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Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae
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Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae

A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant Physiology and Metabolism".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 March 2025 | Viewed by 13339

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Natalia N. Rudenko

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Basic Biological Problems, Federal Research Center “Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences”, Pushchino 142290, Russia
Interests: photosynthesis; thylakoids; photosystem II; photosystem I; carbonic anhydrase; carbon metabolism; photosynthetic electron transport chain; PCR; gene expression
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Natallia L. Pshybytko

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Biological Faculty, Belarusian State University, 4 Independence Avenue, Minsk 220030, Belarus
Interests: photosynthesis; photosystem II; photosystem I; chloroplast electron flows; plastoquinone; ferredoxin; heat stress; drought

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Photosynthesis, the process via which autotrophs consume carbon dioxide in the green cells, is the most important phenomena on Earth since it provides molecular oxygen and facilitates growth in higher plants and algae by allowing them to utilize organic substances from inorganic carbon. Inorganic carbon is the substrate of the key reaction in the dark stage of photosynthesis, involving the carboxylation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate by the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco), which is the most abundant plant cell protein. Inorganic carbon is involved not only in the “dark metabolism” reactions, but also interacts with the participants in the “light stage by the effect of HCO3ˉ (or CO2) on electron transfer both on the donor and on the acceptor side of Photosystem II, so-called “bicarbonate effect”.

The flows of carbon dioxide in the cell and the whole organism are rather intense. A delay in inorganic carbon intake can not only slow down the processes of photosynthesis, but also gravely alter the homeostasis of the cell and even cause its death. Hence, certain plants require the mechanisms for inorganic carbon concentration in cells close to Rubisco, when adapting to growth conditions during the evolution of photosynthesis. These metabolic pathways, which differ in different groups of organisms, are called the CO2-concentrating mechanisms (CCM). Aquatic photoautotrophs (such as cyanobacteria and algae) that lack CCM would be deficient in CO2 for photosynthesis, because despite the fact that the concentration of CO2 in water is approximately the same as in air, the rate of its diffusion in water is 1000 times smaller. In terrestrial higher plants, CCM exists in the C4 form of photosynthesis with the primary carboxylation reactions and the Calvin cycle separated in space or in time, as in the case of Crassulacean acid (CAM) metabolism.

This Special Issue aims to collate research papers on all aspects of photosynthesis in higher plants and algae, carbon metabolism, inorganic carbon transport into plants cells and organoids, the physiological sensing of carbon dioxide and bicarbonate, the participation of higher plants and algae enzymes in these processes. We also welcome papers concerning the locations, functions, participation in metabolic processes, isolation, structure of dark metabolism enzymes, bicarbonate transporters from algae and higher plants with C3 and C4 types of CO2 fixation, new aspects of HCO3ˉ interaction with the components of Photosystem II, the effect of inorganic carbon on the functioning of electron-transport chain, the expression of bicarbonate-transporter-encoding genes, and the practical use of bicarbonate transporter mutants (i.e., their medical relevance, gene manipulation for developing improved agricultural crops, and their application for reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels).

Dr. Natalia N. Rudenko
Dr. Natallia L. Pshybytko
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • algae
  • bicarbonate
  • bicarbonate effect
  • C3 photosynthesis
  • C4 photosynthesis
  • CAM metabolism
  • carbon fixation
  • chloroplasts
  • CO2 concentrating mechanism
  • higher plant
  • photosynthesis
  • rubisco

