigating whether it might ameliorate AS symptoms. Since mice weaning, we orally administered 1 g/kg/day taurine in water to Ube3a-deficient mice. To test the improvement of motor and cognitive skills, Rotarod, Novel Object Recognition and Open Field tests were assayed at 7, 14, 21 and 30 weeks, while biochemical tests and amino acid dosages were carried out, respectively, by Western-blot and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) on frozen whole brains. Treatment of Ube3a^m^−/p+ mice with taurine significantly improved motor and learning skills and restored the levels of the post-synaptic PSD-95 and pERK1/2-ERK1/2 ratio to wild type values. No side effects of taurine were observed. Our study indicates taurine administration as a potential therapy to ameliorate motor deficits and learning difficulties in AS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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12 pages, 1746 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human Mitochondrial HMG-CoA Synthase Deficiency: Role of Enzyme Dimerization Surface and Characterization of Three New Patients

by Beatriz Puisac, Iñigo Marcos-Alcalde, María Hernández-Marcos, Pilar Tobajas Morlana, Alina Levtova, Bernd C. Schwahn, Corinne DeLaet, Baiba Lace, Paulino Gómez-Puertas and Juan Pié

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(4), 1010; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19041010 - 28 Mar 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5287

Abstract

Mitochondrial 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase deficiency (mitochondrial HMG-CoA synthase deficiency or mHS deficiency, OMIM #605911) is an inborn error of metabolism that affects ketone body synthesis. Acute episodes include vomiting, lethargy, hepatomegaly, hypoglycemia and dicarboxylic aciduria. The diagnosis is difficult due to the relatively unspecific [...] Read more.

Mitochondrial 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase deficiency (mitochondrial HMG-CoA synthase deficiency or mHS deficiency, OMIM #605911) is an inborn error of metabolism that affects ketone body synthesis. Acute episodes include vomiting, lethargy, hepatomegaly, hypoglycemia and dicarboxylic aciduria. The diagnosis is difficult due to the relatively unspecific clinical and biochemical presentation, and fewer than 30 patients have been described. This work describes three new patients with mHS deficiency and two missense mutations c.334C>T (p.R112W) and c.430G>T (p.V144L) previously not reported. We developed a new method to express and measure the activity of the enzyme and in this work the study is extended to ten new missense variants including those of our patients. Enzymatic assays showed that three of the mutant proteins retained some but seven completely lacked activity. The identification of a patient homozygous for a mutation that retains 70% of enzyme activity opens the door to a new interpretation of the disease by demonstrating that a modest impairment of enzyme function can actually produce symptoms. This is also the first study employing molecular dynamics modelling of the enzyme mutations. We show that the correct maintenance of the dimerization surface is crucial for retaining the structure of the active center and therefore the activity of the enzyme. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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19 pages, 5813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Two Liver Treatment Strategies in a Mouse Model of Niemann–Pick-Disease Type C1

by Lynn Ebner, Anne Gläser, Anja Bräuer, Martin Witt, Andreas Wree, Arndt Rolfs, Marcus Frank, Brigitte Vollmar and Angela Kuhla

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(4), 972; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19040972 - 24 Mar 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5163

Abstract

Niemann–Pick-disease type C1 (NPC1) is an autosomal-recessive cholesterol-storage disorder. Besides other symptoms, NPC1 patients develop liver dysfunction and hepatosplenomegaly. The mechanisms of hepatomegaly and alterations of lipid metabolism-related genes in NPC1 disease are still poorly understood. Here, we used an NPC1 mouse model [...] Read more.

Niemann–Pick-disease type C1 (NPC1) is an autosomal-recessive cholesterol-storage disorder. Besides other symptoms, NPC1 patients develop liver dysfunction and hepatosplenomegaly. The mechanisms of hepatomegaly and alterations of lipid metabolism-related genes in NPC1 disease are still poorly understood. Here, we used an NPC1 mouse model to study an additive hepatoprotective effect of a combination of 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD), miglustat and allopregnanolone (combination therapy) with the previously established monotherapy using HPβCD. We examined transgene effects as well as treatment effects on liver morphology and hepatic lipid metabolism, focusing on hepatic cholesterol transporter genes. Livers of Npc1^−/− mice showed hepatic cholesterol sequestration with consecutive liver injury, an increase of lipogenetic gene expression, e.g., HMG-CoA, a decrease of lipolytic gene expression, e.g., pparα and acox1, and a decrease of lipid transporter gene expression, e.g., acat1, abca1 and fatp2. Both, combination therapy and monotherapy, led to a reduction of hepatic lipids and an amelioration of NPC1 liver disease symptoms. Monotherapy effects were related to pparα- and acox1-associated lipolysis/β-oxidation and to fatp2-induced fatty acid transport, whereas the combination therapy additionally increased the cholesterol transport via abca1 and apoE. However, HPβCD monotherapy additionally increased cholesterol synthesis as indicated by a marked increase of the HMG-CoA and srebp-2 mRNA expression, probably as a result of increased hepatocellular proliferation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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10 pages, 3796 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rings and Bricks: Expression of Cohesin Components is Dynamic during Development and Adult Life

