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13 pages, 633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Non-Conventional Irrigation Water in Greenhouse Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) Production

by Muhammad Mumtaz Khan, Mansour Hamed Al-Haddabi, Muhammad Tahir Akram, Muhammad Azam Khan, Aitazaz A. Farooque and Sajjad Ahmad Siddiqi

Sustainability 2022, 14(1), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010257 - 27 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3149

Abstract

Climate change, urbanization and subsequent environmental changes are depleting freshwater resources around the globe. The reuse of domestic, industrial and agricultural wastewater is an alternative approach to freshwater that can be used for irrigation purposes. However, these wastewaters may contain hazardous and toxic [...] Read more.

Climate change, urbanization and subsequent environmental changes are depleting freshwater resources around the globe. The reuse of domestic, industrial and agricultural wastewater is an alternative approach to freshwater that can be used for irrigation purposes. However, these wastewaters may contain hazardous and toxic elements, such as heavy metals that are hazardous for human health and the environment. Therefore, an experiment was conducted to evaluate the concentration of macro, micro and heavy metals in cucumber irrigated with different resources (tap water, greywater, dairy water and wastewater). The results showed that the use of different irrigation resources has increased the level of macro (sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg)), microelements (zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn)), and heavy metals (copper (Cu), barium (Ba), lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd)) in cucumber leaves and fruits. However, their levels were in the range that is safe for human health and the environment was as recommended by FAO maximum values of trace elements (Zn, 2.0; Fe 1.0; Mn, 0.2; Cu, 0.2; Pb, 5.0, and Cd, 0.01 mgL⁻¹). Based on observations, it was also revealed that among different irrigation resources, the use of dairy water in cucumber improved its agronomic attributes and maximum plant yield (1191.02 g), while the different irrigation resources showed a non-significant impact on fruit diameter. However, total soluble solid contents (TSS) were more significant in cucumber fruits treated with wastewater (2.26 °brix) followed by dairy water (2.06 °brix), while the least TSS contents (1.57 °brix) were observed in cucumber plants treated with tap water. The significance of non-conventional irrigation water use in agriculture, particularly greenhouse cucumber (Cucumis sativus) production, is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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17 pages, 5962 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of K and Zn Application on Biometric and Physiological Parameters of Different Maize Genotypes

by Hafiz Muhammad Ali Raza, Muhammad Amjad Bashir, Abdur Rehim, Qurat-Ul-Ain Raza, Kashif Ali Khan, Muhammad Aon, Muhammad Ijaz, Shafeeq Ur Rahman, Fiaz Ahmad and Yucong Geng

Sustainability 2021, 13(23), 13440; https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313440 - 4 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1851

Abstract

Potassium (K) and zinc (Zn) are mineral nutrients required for adequate plant growth, enzyme activation, water retention and photosynthetic activities. However, Pakistani soils are alkaline and have serious problems regarding Zn deficiency. The current study aims at finding the nutrient–nutrient interaction of K [...] Read more.

Potassium (K) and zinc (Zn) are mineral nutrients required for adequate plant growth, enzyme activation, water retention and photosynthetic activities. However, Pakistani soils are alkaline and have serious problems regarding Zn deficiency. The current study aims at finding the nutrient–nutrient interaction of K and Zn to affect maize plants’ (i) physiological processes and (ii) productivity. For this purpose, a pot experiment was conducted at the research area of the Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agricultural Science and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan. Two maize genotypes, DK-6142 (hybrid) and Neelam (non-hybrid), were used with three K fertilizer doses, i.e., 0, 60 and 100 kg ha⁻¹ in all possible combinations with three Zn fertilizer doses, i.e., 0, 16 and 24 kg ha⁻¹. The treatments were replicated under a completely randomized block design. The results elucidated that the combined application of K and Zn with K60 + Zn16 treatment significantly increased agronomic, productive, and physiological attributes. It has improved fresh biomass (89%), dry biomass (94%), membrane stability index (142%), relative water content (200%) and chlorophyll contents (191%) as compared to the control. Moreover, the mineral uptake of K and Zn was significantly improved with their maximum fertilization rate in hybrid genotype compared to non-hybrid and CK. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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10 pages, 1468 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Contribution of Citrus Orchards in Climate Change Mitigation through Carbon Sequestration in Sargodha District, Pakistan

by Ghulam Yasin, Muhammad Farrakh Nawaz, Muhammad Zubair, Ihsan Qadir, Aansa Rukya Saleem, Muhammad Ijaz, Sadaf Gul, Muhammad Amjad Bashir, Abdur Rehim, Shafeeq Ur Rahman and Zhenjie Du

Sustainability 2021, 13(22), 12412; https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212412 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3572

Abstract

Adopting agroforestry practices in many developing countries is essential to combat climate change and diversify farm incomes. This study investigated the above and below-ground biomass and soil carbon of a citrus-based intercropping system in six sites (subdivisions: Bhalwal, Kot Momin, Sahiwal, Sargodha, Shahpur [...] Read more.