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 2644 KiB  
Article
Photosynthetic Induction Characteristics in Saplings of Four Sun-Demanding Trees and Shrubs
by Qiuping Liu, Wei Jin, Liying Huang, Danfeng Wang, Kedong Xu and Yunmin Wei
Plants 2025, 14(1), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14010144 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 619
Abstract
Light serves as the unique driving force of photosynthesis in plants, yet its intensity varies over time and space, leading to corresponding changes in the photosynthetic rate. Here, the photosynthetic induction response under constant and fluctuating light was examined in naturally occurring saplings [...] Read more.
Light serves as the unique driving force of photosynthesis in plants, yet its intensity varies over time and space, leading to corresponding changes in the photosynthetic rate. Here, the photosynthetic induction response under constant and fluctuating light was examined in naturally occurring saplings of four sun-demanding woody species, Eucalyptus. Ficus macrocarpa L., Hibiscus syriacus L. and Ficus carica L. We aimed to find out the relations among gas exchange parameter adaptions among different species during photosynthetic induction. The net photosynthetic rates (A) versus time course curves were sigmoidal or hyperbolic after the dark-adapted leaves were irradiated by continuous saturated light. Compared with other species, Ficus carica L. have the largest net photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance to CO2 (gsc), and the maximum carboxylation rate (Vcmax) at both the initial and steady photosynthetic state. The initial gsc (gsci) was as much as sixfold higher compared to the other shrub, Hibiscus syriacus L. The time required to reach 90% of A (tA90) was 7–30 min; tA90 of Ficus carica L. and Ficus macrocarpa L. were lower than that of the other two species. The time required to reach 90% of gsc (tgsc90) significantly lagged behind tA90 among species. Biochemical induction was fast in leaves of Ficus carica L., as about 4 min were needed to reach 90% of Vcmax, while the other species needed 7–18 min. Correlation analysis showed that the tgsc90 was the main factor in limiting tA90, especially for Eucalyptus spp. and Hibiscus syriacus L.; gsci was negatively correlated with tgsc90 among species. Moreover, time-integrated limitation analysis revealed that gsc still accounted for the largest limitation in constraining A of Eucalyptus spp. and Hibiscus syriacus L. and Ficus macrocarpa L. Overall, the findings suggest that to enhance the carbon gain by woody species under naturally dynamic light environments, attention should be focused on improving the rate of stomatal opening or initial stomatal conductance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae)
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17 pages, 2241 KiB  
Article
Highly Active Carbonic Anhydrase of the Thylakoid Lumen of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
by Vasily V. Terentyev, Liubov I. Trubitsina, Anna K. Shukshina, Ivan V. Trubitsin and Natalia N. Rudenko
Plants 2025, 14(1), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14010055 - 27 Dec 2024
Viewed by 548
Abstract
The green unicellular algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii contains 12–13 carbonic anhydrases (CAs). For a long time, the two closely related α-CAs of the periplasmic membrane CAH1 and CAH2 were considered to be the CAs with the highest CO2 hydration activity. The recombinant protein [...] Read more.
The green unicellular algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii contains 12–13 carbonic anhydrases (CAs). For a long time, the two closely related α-CAs of the periplasmic membrane CAH1 and CAH2 were considered to be the CAs with the highest CO2 hydration activity. The recombinant protein α-CA CAH3 (rCAH3) from the thylakoid lumen obtained in the present study showed more than three times higher activity compared to CAH1 and more than 11 times higher compared to previous studies with rCAH3. Long-term sustainability of the enzyme was observed at alkaline pH (>8), with maintenance of half of its activity at 4 °C for up to 50 days. Thermostability of rCAH3 indicated the retention of the activity at 20 °C for one hour at pH 9–10 with its ~50% decrease at pH 6–7. However, the residual activity of rCAH3 after incubation at an extremely high temperature (75 °C) for 15 min led to the formation of the double-hump graph with maxima at pH 6 and 9. The enzyme demonstrated high sensitivity to ethoxyzolamide and acetazolamide at nM concentrations, to Zn2+ and Cu2+ cations at 1 mM concentrations, and L-cysteine was able to completely inhibit CA activity of rCAH3 through reduction of sulfhydryl groups. Esterase activity of rCAH3 was well detected with values comparable to those of bovine CAII, but with a maximum at pH 8 instead of pH 9, which is usual for bovine CAII. The results indicated that CAH3 may be the most active CA of C. reinhardtii and that its role in the photosynthetic apparatus function could have been underestimated in previous works. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae)