by Laura Rachele Bettini, Federica Graziola, Grazia Fazio, Paolo Grazioli, Valeria Scagliotti, Mariavittoria Pasquini, Giovanni Cazzaniga, Andrea Biondi, Lidia Larizza, Angelo Selicorni, Carles Gaston-Massuet and Valentina Massa

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(2), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19020438 - 1 Feb 2018

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4134

Abstract

Cohesin complex components exert fundamental roles in animal cells, both canonical in cell cycle and non-canonical in gene expression regulation. Germline mutations in genes coding for cohesins result in developmental disorders named cohesinopaties, of which Cornelia de Lange syndrome (CdLS) is the best-known [...] Read more.

Cohesin complex components exert fundamental roles in animal cells, both canonical in cell cycle and non-canonical in gene expression regulation. Germline mutations in genes coding for cohesins result in developmental disorders named cohesinopaties, of which Cornelia de Lange syndrome (CdLS) is the best-known entity. However, a basic description of mammalian expression pattern of cohesins in a physiologic condition is still needed. Hence, we report a detailed analysis of expression in murine and human tissues of cohesin genes defective in CdLS. Using both quantitative and qualitative methods in fetal and adult tissues, cohesin genes were found to be ubiquitously and differentially expressed in human tissues. In particular, abundant expression was observed in hematopoietic and central nervous system organs. Findings of the present study indicate tissues which should be particularly sensitive to mutations, germline and/or somatic, in cohesin genes. Hence, this expression analysis in physiological conditions may represent a first core reference for cohesinopathies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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3939 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Urinary Metabolomic Profiling to Identify Potential Biomarkers for the Diagnosis of Behcet’s Disease by Gas Chromatography/Time-of-Flight−Mass Spectrometry

by Joong Kyong Ahn, Jungyeon Kim, Jiwon Hwang, Juhwan Song, Kyoung Heon Kim and Hoon-Suk Cha

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(11), 2309; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18112309 - 2 Nov 2017

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5380

Abstract

Diagnosing Behcet’s disease (BD) is challenging because of the lack of a diagnostic biomarker. The purposes of this study were to investigate distinctive metabolic changes in urine samples of BD patients and to identify urinary metabolic biomarkers for diagnosis of BD using gas [...] Read more.

Diagnosing Behcet’s disease (BD) is challenging because of the lack of a diagnostic biomarker. The purposes of this study were to investigate distinctive metabolic changes in urine samples of BD patients and to identify urinary metabolic biomarkers for diagnosis of BD using gas chromatography/time-of-flight–mass spectrometry (GC/TOF−MS). Metabolomic profiling of urine samples from 44 BD patients and 41 healthy controls (HC) were assessed using GC/TOF−MS, in conjunction with multivariate statistical analysis. A total of 110 urinary metabolites were identified. The urine metabolite profiles obtained from GC/TOF−MS analysis could distinguish BD patients from the HC group in the discovery set. The parameter values of the orthogonal partial least squared-discrimination analysis (OPLS-DA) model were R²X of 0.231, R²Y of 0.804, and Q² of 0.598. A biomarker panel composed of guanine, pyrrole-2-carboxylate, 3-hydroxypyridine, mannose, l-citrulline, galactonate, isothreonate, sedoheptuloses, hypoxanthine, and gluconic acid lactone were selected and adequately validated as putative biomarkers of BD (sensitivity 96.7%, specificity 93.3%, area under the curve 0.974). OPLS-DA showed clear discrimination of BD and HC groups by a biomarker panel of ten metabolites in the independent set (accuracy 88%). We demonstrated characteristic urinary metabolic profiles and potential urinary metabolite biomarkers that have clinical value in the diagnosis of BD using GC/TOF−MS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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8101 KiB

