Energies

11 pages, 4980 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Efficiency of Oxyhydrogen Gas Burner

by Roberto Moreno-Soriano, Froylan Soriano-Moranchel, Luis Armando Flores-Herrera, Juan Manuel Sandoval-Pineda and Rosa de Guadalupe González-Huerta

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5526; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205526 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5255

Abstract

One of the main methods used to generate thermal energy is the combustion process. Burners are used in both industrial and residential applications of the open combustion process. The use of fuels that reduce polluting gas emissions and costs in industrial and residential [...] Read more.

One of the main methods used to generate thermal energy is the combustion process. Burners are used in both industrial and residential applications of the open combustion process. The use of fuels that reduce polluting gas emissions and costs in industrial and residential processes is currently a topic of significant interest. Hydrogen is considered an attractive fuel for application in combustion systems due to its high energy density, wide flammability range, and only produces water vapor as waste. Compared to research conducted regarding hydrocarbon combustion, studies on hydrogen burners have been limited. This paper presents the design and evaluation of an oxyhydrogen gas burner for the atmospheric combustion process. The gas is generated in situ with an alkaline electrolyzer with a production rate of up to 3 sL min⁻¹. The thermal efficiency of a gas burner is defined as the percentage of the input thermal energy transferred to the desired load with respect to a given time interval. The experimental results show a thermal efficiency of 30% for a minimum flow rate of 1.5 sL min⁻¹ and 76% for a flow rate of 3.5 sL min⁻¹. These results relate to a 10 mm height between the burner surface and heated container. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section A5: Hydrogen Energy)

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16 pages, 3696 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Thermophysical Properties of 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-methoxypropane (HFE-356mmz) in the Vapor Phase Measured by Using an Acoustic-Microwave Resonance Technique

by Yuya Kano

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5525; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205525 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2229

Abstract

Thermophysical properties of HFE-356mmz in the vapor phase were measured by means of an acoustic-microwave resonance method. HFE-356mmz, which is 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-methoxypropane in chemical name, is expected to be used as a working fluid with low global warming potential for the Organic Rankine cycle [...] Read more.

Thermophysical properties of HFE-356mmz in the vapor phase were measured by means of an acoustic-microwave resonance method. HFE-356mmz, which is 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-methoxypropane in chemical name, is expected to be used as a working fluid with low global warming potential for the Organic Rankine cycle (ORC). The sound velocity and dielectric permittivity were simultaneously measured by using a cylindrical acoustic-microwave resonator. The sound velocity data were analyzed to obtain the ideal-gas heat capacity at constant pressure. The integral of the ideal-gas heat capacity as a function of temperature derives the ideal-gas enthalpy, which is a fundamental and important energy property to simulate the thermodynamic cycle. Similarly, the analysis of the dielectric permittivity data leads to information on the ideal-gas molar polarizability, dipole moment, and density. The acquired thermophysical properties of HFE-356mmz were compared to those of R-245fa and n-pentane, which are the existing working fluids for the ORC system, to prospect a feasibility of HFE-356mmz as their alternative. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermophysical Properties of Working Materials for Power Engineering)

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19 pages, 9499 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of System Performance and Thermal Comfort for an Integrated System with PVT and GSHP Considering Two Load Systems: Convective Heating and Radiant Floor Heating

by Sangmu Bae, Yujin Nam and Joon-Ho Choi

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5524; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205524 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2796

Abstract

The zero-energy building (ZEB) concept has a high potential for securing energy savings in the building sector. To achieve ZEB, various active systems, including renewable systems such as photovoltaic, solar heating, and geothermal systems, have been developed. However, the existing systems are costly [...] Read more.