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17 pages, 2399 KiB  
Article
Pathways of Oxygen-Dependent Oxidation of the Plastoquinone Pool in the Dark After Illumination
by Ilya Naydov, Marina Kozuleva, Boris Ivanov, Maria Borisova-Mubarakshina and Daria Vilyanen
Plants 2024, 13(24), 3479; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13243479 (registering DOI) - 12 Dec 2024
Viewed by 569
Abstract
The redox state of the plastoquinone (PQ) pool in thylakoids plays an important role in the regulation of chloroplast metabolism. In the light, the PQ pool is mostly reduced, followed by oxidation after light cessation. It has been believed for a long time [...] Read more.
The redox state of the plastoquinone (PQ) pool in thylakoids plays an important role in the regulation of chloroplast metabolism. In the light, the PQ pool is mostly reduced, followed by oxidation after light cessation. It has been believed for a long time that dark oxidation depends on oxygen, although the precise mechanisms of the process are still unknown and debated. In this work, we analyzed PQ pool oxidation kinetics in isolated pea (Pisum sativum) thylakoids by tracking the changes in the area above the OJIP fluorescence curve (Afl) over time intervals from 0.1 s to 10 min in the dark following illumination. Afl served as an indirect measure of the redox state of the PQ pool that enabled quantification of the rate of PQ pool oxidation. The results showed a two-phase increase in Afl. The “fast” phase appeared to be linked to electron flow from the PQ pool to downstream acceptors of the photosynthetic electron transport chain. The “slow” phase involved oxidation of PQH2 through oxygen-dependent mechanisms. Adding octyl gallate, an inhibitor of plastid terminal oxidase (PTOX), to isolated thylakoid suspensions decreased the rate of the “slow” phase of PQ pool oxidation in the dark after illumination. The addition of either H2O2 or catalase, an enzyme that decomposes H2O2, revealed that H2O2 accelerates oxidation of the PQ pool. This indicates that under conditions that favor H2O2 accumulation, H2O2 can contribute substantially to PQ pool oxidation in the dark after illumination. The contribution of PTOX and H2O2 to the modulation of the PQ pool redox state in plants in the dark after illumination is discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae)
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13 pages, 4801 KiB  
Article
Non-Foliar Photosynthesis in Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Plants: Beyond the Leaves to Inside the Seeds
by Nataliia Stepanova, Tatiana Zhilkina, Anastasia Kamionskaya and Galina Smolikova
Plants 2024, 13(20), 2945; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13202945 - 21 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1258
Abstract
In addition to leaves, photosynthesis can occur in other green plant organs, including developing seeds of many crops. While the majority of studies examining photosynthesis are concentrated on the leaf level, the role of other green tissues in the production of total photoassimilates [...] Read more.
In addition to leaves, photosynthesis can occur in other green plant organs, including developing seeds of many crops. While the majority of studies examining photosynthesis are concentrated on the leaf level, the role of other green tissues in the production of total photoassimilates has been largely overlooked. The present work studies the photosynthetic behavior of leaves and non-foliar (pericarps, coats, and cotyledons) organs of pea (Pisum sativum L.) plants at the middle stage of seed maturation. The Chl a fluorescence transient was examined based on OJIP kinetics using the FluorPen FP 110. A discrepancy was observed between the performance index (PIABS) for foliar and non-foliar plant tissues, with the highest level noted in the leaves. The number of absorbed photons (ABS) and captured energy flow (TRo) per reaction center (RC) were elevated in the non-foliar tissues, which resulted in a faster reduction in QA. Conversely, the energy dissipation flux per RC (DIo/RC and PHI_Do) indicated an increase in the overall dissipation potential of active reaction centers of photosystem II. This phenomenon was attributed to the presence of a higher number of inactive RCs in tissues that had developed under low light intensity. Furthermore, the expression of genes associated with proteins and enzymes that regulate ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCo) activity was observed, including chaperonins Cpn60α and Cpn60β, RuBisCO activase, as well as phosphoribulokinase. The expression of these genes was found to differ between foliar and non-foliar tissues, indicating that the activation state of RuBisCO may be modified in response to light intensity. Overall, the present study provides insights into the mechanisms by which non-foliar green tissues of plants adapt to efficient light capture and utilization under low light conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae)