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Glucosylsphingosine Causes Hematological and Visceral Changes in Mice—Evidence for a Pathophysiological Role in Gaucher Disease

by Jan Lukas, Claudia Cozma, Fan Yang, Guido Kramp, Anja Meyer, Anna-Maria Neßlauer, Sabrina Eichler, Tobias Böttcher, Martin Witt, Anja U. Bräuer, Peter Kropp and Arndt Rolfs

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(10), 2192; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18102192 - 20 Oct 2017

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7526

Abstract

Glucosylceramide and glucosylsphingosine are the two major storage products in Gaucher disease (GD), an inherited metabolic disorder caused by a deficiency of the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase. The build-up of glucosylceramide in the endoplasmic reticulum and prominent accumulation in cell lysosomes of tissue macrophages [...] Read more.

Glucosylceramide and glucosylsphingosine are the two major storage products in Gaucher disease (GD), an inherited metabolic disorder caused by a deficiency of the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase. The build-up of glucosylceramide in the endoplasmic reticulum and prominent accumulation in cell lysosomes of tissue macrophages results in decreased blood cell and platelet counts, and skeletal abnormalities. The pathological role of the deacylated form of glucosylceramide, glucosylsphingosine (lyso-Gb1), a recently identified sensitive and specific biomarker for GD, is not well investigated. We established a long-term infusion model in C57BL/6JRj mice to examine the effect of lyso-Gb1 on representative hallmark parameters of GD. Mice received lyso-Gb1 at a dosage of 10 mg·kg⁻¹ per day as a continuous subcutaneous administration, and were routinely checked for blood lyso-Gb1 levels using liquid chromatography-multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry (LC/MRM-MS) measurements at four-weekly intervals throughout treatment. The C57BL/6JRj mice showed a stable increase of lyso-Gb1 up to->500-fold greater than the normal reflecting concentrations seen in moderately to severely affected patients. Furthermore, lyso-Gb1 accumulated in peripheral tissues. The mice developed hematological symptoms such as reduced hemoglobin and hematocrit, increased spleen weights and a slight inflammatory tissue response after eight weeks of treatment. The above findings indicate a measurable visceral and hematological response in treated mice that suggests a role for lyso-Gb1 in the development of peripheral signs of GD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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4870 KiB

Open AccessArticle

E-Learning for Rare Diseases: An Example Using Fabry Disease

by Chiara Cimmaruta, Ludovica Liguori, Maria Monticelli, Giuseppina Andreotti and Valentina Citro

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(10), 2049; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18102049 - 24 Sep 2017

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4758

Abstract

Background: Rare diseases represent a challenge for physicians because patients are rarely seen, and they can manifest with symptoms similar to those of common diseases. In this work, genetic confirmation of diagnosis is derived from DNA sequencing. We present a tutorial for the [...] Read more.

Background: Rare diseases represent a challenge for physicians because patients are rarely seen, and they can manifest with symptoms similar to those of common diseases. In this work, genetic confirmation of diagnosis is derived from DNA sequencing. We present a tutorial for the molecular analysis of a rare disease using Fabry disease as an example. Methods: An exonic sequence derived from a hypothetical male patient was matched against human reference data using a genome browser. The missense mutation was identified by running BlastX, and information on the affected protein was retrieved from the database UniProt. The pathogenic nature of the mutation was assessed with PolyPhen-2. Disease-specific databases were used to assess whether the missense mutation led to a severe phenotype, and whether pharmacological therapy was an option. Results: An inexpensive bioinformatics approach is presented to get the reader acquainted with the diagnosis of Fabry disease. The reader is introduced to the field of pharmacological chaperones, a therapeutic approach that can be applied only to certain Fabry genotypes. Conclusion: The principle underlying the analysis of exome sequencing can be explained in simple terms using web applications and databases which facilitate diagnosis and therapeutic choices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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Review

Jump to: Research

15 pages, 1200 KiB

Open AccessReview

Molecular and Clinical Opposite Findings in 11p15.5 Associated Imprinting Disorders: Characterization of Basic Mechanisms to Improve Clinical Management

by Katharina Wesseler, Florian Kraft and Thomas Eggermann

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(17), 4219; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20174219 - 28 Aug 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8933

Abstract

Silver–Russell and Beckwith–Wiedemann syndromes (SRS, BWS) are rare congenital human disorders characterized by opposite growth disturbances. With the increasing knowledge on the molecular basis of SRS and BWS, it has become obvious that the disorders mirror opposite alterations at the same genomic loci [...] Read more.