The zero-energy building (ZEB) concept has a high potential for securing energy savings in the building sector. To achieve ZEB, various active systems, including renewable systems such as photovoltaic, solar heating, and geothermal systems, have been developed. However, the existing systems are costly or not optimized. To overcome these issues, the authors previously developed an integrated tri-generation system. In this research, the previously developed system was comprehensively analyzed considering the indoor thermal comfort and energy efficiency to develop a design and operation method for the integrated system. Two different heating systems (convective heating and radiant floor heating) were employed in the tri-generation system, and their system performance, predicted mean vote (PMV), and predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) were compared using simulations. The results showed that the heating coefficient of power of the radiant floor heating system was 18.8% higher than that of the convective heating system. Moreover, the radiant floor heating system (Case 4) met the PMV and PPD standards during all the heating periods. Overall, radiant floor heating was found to be more efficient than convective heating. The results confirm that radiant floor heating is more suitable than convective heating considering the indoor thermal comfort of occupants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Renewable Energy Systems for Buildings)

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23 pages, 5266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

One Cycle Control of a PWM Rectifier a New Approach

by Rodrigo De A. Teixeira, Werbet L. A. Silva, Guilherme A. P. De C. A. Pessoa, Joao T. Carvalho Neto, Elmer R. L. Villarreal, Andrés O. Salazar and Alberto S. Lock

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5523; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205523 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2802

Abstract

This paper analyzes a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) based One Cycle Control (OCC) strategy for a Power Factor Corrector (PFC) rectifier with Common-mode Voltage (CMV) immunity. It is proposed a strategy that utilizes an emulated-resistance-controller in closed-loop configuration to set the dc-link voltage [...] Read more.

This paper analyzes a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) based One Cycle Control (OCC) strategy for a Power Factor Corrector (PFC) rectifier with Common-mode Voltage (CMV) immunity. It is proposed a strategy that utilizes an emulated-resistance-controller in closed-loop configuration to set the dc-link voltage to achieve unity power factor (UPF). It is shown that if the PFC can achieve UPF condition and if the phase voltage is only affected by CMV, then phase current is free from CMV, as well as a lead-lag compensator (LLC) to average phase current. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Power Electronic Converters: Control and Applications)

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24 pages, 33036 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

From Niche to Market—An Agent-Based Modeling Approach for the Economic Uptake of Electro-Fuels (Power-to-Fuel) in the German Energy System

by Christian Schnuelle, Kasper Kisjes, Torben Stuehrmann, Pablo Thier, Igor Nikolic, Arnim von Gleich and Stefan Goessling-Reisemann

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5522; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205522 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3508

Abstract

The transition process towards renewable energy systems is facing challenges in both fluctuating electricity generation of photovoltaic and wind power as well as socio-economic disruptions. With regard to sector integration, solutions need to be developed, especially for the mobility and the industry sector, [...] Read more.

The transition process towards renewable energy systems is facing challenges in both fluctuating electricity generation of photovoltaic and wind power as well as socio-economic disruptions. With regard to sector integration, solutions need to be developed, especially for the mobility and the industry sector, because their ad hoc electrification and decarbonization seem to be unfeasible. Power-to-fuel (P2F) technologies may contribute to bridge the gap, as renewable energy can be transferred into hydrogen and hydrocarbon-based synthetic fuels. However, the renewable fuels production is far from economically competitive with conventional fuels. With a newly developed agent-based model, potential developments in the German energy markets were simulated for a horizon of 20 years from 2016 to 2035. The model was constructed through a participatory modeling process with relevant actors and stakeholders in the field. Model findings suggest that adjusted regulatory framework conditions (e.g., exemptions from electricity surtaxes, accurate prices for CO₂-certificates, strong start-up subsidies, and drastic emission reduction quotas) are key factors for economically feasible P2F installations and will contribute to its large-scale integration into the German energy system. While plant capacities do not exceed 0.042 GW in a business-as-usual scenarios, the above-mentioned adjustments lead to plant capacities of at least 3.25 GW in 2035 with concurrent reduction in product prices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agent-Based Modeling of Socioeconomic Challenges of Energy Transition)

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16 pages, 3101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Economic Evaluation Methods of Offshore Oil Multi-Platform Interconnected Power System Considering Petroleum Production Characteristics

by Yuming Liu, Qingguang Yu, Gaoxiang Long and Zhicheng Jiang

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5521; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205521 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1979

Abstract

Offshore oil multi-platform interconnected power system is developing rapidly. The proposal of an effective economic evaluation method that fits the actual production situation of offshore oilfields is very meaningful for the planning and construction of multi-platform interconnected power systems. This article proposes the [...] Read more.