Adopting agroforestry practices in many developing countries is essential to combat climate change and diversify farm incomes. This study investigated the above and below-ground biomass and soil carbon of a citrus-based intercropping system in six sites (subdivisions: Bhalwal, Kot Momin, Sahiwal, Sargodha, Shahpur and Silanwali) of District Sargodha, Southeast Pakistan. Tree biomass production and carbon were assessed by allometric equations through a non-destructive approach whereas, soil carbon was estimated at 0–15 cm and 15–30 cm depths. Above and below-ground biomass differed significantly, and the maximum mean values (16.61 Mg ha⁻¹ & 4.82 Mg ha⁻¹) were computed in Shahpur due to greater tree basal diameter. Tree carbon stock fluctuated from 6.98 Mg C ha⁻¹ to 10.28 Mg C ha⁻¹ among selected study sites. The surface soil (0–15 cm) had greater bulk density, organic carbon, and soil carbon stock than the subsoil (15–30 cm) in the whole study area. The total carbon stock of the ecosystem ranged from 25.07 Mg C ha⁻¹ to 34.50 Mg C ha⁻¹ across all study sites, respectively. The above findings enable us to better understand and predict the carbon storage potential of fruit-based agroforestry systems like citrus. Moreover, measuring carbon with simple techniques can produce trustworthy outcomes that enhance the participation of underdeveloped nations in several payment initiatives such as REDD+. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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15 pages, 1530 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Sustainable Irrigation System for Small Landholdings of Rainfed Punjab, Pakistan

by Marjan Aziz, Sultan Ahmad Rizvi, Muhammad Azhar Iqbal, Sairah Syed, Muhammad Ashraf, Saira Anwer, Muhammad Usman, Nazia Tahir, Azra Khan, Sana Asghar and Jamil Akhtar

Sustainability 2021, 13(20), 11178; https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011178 - 11 Oct 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4332

Abstract

Drip irrigation has long been proven beneficial for fruit and vegetable crops in Pakistan, but the only barrier in its adoption is the high cost of installation for small landholders, which is due to overdesigning of the system. In the present study, the [...] Read more.

Drip irrigation has long been proven beneficial for fruit and vegetable crops in Pakistan, but the only barrier in its adoption is the high cost of installation for small landholders, which is due to overdesigning of the system. In the present study, the cost of a conventional drip irrigation system was reduced by redesigning and eliminating the heavy filtration system (i.e., hydrocyclon, sand media, disc filters (groundwater source), pressure gauges, water meters, and double laterals).Purchasing the drip system from local vendors also reduced the cost. Field trials were conducted during 2015 and 2016 to observe the productive and economic effects of low-cost drip irrigation on vegetables (potato, onion, and chilies) and fruits (olive, peach, and citrus). The low-cost drip irrigation system saved 50% cost of irrigation and increased 27–54% net revenue in comparison with the furrow irrigation system. Further, water use efficiency (WUE) was found from 3.91–13.30 kg/m³ and 1.28–4.89 kg/m³ for drip irrigation and furrow irrigation systems, respectively. The physical and chemical attributes of vegetables and fruits were also improved to a reasonably good extent. The present study concluded that low-cost drip irrigation increased the yield by more than 20%, as compared with traditional furrow irrigation, and thus, it is beneficial for the small landholders (i.e., less than 2 hectares). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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20 pages, 5163 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Food Security and Agriculture in Iran: A Survey

by Abdullah Kaviani Rad, Redmond R. Shamshiri, Hassan Azarm, Siva K. Balasundram and Muhammad Sultan

Sustainability 2021, 13(18), 10103; https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810103 - 9 Sep 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7174

Abstract

The consequences of COVID-19 on the economy and agriculture have raised many concerns about global food security, especially in developing countries. Given that food security is a critical component that is affected by global crises, beside the limited studies carried out on the [...] Read more.

The consequences of COVID-19 on the economy and agriculture have raised many concerns about global food security, especially in developing countries. Given that food security is a critical component that is affected by global crises, beside the limited studies carried out on the macro-impacts of COVID-19 on food security in Iran, this paper is an attempt to address the dynamic impacts of COVID-19 on food security along with economic and environmental challenges in Iran. For this purpose, a survey was conducted with the hypothesis that COVID-19 has not affected food security in Iran. To address this fundamental hypothesis, we applied the systematic review method to obtain the evidence. Various evidences, including indices and statistics, were collected from national databases, scientific reports, field observations, and interviews. Preliminary results revealed that COVID-19 exerts its effects on the economy, agriculture, and food security of Iran through six major mechanisms, corresponding to a 30% decrease in the purchasing power parity in 2020 beside a significant increase in food prices compared to 2019. On the other hand, the expanding environmental constraints in Iran reduce the capacity of the agricultural sector to play a crucial role in the economy and ensure food security, and in this regard, COVID-19 forces the national programs and budget to combat rising ecological limitations. Accordingly, our study rejects the hypothesis that COVID-19 has not affected food security in Iran. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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17 pages, 32645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biogas Production Potential from Livestock Manure in Pakistan

by Muhammad U. Khan, Muhammad Ahmad, Muhammad Sultan, Ihsanullah Sohoo, Prakash C. Ghimire, Azlan Zahid, Abid Sarwar, Muhammad Farooq, Uzair Sajjad, Peyman Abdeshahian and Maryam Yousaf

Sustainability 2021, 13(12), 6751; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126751 - 15 Jun 2021

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 12567

Abstract

Pakistan is facing a severe energy crisis due to its heavy dependency on the import of costly fossil fuels, which ultimately leads to expansive electricity generation, a low power supply, and interruptive load shedding. In this regard, the utilization of available renewable energy [...] Read more.