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31 pages, 42225 KiB  
Article
Comparative Insights into Photosynthetic, Biochemical, and Ultrastructural Mechanisms in Hibiscus and Pelargonium Plants
by Renan Falcioni, Werner Camargos Antunes, Roney Berti de Oliveira, Marcelo Luiz Chicati, José Alexandre M. Demattê and Marcos Rafael Nanni
Plants 2024, 13(19), 2831; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13192831 - 9 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1734
Abstract
Understanding photosynthetic mechanisms in different plant species is crucial for advancing agricultural productivity and ecological restoration. This study presents a detailed physiological and ultrastructural comparison of photosynthetic mechanisms between Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.) and Pelargonium (Pelargonium zonale (L.) L’Hér. Ex Aiton) [...] Read more.
Understanding photosynthetic mechanisms in different plant species is crucial for advancing agricultural productivity and ecological restoration. This study presents a detailed physiological and ultrastructural comparison of photosynthetic mechanisms between Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.) and Pelargonium (Pelargonium zonale (L.) L’Hér. Ex Aiton) plants. The data collection encompassed daily photosynthetic profiles, responses to light and CO2, leaf optical properties, fluorescence data (OJIP transients), biochemical analyses, and anatomical observations. The findings reveal distinct morphological, optical, and biochemical adaptations between the two species. These adaptations were associated with differences in photochemical (AMAX, E, Ci, iWUE, and α) and carboxylative parameters (VCMAX, ΓCO2, gs, gm, Cc, and AJMAX), along with variations in fluorescence and concentrations of chlorophylls and carotenoids. Such factors modulate the efficiency of photosynthesis. Energy dissipation mechanisms, including thermal and fluorescence pathways (ΦPSII, ETR, NPQ), and JIP test-derived metrics highlighted differences in electron transport, particularly between PSII and PSI. At the ultrastructural level, Hibiscus exhibited optimised cellular and chloroplast architecture, characterised by increased chloroplast density and robust grana structures. In contrast, Pelargonium displayed suboptimal photosynthetic parameters, possibly due to reduced thylakoid counts and a higher proportion of mitochondria. In conclusion, while Hibiscus appears primed for efficient photosynthesis and energy storage, Pelargonium may prioritise alternative cellular functions, engaging in a metabolic trade-off. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae)
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31 pages, 13875 KiB  
Article
The Freshwater Cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 Does Not Require an Active External Carbonic Anhydrase
by Elena V. Kupriyanova, Maria A. Sinetova, David A. Gabrielyan and Dmitry A. Los
Plants 2024, 13(16), 2323; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13162323 - 20 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1060
Abstract
Under standard laboratory conditions, Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 lacks EcaASyn, a periplasmic carbonic anhydrase (CA). In this study, a S. elongatus transformant was created that expressed the homologous EcaACya from Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142. This additional external CA had no [...] Read more.
Under standard laboratory conditions, Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 lacks EcaASyn, a periplasmic carbonic anhydrase (CA). In this study, a S. elongatus transformant was created that expressed the homologous EcaACya from Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142. This additional external CA had no discernible effect on the adaptive responses and physiology of cells exposed to changes similar to those found in S. elongatus natural habitats, such as fluctuating CO2 and HCO3− concentrations and ratios, oxidative or light stress, and high CO2. The transformant had a disadvantage over wild-type cells under certain conditions (Na+ depletion, a reduction in CO2). S. elongatus cells lacked their own EcaASyn in all experimental conditions. The results suggest the presence in S. elongatus of mechanisms that limit the appearance of EcaASyn in the periplasm. For the first time, we offer data on the expression pattern of CCM-associated genes during S. elongatus adaptation to CO2 replacement with HCO3−, as well as cell transfer to high CO2 levels (up to 100%). An increase in CO2 concentration coincides with the suppression of the NDH-14 system, which was previously thought to function constitutively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae)