Offshore oil multi-platform interconnected power system is developing rapidly. The proposal of an effective economic evaluation method that fits the actual production situation of offshore oilfields is very meaningful for the planning and construction of multi-platform interconnected power systems. This article proposes the electric depreciation, depletion, and amortization (DD&A) barrel oil cost S and maximum expected benefit per unit power generation I_e as economic indicators, considering the actual production characteristics and life cycle of the oil field. In order to build a complete economic evaluation system, this article also introduces the N−1 pass rate

η_{N - 1}

, voltage qualification rate γ, power supply reliability ASAI (Average Service Availability Index), and other reliability indicators to evaluate the offshore power system. When calculating the weight of the indicators, analytic hierarchy method (AHP) was applied to calculate subjective weights, and an entropy method was applied to calculate objective weights. To unify the two weights, the ideal point method is proposed to obtain compound weights. Finally, this article selects an offshore oil field in Bohai Bay, China as example, and analyses short-term small-scale, long-term large-scale, and actual power system as calculation examples in different planning periods. The analysis result verifies the effectiveness of the economic evaluation method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section F: Electrical Engineering)

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16 pages, 5609 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Weighted k-Nearest Neighbor Based on PSO for Wind Power System State Recognition

by Chun-Yao Lee, Kuan-Yu Huang, Yi-Xing Shen and Yao-Chen Lee

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5520; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205520 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2287

Abstract

In this paper, we propose using particle swarm optimization (PSO) which can improve weighted k-nearest neighbors (PWKNN) to diagnose the failure of a wind power system. PWKNN adjusts weight to correctly reflect the importance of features and uses the distance judgment strategy [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose using particle swarm optimization (PSO) which can improve weighted k-nearest neighbors (PWKNN) to diagnose the failure of a wind power system. PWKNN adjusts weight to correctly reflect the importance of features and uses the distance judgment strategy to figure out the identical probability of multi-label classification. The PSO optimizes the weight and parameter k of PWKNN. This testing is based on four classified conditions of the 300 W wind generator which include healthy, loss of lubrication in the gearbox, angular misaligned rotor, and bearing fault. Current signals are used to measure the conditions. This testing tends to establish a feature database that makes up or trains classifiers through feature extraction. Not lowering the classification accuracy, the correlation coefficient of feature selection is applied to eliminate irrelevant features and to diminish the runtime of classifiers. A comparison with other traditional classifiers, i.e., backpropagation neural network (BPNN), k-nearest neighbor (k-NN), and radial basis function network (RBFN) shows that PWKNN has a higher classification accuracy. The feature selection can diminish the average features from 16 to 2.8 and can reduce the runtime by 61%. This testing can classify these four conditions accurately without being affected by noise and it can reach an accuracy of 83% in the condition of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is 20dB. The results show that the PWKNN approach is capable of diagnosing the failure of a wind power system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electronic Power and Energy Systems)

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21 pages, 6606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Method for Building Information Modeling Supported Project Control of Nearly Zero-Energy Building Delivery

by Sanjin Gumbarević, Ivana Burcar Dunović, Bojan Milovanović and Mergim Gaši

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5519; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205519 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3616

Abstract

With the increasing number of nearly zero-energy buildings (NZEB) due to increase of global awareness on climate change, the new concepts of design and control must be developed because of great NZEB dependency on detailing and multidisciplinary approach. This paper proposes a three-level [...] Read more.