Pakistan is facing a severe energy crisis due to its heavy dependency on the import of costly fossil fuels, which ultimately leads to expansive electricity generation, a low power supply, and interruptive load shedding. In this regard, the utilization of available renewable energy resources within the country for production of electricity can lessen this energy crisis. Livestock waste/manure is considered the most renewable and abundant material for biogas generation. Pakistan is primarily an agricultural country, and livestock is widely kept by the farming community, in order to meet their needs. According to the 2016–2018 data on the livestock population, poultry held the largest share at 45.8%, followed by buffaloes (20.6%), cattle (12.7%), goats (10.8%), sheep (8.4%), asses (1.3%), camels (0.25%), horses (0.1%), and mules (0.05%). Different animals produce different amounts of manure, based upon their size, weight, age, feed, and type. The most manure is produced by cattle (10–20 kg/day), while poultry produce the least (0.08–0.1 kg/day). Large quantities of livestock manure are produced from each province of Pakistan; Punjab province was the highest contributor (51%) of livestock manure in 2018. The potential livestock manure production in Pakistan was 417.3 million tons (Mt) in 2018, from which 26,871.35 million m³ of biogas could be generated—with a production potential of 492.6 petajoules (PJ) of heat energy and 5521.5 MW of electricity. Due to its favorable conditions for biodigester technologies, and through the appropriate development of anaerobic digestion, the currently prevailing energy crises in Pakistan could be eliminated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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16 pages, 42205 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Low-Cost Biomass Furnace for Greenhouse Heating

by Asif Ali, Tahir Iqbal, Muhammad Jehanzeb Masud Cheema, Arslan Afzal, Muhammad Yasin, Zia ul Haq, Arshad Mahmood Malik and Khalid Saifullah Khan

Sustainability 2021, 13(9), 5152; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095152 - 5 May 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3294

Abstract

The energy crisis and increasing fossil fuel prices due to increasing demands, controlled supplies, and global political unrest have adversely affected agricultural productivity and farm profitability across the globe and Pakistan is not an exception. To cope with this issue of energy deficiency [...] Read more.

The energy crisis and increasing fossil fuel prices due to increasing demands, controlled supplies, and global political unrest have adversely affected agricultural productivity and farm profitability across the globe and Pakistan is not an exception. To cope with this issue of energy deficiency in agriculture, the best alternate strategy is to take advantage of biomass and solid waste potential. In low-income countries such as Pakistan, the greenhouse heating system mostly relies on fossil fuels such as diesel, gasoline, and LPG. Farmers are reluctant to adopt greenhouse farming due to the continuously rising prices of the fossil fuels. To reduce reliance on fossil fuel energy, the objective of this study was to utilize biomass from crop residues to develop an efficient and economical biomass furnace that could heat greenhouses to protect the crop from seasonal temperature effects. Modifications made to the biomass furnace, such as the incorporation of insulation around the walls of the furnace, providing turbulators in fire tubes, and a secondary heat exchanger (heat recovery system) in the chimney, have increased the thermal efficiency of the biomass furnace by about 21.7%. A drastic reduction in hazardous elements of flue gases was observed due to the addition of a water scrubber smoke filter in the exit line of the flue. The efficiency of the biomass furnace ranged from 50.42% to 54.18%, whereas the heating efficiency of the diesel-fired heater was 71.19%. On the basis of the equal heating value of the fuels, the unit material and operating costs of the biomass furnace for wood, cotton stalks, corn cobs, and cow dung were USD 2.04, 1.86, 1.78, and 2.00 respectively against USD 4.67/h for the diesel heater. The capital and operating costs of the biomass furnace were about 50% and 43.7% of the diesel heater respectively, resulting in a seasonal saving of about 1573 USD. The produced smoke was tested as environmental friendly under the prescribed limits of the National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS), which shows potential for its large-scale adoption and wider applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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16 pages, 4349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Response of Different Band Combinations in Gaofen-6 WFV for Estimating of Regional Maize Straw Resources Based on Random Forest Classification

by Huawei Mou, Huan Li, Yuguang Zhou and Renjie Dong

Sustainability 2021, 13(9), 4603; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13094603 - 21 Apr 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2265

Abstract

Maize straw is a valuable renewable energy source. The rapid and accurate determination of its yield and spatial distribution can promote improved utilization. At present, traditional straw estimation methods primarily rely on statistical analysis that may be inaccurate. In this study, the Gaofen [...] Read more.

Maize straw is a valuable renewable energy source. The rapid and accurate determination of its yield and spatial distribution can promote improved utilization. At present, traditional straw estimation methods primarily rely on statistical analysis that may be inaccurate. In this study, the Gaofen 6 (GF-6) satellite, which combines high resolution and wide field of view (WFV) imaging characteristics, was used as the information source, and the quantity of maize straw resources and spatial distribution characteristics in Qihe County were analyzed. According to the phenological characteristics of the study area, seven classification classes were determined, including maize, buildings, woodlands, wastelands, water, roads, and other crops, to explore the influence of sample separation and test the responsiveness to different land cover types with different waveband combinations. Two supervised classification methods, support vector machine (SVM) and random forest (RF), were used to classify the study area, and the influence of the newly added band of GF-6 WFV on the classification accuracy of the study area was analyzed. Furthermore, combined with field surveys and agricultural census data, a method for estimating the quantity of maize straw and analyzing the spatial distribution based on a single-temporal remote sensing image and random forests was proposed. Finally, the accuracy of the measurement results is evaluated at the county level. The results showed that the RF model made better use of the newly added bands of GF-6 WFV and improved the accuracy of classification, compared with the SVM model; the two red-edge bands improved the accuracy of crop classification and recognition; the purple and yellow bands identified non-vegetation more effectively than vegetation, thus minimizing the “salt-and-pepper noise” of classification results. However, the changes to total classification accuracy were not obvious; the theoretical quantity of maize straw in Qihe County in 2018 was 586.08 kt, which reflects an error of only 2.42% compared to the statistical result. Hence, the RF model based on single-temporal GF-6 WFV can effectively estimate regional maize straw yield and spatial distribution, which lays a theoretical foundation for straw recycling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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13 pages, 4778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Free Discharge of Subsurface Drainage Effluent: An Alternate Design of the Surface Drain System in Pakistan