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30 pages, 6746 KiB  
Article
Photosynthesis, Anatomy, and Metabolism as a Tool for Assessing Physiological Modulation in Five Native Species of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest
by Luis Alfonso Rodríguez-Páez, Mahmoud F. Seleiman, Bushra A. Alhammad, Yirlis Yadeth Pineda-Rodríguez, Marcelo F. Pompelli, Auxiliadora Oliveira Martins, Jaqueline Dias-Pereira and Wagner L. Araújo
Plants 2024, 13(14), 1906; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13141906 - 10 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1454
Abstract
The Brazilian Atlantic Forest, renowned for its exceptional species richness and high endemism, acts as a vital reservoir of terrestrial biodiversity, often referred to as a biodiversity hotspot. Consequently, there is an urgent need to restore this forest to safeguard certain species and [...] Read more.
The Brazilian Atlantic Forest, renowned for its exceptional species richness and high endemism, acts as a vital reservoir of terrestrial biodiversity, often referred to as a biodiversity hotspot. Consequently, there is an urgent need to restore this forest to safeguard certain species and to unravel the ecophysiological adaptations of others. This study aims to integrate some physiological parameters, including gas exchange and chlorophyll a fluorescence, with anatomical and metabolic techniques to elucidate how five different native species (Paubrasilia echinata, Chorisia glaziovii, Clusia nemorosa, Licania tomentosa, and Schinus terebinthifolius), each occupying distinct ecological niches, respond to seasonal variations in rainfall and their consequences. Our investigation has revealed that C. nemorosa and P. echinata exhibit robust mechanisms to mitigate the adverse effects of drought. In contrast, others demonstrate greater adaptability (e.g., S. terebinthifolia and C. glaziovii). In this context, exploring metabolic pathways has proven invaluable in comprehending the physiological strategies and their significance in species acclimatization. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the impact of water restrictions and their consequential effects on various species, defining the strategies each species uses to mitigate water privation during the dry season. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae)
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14 pages, 3145 KiB  
Article
Improving Tree Seedling Quality Using Humates Combined with Bacteria to Address Decarbonization Challenges through Forest Restoration
by Aleksey Nazarov, Sergey Chetverikov, Maxim Timergalin, Ruslan Ivanov, Nadezhda Ryazanova, Zinnur Shigapov, Iren Tuktarova, Ruslan Urazgildin and Guzel Kudoyarova
Plants 2024, 13(11), 1452; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13111452 - 23 May 2024
Viewed by 1136
Abstract
Improving the quality of tree planting material for carbon sequestration through reforestation can help solve environmental problems, including the need to reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of using humic [...] Read more.
Improving the quality of tree planting material for carbon sequestration through reforestation can help solve environmental problems, including the need to reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of using humic substances in combination with rhizosphere microorganisms Pseudomonas protegens DA1.2 and Pseudomonas sp. 4CH as a means to stimulate the growth of seedlings of pine, poplar, large-leaved linden, red oak, horse chestnut, and rowan. Humic substances stimulated the growth of shoots and roots of pine, large-leaved linden, and horse chestnut seedlings. The effects of bacteria depended on both plant and bacteria species: Pseudomonas protegens DA1.2 showed a higher stimulatory effect than Pseudomonas sp. 4CH on pine and linden, and Pseudomonas sp. 4CH was more effective in the case of chestnut. An additive effect of humates and Pseudomonas protegens DA1.2 on the growth rate of pine and linden saplings was discovered. Poplar, red oak, and rowan seedlings were unresponsive to the treatments. The growth-stimulating effects of the treatments are discussed in connection with the changes in carbon, chlorophyll, and nitrogen contents in plants. The results show the need for further research in bacterial species capable of stimulating the growth of plant species that were unresponsive in the present experiments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae)
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Review