With the increasing number of nearly zero-energy buildings (NZEB) due to increase of global awareness on climate change, the new concepts of design and control must be developed because of great NZEB dependency on detailing and multidisciplinary approach. This paper proposes a three-level gateway control method for NZEB project delivery by using digital representation of the building in building information modeling (BIM) environment. These controls (C1, C2 and C3) are introduced before three main phases of any project delivery—design phase, construction phase and handover. The proposed project control procedure uses black-box building energy modeling within the BIM environment, so the paper explores the reliability of one tool for direct energy modeling within the BIM-authoring software. The paper shows two types of validation tests with satisfactory results. This leads to conclusion that analyzed tool for energy simulation within BIM environment can be used in a way that is described in a proposed project control procedure. For further research it is proposed to explore reliability of tools for energy simulation connected to other BIM-authoring software, so this project control procedure could be independent of BIM-authoring software used in the paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Green Building Technologies)

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17 pages, 4891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Virtual Reality System and Scientific Visualisation for Smart Designing and Evaluating of Lighting

by Rafał Krupiński

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5518; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205518 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4165

Abstract

The current lighting solutions, both in terms of design process and later implementation, are becoming more and more intelligent. It mainly arises from higher opportunities to use information technology (IT) processes for these purposes. Designs cover many aspects, from physiological to including technical. [...] Read more.

The current lighting solutions, both in terms of design process and later implementation, are becoming more and more intelligent. It mainly arises from higher opportunities to use information technology (IT) processes for these purposes. Designs cover many aspects, from physiological to including technical. The paper describes the problems faced by any designers while creating, evaluating them, and presenting the final results of their work in a visualisation form. Development of virtual reality (VR) technology and augmented reality, which is now taking place before our eyes, makes us inclined to think how to use this reality in lighting technology. The article presents some examples of applying VR technology in various types of smart lighting designs, for interiors and outdoor objects. The performed computer simulations are compared to reality. Some surveys, in terms of visualization rendering, were carried out. In the article, the current capabilities and main limitations of virtual reality of lighting are discussed, as well as what can be expected in the future. The luminance analysis of the virtual reality display is carried out, which shows that this equipment can be used in lighting technology after the appropriate calibration. Moreover, an innovative lighting design system based on virtual reality is presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart City Lighting Systems)

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24 pages, 3753 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distributed Battery Energy Storage Co-Operation for Renewable Energy Sources Integration

by Hussein M. Abdeltawab and Yasser A. I. Mohamed

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5517; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205517 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2309

Abstract

This paper presents a multiagent system (MAS) day-ahead co-operation framework between renewable energy resources (RESs) and Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) owned by different stakeholders. BESSs offer their storage services to RESs by shifting RES power to sell it during profitable peak-hours (aka; [...] Read more.

This paper presents a multiagent system (MAS) day-ahead co-operation framework between renewable energy resources (RESs) and Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) owned by different stakeholders. BESSs offer their storage services to RESs by shifting RES power to sell it during profitable peak-hours (aka; time-shifting). The MAS framework consists of three phases. Phase-one is a pre-auction phase that defines the maximum charging and discharging BESS power limits. These limits guarantee a reliable distribution system operation without violating the buses’ voltage limits or the ampacity of the branches. Phase-two is an auctioning phase between the BESS-agents and the RES-agents. Each agent has a different owner with a specific profit agenda and risk levels. The agent tries to maximize the profit potential of the owner. The agents use historical trade data and expected weather conditions to maximize profitability. Phase-three is called the post-auctioning phase, in which the agreement between the BESS- and RES-agents is finalized, and the agents are ready for another 3-phases trade. Case studies compare different auctioning strategies and prove the effectiveness of the proposed MAS system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Complex System Simulation, Design, and Optimisation)

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15 pages, 2543 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of FACTS Device Implementation on Performance of Distribution Network with Integrated Renewable Energy Sources

by Filip Relić, Predrag Marić, Hrvoje Glavaš and Ivica Petrović

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5516; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205516 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2968

Abstract

In the modern power system, Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) devices are widely used. An increased share of the distributed generation (DG) and the development of microgrids change the power flows in the existing distribution networks as well as a conventional power [...] Read more.