by Muhammad Ali Imran, Jinlan Xu, Muhammad Sultan, Redmond R. Shamshiri, Naveed Ahmed, Qaiser Javed, Hafiz Muhammad Asfahan, Yasir Latif, Muhammad Usman and Riaz Ahmad

Sustainability 2021, 13(7), 4080; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13074080 - 6 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3711

Abstract

In Pakistan, many subsurface (SS) drainage projects were launched by the Salinity Control and Reclamation Project (SCARP) to deal with twin problems (waterlogging and salinity). In some cases, sump pumps were installed for the disposal of SS effluent into surface drainage channels. Presently, [...] Read more.

In Pakistan, many subsurface (SS) drainage projects were launched by the Salinity Control and Reclamation Project (SCARP) to deal with twin problems (waterlogging and salinity). In some cases, sump pumps were installed for the disposal of SS effluent into surface drainage channels. Presently, sump pumps have become dysfunctional due to social and financial constraints. This study evaluates the alternate design of the Paharang drainage system that could permit the discharge of the SS drainage system in the response of gravity. The proposed design was completed after many successive trials in terms of lowering the bed level and decreasing the channel bed slope. Interconnected MS-Excel worksheets were developed to design the L-section and X-section. Design continuity of the drainage system was achieved by ensuring the bed and water levels of the receiving drain were lower than the outfalling drain. The drain cross-section was set within the present row with a few changes on the service roadside. The channel side slope was taken as 1:1.5 and the spoil bank inner and outer slopes were kept as 1:2 for the entire design. The earthwork was calculated in terms of excavation for lowering the bed level and increasing the drain section to place the excavated materials in a specific manner. The study showed that modification in the design of the Paharang drainage system is technically admissible and allows for the continuous discharge of SS drainage effluent from the area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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22 pages, 4106 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Erosion and Sediment Load Management Strategies for Sustainable Irrigation in Arid Regions

by Muhammad Tousif Bhatti, Muhammad Ashraf and Arif A. Anwar

Sustainability 2021, 13(6), 3547; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063547 - 23 Mar 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4343

Abstract

Soil erosion is a serious environmental issue in the Gomal River catchment shared by Pakistan and Afghanistan. The river segment between the Gomal Zam dam and a diversion barrage (~40 km) brings a huge load of sediments that negatively affects the downstream irrigation [...] Read more.

Soil erosion is a serious environmental issue in the Gomal River catchment shared by Pakistan and Afghanistan. The river segment between the Gomal Zam dam and a diversion barrage (~40 km) brings a huge load of sediments that negatively affects the downstream irrigation system, but the sediment sources have not been explored in detail in this sub-catchment. The analysis of flow and sediment data shows that the significant sediment yield is still contributing to the diversion barrage despite the Gomal Zam dam construction. However, the sediment share at the diversion barrage from the sub-catchment is much larger than its relative size. A spatial assessment of erosion rates in the sub-catchment with the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) shows that most of the sub-catchment falls into very severe and catastrophic erosion rate categories (>100 t h⁻¹y⁻¹). The sediment entry into the irrigation system can be managed both by limiting erosion in the catchment and trapping sediments into a hydraulic structure. The authors tested a scenario by improving the crop management factor in RUSLE as a catchment management option. The results show that improving the crop management factor makes little difference in reducing the erosion rates in the sub-catchment, suggesting other RUSLE factors, and perhaps slope is a more obvious reason for high erosion rates. This research also explores the efficiency of a proposed settling reservoir as a sediment load management option for the flows diverted from the barrage. The proposed settling reservoir is simulated using a computer-based sediment transport model. The modeling results suggest that a settling reservoir can reduce sediment entry into the irrigation network by trapping 95% and 25% for sand and silt particles, respectively. The findings of the study suggest that managing the sub-catchment characterizing an arid region and having steep slopes and barren mountains is a less compelling option to reduce sediment entry into the irrigation system compared to the settling reservoir at the diversion barrage. Managing the entire catchment (including upstream of Gomal Zam dam) can be a potential solution, but it would require cooperative planning due to the transboundary nature of the Gomal river catchment. The output of this research can aid policy and decision-makers to sustainably manage sedimentation issues in the irrigation network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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21 pages, 14845 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experiments on Energy-Efficient Evaporative Cooling Systems for Poultry Farm Application in Multan (Pakistan)

by Khawar Shahzad, Muhammad Sultan, Muhammad Bilal, Hadeed Ashraf, Muhammad Farooq, Takahiko Miyazaki, Uzair Sajjad, Imran Ali and Muhammad I. Hussain

Sustainability 2021, 13(5), 2836; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052836 - 5 Mar 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5530

Abstract

Poultry are one of the most vulnerable species of its kind once the temperature-humidity nexus is explored. This is so because the broilers lack sweat glands as compared to humans and undergo panting process to mitigate their latent heat (moisture produced in the [...] Read more.