Silver–Russell and Beckwith–Wiedemann syndromes (SRS, BWS) are rare congenital human disorders characterized by opposite growth disturbances. With the increasing knowledge on the molecular basis of SRS and BWS, it has become obvious that the disorders mirror opposite alterations at the same genomic loci in 11p15.5. In fact, these changes directly or indirectly affect the expression of IGF2 and CDKN1C and their associated pathways, and thereby, cause growth disturbances as key features of both diseases. The increase of knowledge has become possible with the development and implementation of new and comprehensive assays. Whereas, in the beginning molecular testing was restricted to single chromosomal loci, many tests now address numerous loci in the same run, and the diagnostic implementation of (epi)genome wide assays is only a question of time. These high-throughput approaches will be complemented by the analysis of other omic datasets (e.g., transcriptome, metabolome, proteome), and it can be expected that the integration of these data will massively improve the understanding of the pathobiology of imprinting disorders and their diagnostics. Especially long-read sequencing methods, e.g., nanopore sequencing, allowing direct detection of native DNA modification, will strongly contribute to a better understanding of genomic imprinting in the near future. Thereby, new genomic loci and types of pathogenic variants will be identified, resulting in more precise discrimination into different molecular subgroups. These subgroups serve as the basis for (epi)genotype–phenotype correlations, allowing a more directed prognosis, counseling, and therapy. By deciphering the pathophysiological consequences of SRS and BWS and their molecular disturbances, future therapies will be available targeting the basic cause of the disease and respective pathomechanisms and will complement conventional therapeutic strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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26 pages, 2301 KiB

Open AccessReview

Prioritization of Variants Detected by Next Generation Sequencing According to the Mutation Tolerance and Mutational Architecture of the Corresponding Genes

by Iria Roca, Ana Fernández-Marmiesse, Sofía Gouveia, Marta Segovia and María L. Couce

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(6), 1584; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19061584 - 27 May 2018

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6045

Abstract

The biggest challenge geneticists face when applying next-generation sequencing technology to the diagnosis of rare diseases is determining which rare variants, from the dozens or hundreds detected, are potentially implicated in the patient’s phenotype. Thus, variant prioritization is an essential step in the [...] Read more.

The biggest challenge geneticists face when applying next-generation sequencing technology to the diagnosis of rare diseases is determining which rare variants, from the dozens or hundreds detected, are potentially implicated in the patient’s phenotype. Thus, variant prioritization is an essential step in the process of rare disease diagnosis. In addition to conducting the usual in-silico analyses to predict variant pathogenicity (based on nucleotide/amino-acid conservation and the differences between the physicochemical features of the amino-acid change), three important concepts should be borne in mind. The first is the “mutation tolerance” of the genes in which variants are located. This describes the susceptibility of a given gene to any functional mutation and depends on the strength of purifying selection acting against it. The second is the “mutational architecture” of each gene. This describes the type and location of mutations previously identified in the gene, and their association with different phenotypes or degrees of severity. The third is the mode of inheritance (inherited vs. de novo) of the variants detected. Here, we discuss the importance of each of these concepts for variant prioritization in the diagnosis of rare diseases. Using real data, we show how genes, rather than variants, can be prioritized by calculating a gene-specific mutation tolerance score. We also illustrate the influence of mutational architecture on variant prioritization using five paradigmatic examples. Finally, we discuss the importance of familial variant analysis as final step in variant prioritization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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11 pages, 224 KiB

Open AccessReview

Alpha-Mannosidosis: Therapeutic Strategies

by Maria Rachele Ceccarini, Michela Codini, Carmela Conte, Federica Patria, Samuela Cataldi, Matteo Bertelli, Elisabetta Albi and Tommaso Beccari

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(5), 1500; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19051500 - 17 May 2018

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 9130

Abstract

Alpha-mannosidosis (α-mannosidosis) is a rare lysosomal storage disorder with an autosomal recessive inheritance caused by mutations in the gene encoding for the lysosomal α-d-mannosidase. So far, 155 variants from 191 patients have been identified and in part characterized at the biochemical [...] Read more.