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16 pages, 751 KiB  
Review
Improving Crop Yield through Increasing Carbon Gain and Reducing Carbon Loss
by Palanivelu Vikram Karthick, Alagarswamy Senthil, Maduraimuthu Djanaguiraman, Kuppusamy Anitha, Ramalingam Kuttimani, Parasuraman Boominathan, Ramasamy Karthikeyan and Muthurajan Raveendran
Plants 2024, 13(10), 1317; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13101317 - 10 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1500
Abstract
Photosynthesis is a process where solar energy is utilized to convert atmospheric CO2 into carbohydrates, which forms the basis for plant productivity. The increasing demand for food has created a global urge to enhance yield. Earlier, the plant breeding program was targeting [...] Read more.
Photosynthesis is a process where solar energy is utilized to convert atmospheric CO2 into carbohydrates, which forms the basis for plant productivity. The increasing demand for food has created a global urge to enhance yield. Earlier, the plant breeding program was targeting the yield and yield-associated traits to enhance the crop yield. However, the yield cannot be further improved without improving the leaf photosynthetic rate. Hence, in this review, various strategies to enhance leaf photosynthesis were presented. The most promising strategies were the optimization of Rubisco carboxylation efficiency, the introduction of a CO2 concentrating mechanism in C3 plants, and the manipulation of photorespiratory bypasses in C3 plants, which are discussed in detail. Improving Rubisco’s carboxylation efficiency is possible by engineering targets such as Rubisco subunits, chaperones, and Rubisco activase enzyme activity. Carbon-concentrating mechanisms can be introduced in C3 plants by the adoption of pyrenoid and carboxysomes, which can increase the CO2 concentration around the Rubisco enzyme. Photorespiration is the process by which the fixed carbon is lost through an oxidative process. Different approaches to reduce carbon and nitrogen loss were discussed. Overall, the potential approaches to improve the photosynthetic process and the way forward were discussed in detail. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae)
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14 pages, 2374 KiB  
Review
Assembly and Repair of Photosystem II in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
by Himanshu S. Mehra, Xiaozhuo Wang, Brandon P. Russell, Nidhi Kulkarni, Nicholas Ferrari, Brent Larson and David J. Vinyard
Plants 2024, 13(6), 811; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13060811 - 12 Mar 2024
Viewed by 2234
Abstract
Oxygenic photosynthetic organisms use Photosystem II (PSII) to oxidize water and reduce plastoquinone. Here, we review the mechanisms by which PSII is assembled and turned over in the model green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. This species has been used to make key discoveries [...] Read more.
Oxygenic photosynthetic organisms use Photosystem II (PSII) to oxidize water and reduce plastoquinone. Here, we review the mechanisms by which PSII is assembled and turned over in the model green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. This species has been used to make key discoveries in PSII research due to its metabolic flexibility and amenability to genetic approaches. PSII subunits originate from both nuclear and chloroplastic gene products in Chlamydomonas. Nuclear-encoded PSII subunits are transported into the chloroplast and chloroplast-encoded PSII subunits are translated by a coordinated mechanism. Active PSII dimers are built from discrete reaction center complexes in a process facilitated by assembly factors. The phosphorylation of core subunits affects supercomplex formation and localization within the thylakoid network. Proteolysis primarily targets the D1 subunit, which when replaced, allows PSII to be reactivated and completes a repair cycle. While PSII has been extensively studied using Chlamydomonas as a model species, important questions remain about its assembly and repair which are presented here. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis and Carbon Metabolism in Higher Plants and Algae)
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Planned Papers

The below list represents only planned manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts have not been received by the Editorial Office yet. Papers submitted to MDPI journals are subject to peer-review.

Title: Photosynthetic Inorganic-Carbon Acquisition and Metabolism in Marine Algae and Angiosperms (Seagrasses): A Summary
Authors: Sven Beer; John Beardall
Affiliation: Tel Aviv University (Israel); Monash University (Australia)
Abstract: One distinct difference between terrestrial and submerged environments is that the diffusional availability of carbon dioxide (CO2) is orders of magnitude lower in the latter, while the carboxylating affinity of their ultimate CO2-fixing enzyme ribulose-1,5-carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) commonly is also lower. This necessitates a functioning CO2-concentrating mechanism (CCM) which, however, generally differs from that of terrestrial C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) plants by being based on various ways of acquiring the ~150 times higher concentration of bicarbonate (HCO3-) in seawater. We will in this paper summarise the current knowledge of photosynthetic carbon acquisition and metabolism of submerged marine phototrophs.

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