Poultry are one of the most vulnerable species of its kind once the temperature-humidity nexus is explored. This is so because the broilers lack sweat glands as compared to humans and undergo panting process to mitigate their latent heat (moisture produced in the body) in the air. As a result, moisture production inside poultry house needs to be maintained to avoid any serious health and welfare complications. Several strategies such as compressor-based air-conditioning systems have been implemented worldwide to attenuate the heat stress in poultry, but these are not economical. Therefore, this study focuses on the development of low-cost and environmentally friendly improved evaporative cooling systems (DEC, IEC, MEC) from the viewpoint of heat stress in poultry houses. Thermodynamic analysis of these systems was carried out for the climatic conditions of Multan, Pakistan. The results appreciably controlled the environmental conditions which showed that for the months of April, May, and June, the decrease in temperature by direct evaporative cooling (DEC), indirect evaporative cooling (IEC), and Maisotsenko-Cycle evaporative cooling (MEC) systems is 7–10 °C, 5–6.5 °C, and 9.5–12 °C, respectively. In case of July, August, and September, the decrease in temperature by DEC, IEC, and MEC systems is 5.5–7 °C, 3.5–4.5 °C, and 7–7.5 °C, respectively. In addition, drop in temperature-humidity index (THI) values by DEC, IEC, and MEC is 3.5–9 °C, 3–7 °C, and 5.5–10 °C, respectively for all months. Optimum temperature and relative humidity conditions are determined for poultry birds and thereby, systems’ performance is thermodynamically evaluated for poultry farms from the viewpoint of THI, temperature-humidity-velocity index (THVI), and thermal exposure time (ET). From the analysis, it is concluded that MEC system performed relatively better than others due to its ability of dew-point cooling and achieved THI threshold limit with reasonable temperature and humidity indexes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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15 pages, 461 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transforming a Valuable Bioresource to Biochar, Its Environmental Importance, and Potential Applications in Boosting Circular Bioeconomy While Promoting Sustainable Agriculture

by Farhat Abbas, Hafiz Mohkum Hammad, Farhat Anwar, Aitazaz Ahsan Farooque, Rashid Jawad, Hafiz Faiq Bakhat, Muhammad Asif Naeem, Sajjad Ahmad and Saeed Ahmad Qaisrani

Sustainability 2021, 13(5), 2599; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052599 - 1 Mar 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2945

Abstract

Biochar produced from transforming bioresource waste can benefit sustainable agriculture and support circular bioeconomy. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the application of biochar, produced from wheat straws, and a nitrification inhibitor, sourced from neem (Azadirachta indica [...] Read more.

Biochar produced from transforming bioresource waste can benefit sustainable agriculture and support circular bioeconomy. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the application of biochar, produced from wheat straws, and a nitrification inhibitor, sourced from neem (Azadirachta indica), in combinition with the recommended synthetic fertilizer on soil properties, maize (Zea mays L.) plant growth characteristics, and maize grain yield and quality paramters. The nitrification inhibitor was used with the concentrations of 5 and 10 mL pot⁻¹ (N₁ and N₂, respectively) with four levels of biochar (B₀ = 0 g, B₁ = 35 g, B₂ = 70 g, B₃ = 105 g, B₄ = 140 g pot⁻¹), one recommended nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium syntactic fertilizer (250, 125, and 100 kg ha⁻¹, respectively) treatment, and one control treatment. The results showed that the nitrification inhibitor enhanced crop growth while the application of biochar significantly improved soil fertility. The application of biochar significantly enhanced soil organic matter and soil nitrogen as compared with nitrogen–phosphorus–potassium treatment. The highest root length (65.43 cm) and root weight (50.25 g) were observed in the maize plants treated with B₄ and N₂ combinedly. The grain yield, total biomass production, protein content from biochar’s B_4, and nitrogen–phosphorus–potassium treatments were not significantly different from each other. The application of 140 g biochar pot⁻¹ (B₄) with nitrification inhibitor (10 mL pot⁻¹) resulted in higher crop yield and the highest protein contents in maize grains as compared to the control treatments. Therefore, the potential of biochar application in combination with nitrification inhibitor may be used as the best nutrient management practice after verifying these findings at a large-scale field study. Based on the experimental findings, the applied potential of the study treatments, and results of economic analysis, it can be said that biochar has an important role to play in the circular bioeconomy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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13 pages, 1171 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Will Farmers Accept Lower Gross Margins for the Sustainable Cultivation Method of Mixed Cropping? First Insights from Germany

by Vanessa Bonke, Marius Michels and Oliver Musshoff

Sustainability 2021, 13(4), 1631; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13041631 - 3 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2449

Abstract

A decline in the legume cultivation has contributed to the biodiversity loss within the agricultural production across Europe. One possibility to include legumes into the production and promote sustainability is mixed cropping with legumes and non-legumes. However, the adoption of mixed cropping is [...] Read more.