Alpha-mannosidosis (α-mannosidosis) is a rare lysosomal storage disorder with an autosomal recessive inheritance caused by mutations in the gene encoding for the lysosomal α-d-mannosidase. So far, 155 variants from 191 patients have been identified and in part characterized at the biochemical level. Similarly to other lysosomal storage diseases, there is no relationship between genotype and phenotype in alpha-mannosidosis. Enzyme replacement therapy is at the moment the most effective therapy for lysosomal storage disease, including alpha-mannosidosis. In this review, the genetic of alpha-mannosidosis has been described together with the results so far obtained by two different therapeutic strategies: bone marrow transplantation and enzyme replacement therapy. The primary indication to offer hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in patients affected by alpha-mannosidosis is preservation of neurocognitive function and prevention of early death. The results obtained from a Phase I–II study and a Phase III study provide evidence of the positive clinical effect of the recombinant enzyme on patients with alpha-mannosidosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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17 pages, 1168 KiB

Open AccessReview

Targeting the Polyadenylation Signal of Pre-mRNA: A New Gene Silencing Approach for Facioscapulohumeral Dystrophy

by Anne-Charlotte Marsollier, Romain Joubert, Virginie Mariot and Julie Dumonceaux

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(5), 1347; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19051347 - 3 May 2018

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 9264

Abstract

Facioscapulohumeral dystrophy (FSHD) is characterized by the contraction of the D4Z4 array located in the sub-telomeric region of the chromosome 4, leading to the aberrant expression of the DUX4 transcription factor and the mis-regulation of hundreds of genes. Several therapeutic strategies have been [...] Read more.

Facioscapulohumeral dystrophy (FSHD) is characterized by the contraction of the D4Z4 array located in the sub-telomeric region of the chromosome 4, leading to the aberrant expression of the DUX4 transcription factor and the mis-regulation of hundreds of genes. Several therapeutic strategies have been proposed among which the possibility to target the polyadenylation signal to silence the causative gene of the disease. Indeed, defects in mRNA polyadenylation leads to an alteration of the transcription termination, a disruption of mRNA transport from the nucleus to the cytoplasm decreasing the mRNA stability and translation efficiency. This review discusses the polyadenylation mechanisms, why alternative polyadenylation impacts gene expression, and how targeting polyadenylation signal may be a potential therapeutic approach for FSHD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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47 pages, 16150 KiB

Open AccessReview

CDG Therapies: From Bench to Bedside

by Sandra Brasil, Carlota Pascoal, Rita Francisco, Dorinda Marques-da-Silva, Giuseppina Andreotti, Paula A. Videira, Eva Morava, Jaak Jaeken and Vanessa Dos Reis Ferreira

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(5), 1304; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19051304 - 27 Apr 2018

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 12627

Abstract

Congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG) are a group of genetic disorders that affect protein and lipid glycosylation and glycosylphosphatidylinositol synthesis. More than 100 different disorders have been reported and the number is rapidly increasing. Since glycosylation is an essential post-translational process, patients present [...] Read more.

Congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG) are a group of genetic disorders that affect protein and lipid glycosylation and glycosylphosphatidylinositol synthesis. More than 100 different disorders have been reported and the number is rapidly increasing. Since glycosylation is an essential post-translational process, patients present a large range of symptoms and variable phenotypes, from very mild to extremely severe. Only for few CDG, potentially curative therapies are being used, including dietary supplementation (e.g., galactose for PGM1-CDG, fucose for SLC35C1-CDG, Mn²⁺ for TMEM165-CDG or mannose for MPI-CDG) and organ transplantation (e.g., liver for MPI-CDG and heart for DOLK-CDG). However, for the majority of patients, only symptomatic and preventive treatments are in use. This constitutes a burden for patients, care-givers and ultimately the healthcare system. Innovative diagnostic approaches, in vitro and in vivo models and novel biomarkers have been developed that can lead to novel therapeutic avenues aiming to ameliorate the patients’ symptoms and lives. This review summarizes the advances in therapeutic approaches for CDG. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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18 pages, 723 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Horizon of a Therapy for Rare Genetic Diseases: A “Druggable” Future for Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva

by Serena Cappato, Francesca Giacopelli, Roberto Ravazzolo and Renata Bocciardi

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(4), 989; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19040989 - 26 Mar 2018

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7477

Abstract

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a rare genetic condition characterized by progressive extra-skeletal ossification leading to cumulative and severe disability. FOP has an extremely variable and episodic course and can be induced by trauma, infections, iatrogenic harms, immunization or can occur in an [...] Read more.