A decline in the legume cultivation has contributed to the biodiversity loss within the agricultural production across Europe. One possibility to include legumes into the production and promote sustainability is mixed cropping with legumes and non-legumes. However, the adoption of mixed cropping is challenging for farmers and information about the profitability is scarce. If mixed cropping should become a widely established production method, it is essential to gain an understanding of famers’ evaluation of the profitability mixed cropping needs to reach. Therefore, this article provides first empirical insights into farmers stated willingness to accept gross margin changes compared to current production possibilities. Based on a survey with results from 134 German non-adopters conducted in 2018 we can distinguish conventional farmers with a positive, neutral and negative willingness to accept reductions in gross margins as the trade-off for ecological benefits. Using an ordered logistic model we find that risk attitude, risk perception, the number of measures performed for ecological focus areas, the farmer’s age and being located in the south of Germany influence their willingness to accept gross margin changes compared to currently produced cereals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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23 pages, 13682 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Inlet Configurations on the Microclimate Conditions of a Novel Standalone Agricultural Greenhouse for Egypt Using Computational Fluid Dynamics

by Mohammad Akrami, Can Dogan Mutlum, Akbar A. Javadi, Alaa H. Salah, Hassan E. S. Fath, Mahdieh Dibaj, Raziyeh Farmani, Ramy H. Mohammed and Abdelazim Negm

Sustainability 2021, 13(3), 1446; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031446 - 30 Jan 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3795

Abstract

Water shortage, human population increase, and lack of food resources have directed societies towards sustainable energy and water resources, especially for agriculture. While open agriculture requires a massive amount of water and energy, the requirements of horticultural systems can be controlled to provide [...] Read more.

Water shortage, human population increase, and lack of food resources have directed societies towards sustainable energy and water resources, especially for agriculture. While open agriculture requires a massive amount of water and energy, the requirements of horticultural systems can be controlled to provide standard conditions for the plants to grow, with significant decrease in water consumption. A greenhouse is a transparent indoor environment used for horticulture, as it allows for reasonable control of the microclimate conditions (e.g., temperature, air velocity, rate of ventilation, and humidity). While such systems create a controlled environment for the plants, the greenhouses need ventilation to provide fresh air. In order to have a sustainable venting mechanism, a novel solution has been proposed in this study providing a naturally ventilating system required for the plants, while at the same time reducing the energy requirements for cooling or other forced ventilation techniques. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was used to analyse the ventilation requirements for different vent opening scenarios, showing the importance of inlet locations for the proposed sustainable greenhouse system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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20 pages, 15771 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design Evaluation and Performance Analysis of a Double-Row Pneumatic Precision Metering Device for Brassica chinensis

by Bohong Li, Riaz Ahmad, Xindan Qi, Hua Li, Samuel Mbugua Nyambura, Jufei Wang, Xi Chen and Shengbing Li

Sustainability 2021, 13(3), 1374; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031374 - 28 Jan 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2515

Abstract

In view of the low seeding efficiency and precision of seeders used for Brassica chinensis in China, a new double-row pneumatic precision metering device for Brassica chinensis was designed, fabricated, and evaluated. With the characteristics of small size and high sphericity of Brassica [...] Read more.

In view of the low seeding efficiency and precision of seeders used for Brassica chinensis in China, a new double-row pneumatic precision metering device for Brassica chinensis was designed, fabricated, and evaluated. With the characteristics of small size and high sphericity of Brassica chinensis seeds in mind, the structure and key dimensions of the metering plate were determined, and a force analysis of the seed-filling process was carried out. The negative pressure (NP), angular velocity (AV) of the metering plate, and cone angle (CA) of the suction hole were selected as the main influencing factors of the experiment. In order to explore the influence of each single factor and the interaction between factors on the seeding performance, a single factor experiment and a central composite design (CCD) experiment were designed, respectively, and the experimental results were analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA). After optimizing the main influencing factors such that the target of the qualified index (QI) was greater than 94% and the miss index (MI) was less than 2.5%, it was found that when CA was 60°, NP was 1.55–1.72 kPa, and AV was 1.1–1.9 rad/s, the seeding performance was excellent. The bench verification results of seeding performance (94% ≤ Q ≤ 100%, 0 ≤ M ≤ 2.5%) and the coefficient of variation (CV) of seed mass (CV of seed mass in outer and inner circle: 5.15%; CV of total seed mass: 8.60%) under the condition of parameter optimization were analyzed; as a result, the accuracy of the parameter optimization was confirmed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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19 pages, 5042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Grouser Height on the Tractive Performance of Single Grouser Shoe under Different Soil Moisture Contents in Clay Loam Terrain

by Sher Ali Shaikh, Yaoming Li, Ma Zheng, Farman Ali Chandio, Fiaz Ahmad, Mazhar Hussain Tunio and Irfan Abbas

Sustainability 2021, 13(3), 1156; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031156 - 22 Jan 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2732

Abstract

The grouser height and soil conditions have a considerable influence on the tractive performance of single-track shoe. A soil bin-based research was conducted to assess the influence of grouser height on the tractive performance of single-track shoe at different moisture contents of clay [...] Read more.

The grouser height and soil conditions have a considerable influence on the tractive performance of single-track shoe. A soil bin-based research was conducted to assess the influence of grouser height on the tractive performance of single-track shoe at different moisture contents of clay loam soil. Eight moisture contents (7.5, 12, 16.7, 21.5, 26.2, 30.7, 35.8, and 38%) and three grouser heights (45, 55, and 60 mm) were comprised during this study. The tractive performance parameters of (thrust, running resistance, and traction) were determined by penetration test. A sensor-based soil bin was designed for penetration tests, which was included penetration system (AC motor, loadcell, and displacement sensor). The test results revealed that soil cohesion was decreased, and adhesion was increased after 16.7% moisture content. Soil thrust at lateral sides and bottom of grouser were increased before 16.7%, and then decreased for all the three heights but the major decrease was observed at 45 mm height. The motion resistance was linearly decreased, the more reduction was on 45 mm at 38% moisture content. The traction of the single-track shoe was decreased with a rise in moisture content, the maximum decrease was on 45 mm grouser height at 38% moisture content. It could be concluded that an off-road tracked vehicle (crawler combine harvester) with 45 mm grouser height of single-track shoe could be operated towards a moderate moisture content range (16.7–21.5%) under paddy soil for better traction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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26 pages, 1037 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are Farms Located in Less-Favoured Areas Financially Sustainable? Empirical Evidence from Polish Farm Households

by Radosław Pastusiak, Michał Soliwoda, Magdalena Jasiniak, Joanna Stawska and Joanna Pawłowska-Tyszko

Sustainability 2021, 13(3), 1092; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031092 - 21 Jan 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2545

Abstract

The topic of farms that deal with environmental constraints is an ongoing agricultural policy issue, including within the Common Agricultural Policy. We propose empirical evidence based on a sample of Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) farm households, evaluate the influence of chosen factors [...] Read more.

The topic of farms that deal with environmental constraints is an ongoing agricultural policy issue, including within the Common Agricultural Policy. We propose empirical evidence based on a sample of Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) farm households, evaluate the influence of chosen factors on financially sustainable farm development and verify less-favoured area (LFA) farms’ growth compared with non-LFA households. To specify farm households, we use the Sustainable Growth Challenge (SGC) model and DuPont decomposition based on financial measures and indicators that were adopted from corporate finance. It is concluded that the differences in SGC and revenue growth values between LFA and non-LFA farms mainly results from the system of subsidising LFA farms that receive compensation for farming in areas with adverse environmental conditions. Generally, the impact of agricultural policies on LFA and non-LFA farms is significant and may weaken the effect on LFA. With the exception of education, other sociodemographic factors do not highly influence farm efficiency. Along with improvements in the quality of human capital (e.g., higher education level), awareness of subsidies, and debt and innovative solutions increases. The interest in precision agriculture and agriculture 4.0 is also growing, which directly translates into better technological and financial efficiency of farms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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17 pages, 2148 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Behavioral Intention of Rural Inhabitants toward Economic Incentive for Deforestation in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan

by Saif Ullah, Ali Abid, Waqas Aslam, Rana Shahzad Noor, Muhammad Mohsin Waqas and Tian Gang

Sustainability 2021, 13(2), 617; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020617 - 11 Jan 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3466

Abstract

The conservation of forest in the northern areas of Pakistan is the major priority of the national environmental policy to fight against global warming. Despite the policy for the protection of forest, rural residents’ behavior toward economic incentives for deforestation may undermine their [...] Read more.

The conservation of forest in the northern areas of Pakistan is the major priority of the national environmental policy to fight against global warming. Despite the policy for the protection of forest, rural residents’ behavior toward economic incentives for deforestation may undermine their conservation goals. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to understand the factors that affect the illegal behaviors related to deforestation in the northern areas of Pakistan. The present study applied the socio-psychological theory of planned behavior to predict the behavioral intention of rural residents toward economic incentives for deforestation. Correlations were explored between background factors toward motivations for deforestation based on positive and negative views through open-ended questions. Attitude and descriptive norm were found good predictors to perceive the behaviors. The findings of the study suggest that rural communities’ support for compliance with policies is vital for the long-term efficacy and protection of the forest in the region. Further, change in the behaviors of inhabitants toward the ecosystem through training can be improved to manage the forest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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13 pages, 1996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compost Inoculated with Fungi from a Mangrove Habitat Improved the Growth and Disease Defense of Vegetable Plants

by Fuad Ameen and Ali A. Al-Homaidan

Sustainability 2021, 13(1), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010124 - 24 Dec 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3156

Abstract

Municipal organic wastes could be exploited as fertilizers, having been given the ability to suppress plant diseases by the inoculation of the waste with certain fungi in the composting process. Our aim was to develop a novel fertilizer using composting in combination with [...] Read more.

Municipal organic wastes could be exploited as fertilizers, having been given the ability to suppress plant diseases by the inoculation of the waste with certain fungi in the composting process. Our aim was to develop a novel fertilizer using composting in combination with fungi associated with mangrove forests. Nine fungal species were isolated from a mangrove forest habitat and screened for their activity against five phytopathogenic fungi, their plant-growth promotion ability, and their phosphate solubilization ability. Two fungal isolates, Penicillium vinaceum and Eupenicillium hirayama, were inoculated into organic waste before the composting experiment. After 90 days, the physico-chemical properties of the compost (color, moisture, pH, C:N ratio and cation exchange capacity (CEC)) indicated the maturity of the compost. The C:N ratio decreased and the CEC value increased most in the compost with the inoculum of both mangrove fungi. The vegetable plants grown in the mangrove fungi-inoculated composts had a higher vigor index than those grown in the control compost. The seeds collected from the plants grown in the fungi-inoculated composts had higher disease defense ability than the seeds collected from the control compost. The results indicated that the properties of the fungi shown in vitro (antagonistic and plant-growth promotion) remained in the mature compost. The seeds of the plants acquired disease defense ability, which is a remarkable observation that is useful in sustainable agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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13 pages, 1200 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of a Sustainable Air Heat Pump System on Energy Efficiency, Housing Environment, and Productivity Traits in a Pig Farm

by Myeong Gil Jeong, Dhanushka Rathnayake, Hong Seok Mun, Muhammad Ammar Dilawar, Kwang Woo Park, Sang Ro Lee and Chul Ju Yang

Sustainability 2020, 12(22), 9772; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229772 - 23 Nov 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3291

Abstract

High electricity consumption, carbon dioxide (CO₂), and elevated noxious gas emission in the global livestock sector have a negative influence on environmental sustainability. This study examined the effects of a heating system using an air heat pump (AHP) on the energy [...] Read more.