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a rare genetic condition characterized by progressive extra-skeletal ossification leading to cumulative and severe disability. FOP has an extremely variable and episodic course and can be induced by trauma, infections, iatrogenic harms, immunization or can occur in an unpredictable way, without any recognizable trigger. The causative gene is ACVR1, encoding the Alk-2 type I receptor for bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). The signaling is initiated by BMP binding to a receptor complex consisting of type I and II molecules and can proceed into the cell through two main pathways, a canonical, SMAD-dependent signaling and a p38-mediated cascade. Most FOP patients carry the recurrent R206H substitution in the receptor Glycine-Serine rich (GS) domain, whereas a few other mutations are responsible for a limited number of cases. Mutations cause a dysregulation of the downstream BMP-dependent pathway and make mutated ACVR1 responsive to a non-canonical ligand, Activin A. There is no etiologic treatment for FOP. However, many efforts are currently ongoing to find specific therapies targeting the receptor activity and the downstream aberrant pathway at different levels or targeting cellular components and/or processes that are important in modifying the local environment leading to bone neo-formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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13 pages, 991 KiB

Open AccessReview

CRISPR/Cas9 Technology as an Emerging Tool for Targeting Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

by Ewa Kruminis-Kaszkiel, Judyta Juranek, Wojciech Maksymowicz and Joanna Wojtkiewicz

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(3), 906; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19030906 - 19 Mar 2018

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 10407

Abstract

The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein-9 nuclease (Cas9) is a genome editing tool that has recently caught enormous attention due to its novelty, feasibility, and affordability. This system naturally functions as a defense mechanism in bacteria and has been repurposed [...] Read more.

The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein-9 nuclease (Cas9) is a genome editing tool that has recently caught enormous attention due to its novelty, feasibility, and affordability. This system naturally functions as a defense mechanism in bacteria and has been repurposed as an RNA-guided DNA editing tool. Unlike zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs) and transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), CRISPR/Cas9 takes advantage of an RNA-guided DNA endonuclease enzyme, Cas9, which is able to generate double-strand breaks (DSBs) at specific genomic locations. It triggers cellular endogenous DNA repair pathways, contributing to the generation of desired modifications in the genome. The ability of the system to precisely disrupt DNA sequences has opened up new avenues in our understanding of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) pathogenesis and the development of new therapeutic approaches. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of the principles and limitations of the CRISPR/Cas9 system, as well as strategies to improve these limitations. Furthermore, we summarize novel approaches of engaging the CRISPR/Cas9 system in establishing an adequate model of neurodegenerative disease and in the treatment of SOD1-linked forms of ALS. We also highlight possible applications of this system in the therapy of ALS, both the inherited type as well as ALS of sporadic origin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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Open AccessReview

Systematic Review of Cysteine-Sparing NOTCH3 Missense Mutations in Patients with Clinical Suspicion of CADASIL

by Elena Muiño, Cristina Gallego-Fabrega, Natalia Cullell, Caty Carrera, Nuria Torres, Jurek Krupinski, Jaume Roquer, Joan Montaner and Israel Fernández-Cadenas

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(9), 1964; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18091964 - 13 Sep 2017

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 8109

Abstract

CADASIL (cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy) is caused by mutations in the NOTCH3 gene, affecting the number of cysteines in the extracellular domain of the receptor, causing protein misfolding and receptor aggregation. The pathogenic role of cysteine-sparing NOTCH3 missense [...] Read more.

CADASIL (cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy) is caused by mutations in the NOTCH3 gene, affecting the number of cysteines in the extracellular domain of the receptor, causing protein misfolding and receptor aggregation. The pathogenic role of cysteine-sparing NOTCH3 missense mutations in patients with typical clinical CADASIL syndrome is unknown. The aim of this article is to describe these mutations to clarify if any could be potentially pathogenic. Articles on cysteine-sparing NOTCH3 missense mutations in patients with clinical suspicion of CADASIL were reviewed. Mutations were considered potentially pathogenic if patients had: (a) typical clinical CADASIL syndrome; (b) diffuse white matter hyperintensities; (c) the 33 NOTCH3 exons analyzed; (d) mutations that were not polymorphisms; and (e) Granular osmiophilic material (GOM) deposits in the skin biopsy. Twenty-five different mutations were listed. Four fulfill the above criteria: p.R61W; p.R75P; p.D80G; and p.R213K. Patients carrying these mutations had typical clinical CADASIL syndrome and diffuse white matter hyperintensities, mostly without anterior temporal pole involvement. Cysteine-sparing NOTCH3 missense mutations are associated with typical clinical CADASIL syndrome and typical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings, although with less involvement of the anterior temporal lobe. Hence, these mutations should be further studied to confirm their pathological role in CADASIL. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies)

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