High electricity consumption, carbon dioxide (CO₂), and elevated noxious gas emission in the global livestock sector have a negative influence on environmental sustainability. This study examined the effects of a heating system using an air heat pump (AHP) on the energy saving, housing environment, and productivity traits of pigs. During the experimental period of 16 weeks, the internal temperature was found to be higher (p < 0.05) in the AHP house than in the conventional house. Moreover, the average electricity consumption and CO₂ emission decreased by approximately 40 kWh and 19.32 kg, respectively, in the AHP house compared to the house with the conventional heating system. The average NH₃ and H₂S emissions were significantly lower in the AHP house (p < 0.05) during the growth stages. The AHP and conventional heating systems did not have a significant influence (p > 0.05) on the average ultra-fine dust (PM_2.5) and formaldehyde level fluctuations. Furthermore, both heating systems did not show a significant difference in the average growth performance of pigs (p > 0.05), but the weight gain tended to increase in the AHP house. In conclusion, the AHP system has great potential to reduce energy consumption, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and noxious gas emissions by providing economic benefits and an eco-friendly renewable energy source. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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Review

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54 pages, 7724 KiB

Open AccessReview

Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) for Water and Wastewater Treatment: Preparation to Application

by Mian Muhammad-Ahson Aslam, Hsion-Wen Kuo, Walter Den, Muhammad Usman, Muhammad Sultan and Hadeed Ashraf

Sustainability 2021, 13(10), 5717; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13105717 - 19 May 2021

Cited by 100 | Viewed by 11502

Abstract

As the world human population and industrialization keep growing, the water availability issue has forced scientists, engineers, and legislators of water supply industries to better manage water resources. Pollutant removals from wastewaters are crucial to ensure qualities of available water resources (including natural [...] Read more.

As the world human population and industrialization keep growing, the water availability issue has forced scientists, engineers, and legislators of water supply industries to better manage water resources. Pollutant removals from wastewaters are crucial to ensure qualities of available water resources (including natural water bodies or reclaimed waters). Diverse techniques have been developed to deal with water quality concerns. Carbon based nanomaterials, especially carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with their high specific surface area and associated adsorption sites, have drawn a special focus in environmental applications, especially water and wastewater treatment. This critical review summarizes recent developments and adsorption behaviors of CNTs used to remove organics or heavy metal ions from contaminated waters via adsorption and inactivation of biological species associated with CNTs. Foci include CNTs synthesis, purification, and surface modifications or functionalization, followed by their characterization methods and the effect of water chemistry on adsorption capacities and removal mechanisms. Functionalized CNTs have been proven to be promising nanomaterials for the decontamination of waters due to their high adsorption capacity. However, most of the functional CNT applications are limited to lab-scale experiments only. Feasibility of their large-scale/industrial applications with cost-effective ways of synthesis and assessments of their toxicity with better simulating adsorption mechanisms still need to be studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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20 pages, 1312 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mapping Paddy Rice with Satellite Remote Sensing: A Review

by Rongkun Zhao, Yuechen Li and Mingguo Ma

Sustainability 2021, 13(2), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020503 - 7 Jan 2021

Cited by 66 | Viewed by 11391

Abstract

Paddy rice is a staple food of three billion people in the world. Timely and accurate estimation of the paddy rice planting area and paddy rice yield can provide valuable information for the government, planners and decision makers to formulate policies. This article [...] Read more.

Paddy rice is a staple food of three billion people in the world. Timely and accurate estimation of the paddy rice planting area and paddy rice yield can provide valuable information for the government, planners and decision makers to formulate policies. This article reviews the existing paddy rice mapping methods presented in the literature since 2010, classifies these methods, and analyzes and summarizes the basic principles, advantages and disadvantages of these methods. According to the data sources used, the methods are divided into three categories: (I) Optical mapping methods based on remote sensing; (II) Mapping methods based on microwave remote sensing; and (III) Mapping methods based on the integration of optical and microwave remote sensing. We found that the optical remote sensing data sources are mainly MODIS, Landsat, and Sentinel-2, and the emergence of Sentinel-1 data has promoted research on radar mapping methods for paddy rice. Multisource data integration further enhances the accuracy of paddy rice mapping. The best methods are phenology algorithms, paddy rice mapping combined with machine learning, and multisource data integration. Innovative methods include the time series similarity method, threshold method combined with mathematical models, and object-oriented image classification. With the development of computer technology and the establishment of cloud computing platforms, opportunities are provided for obtaining large-scale high-resolution rice maps. Multisource data integration, paddy rice mapping under different planting systems and the connection with global changes are the focus of future development priorities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Engineering Applications)

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