In the modern power system, Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) devices are widely used. An increased share of the distributed generation (DG) and the development of microgrids change the power flows in the existing distribution networks as well as a conventional power flow direction from the transmission to the distribution network level which may affect the overall stability aspects. The paper shows the FACTS devices’ implementation influence on the performance of the distribution network with integrated renewable energy sources (RES) observing the aspects of the oscillatory stability and the low-voltage motor starting. The FACTS devices, in particular the static var compensators (SVC), have been allocated according to a novel algorithm proposed in the paper. The algorithm uses an iterative process to determine an optimal location for implementation and rating power of SVC considering active power losses minimization, improvement of the voltage profile and maximizing return of investment (ROI) of FACTS devices. Novel constraints—transformer station construction constraint, SVC industrial nominal power value constraint and the constraint of distribution system operator (DSO) economic willingness to investment in the distribution network development are considered in the proposed algorithm. The analysis has been performed on 20 kV rural distribution network model in DIgSILENT PowerFactory software. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Management in Prosumer-Rich Distribution Networks)

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32 pages, 19886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Indirect Methods for Validating Shallow Geothermal Potential Using Advanced Laboratory Measurements from a Regional to Local Scale—A Case Study from Poland

by Marek Hajto, Anna Przelaskowska, Grzegorz Machowski, Katarzyna Drabik and Gabriel Ząbek

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5515; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205515 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2444

Abstract

This paper presents a broad overview of laboratory methods for measuring thermal properties and petrophysical parameters of carbonate rocks, and analytical methods for interpreting the obtained data. The investigation was conducted on carbonate rock samples from the Kraków region of Poland in the [...] Read more.

This paper presents a broad overview of laboratory methods for measuring thermal properties and petrophysical parameters of carbonate rocks, and analytical methods for interpreting the obtained data. The investigation was conducted on carbonate rock samples from the Kraków region of Poland in the context of shallow geothermal potential assessment. The measurement techniques used included standard macroscopic examinations; petrophysical investigations (porosity, density); analysis of mineral composition thermal conductivity (TC) and specific heat measurements; and advanced investigations with the use of computed tomography (CT). Various mathematical models, such as layer model, geometric mean, and spherical and non-spherical inclusion models, were applied to calculate thermal conductivity based on mineralogy and porosity. The aim of this paper was to indicate the optimal set of laboratory measurements of carbonate rock samples ensuring sufficient characterization of petrophysical and thermal rock properties. This concerns both the parameters directly characterizing the geothermal potential (thermal conductivity) and other petrophysical parameters, e.g., porosity and mineral composition. Determining the quantitative relationship between these parameters can be of key importance in the case of a shortage of archival thermal conductivity data, which, unlike other petrophysical measurements, are not commonly collected. The results clearly show that the best correlations between calculated and measured TC values exist for the subgroup of samples of porosity higher than 4%. TC evaluation based on porosity and mineral composition correlation models gives satisfactory results compared with direct TC measurements. The methods and results can be used to update the existing 3D parametric models and geothermal potential maps, and for the preliminary assessment of geothermal potential in the surrounding area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Resources)

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19 pages, 2209 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Scenario Analysis for GHG Emission Reduction Potential of the Building Sector for New City in South Korea

by Seo-Hoon Kim, SungJin Lee, Seol-Yee Han and Jong-Hun Kim

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5514; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205514 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3407

Abstract

A new government report on climate change shows that global emissions of greenhouse gases have increased to very high levels despite various policies to reduce climate change. Building energy accounts for 40% of the world’s energy consumption and accounts for 33% of the [...] Read more.

A new government report on climate change shows that global emissions of greenhouse gases have increased to very high levels despite various policies to reduce climate change. Building energy accounts for 40% of the world’s energy consumption and accounts for 33% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. This study applied the LEAP (Long-range energy alternatives planning) model and Bass diffusion method for predicting the total energy consumption and GHG (Greenhouse Gas) emissions from the residential and commercial building sector of Sejong City in South Korea. Then, using the Bass diffusion model, three scenarios were analyzed (REST: Renewable energy supply target, BES: Building energy saving, BEP: Building energy policy) for GHG reduction. The GHG emissions for Sejong City for 2015–2030 were analyzed, and the past and future GHG emissions of the city were predicted in a Business-as-Usual (BAU) scenario. In the REST scenario, the GHG emissions would attain a 24.5% reduction and, in the BES scenario, the GHG emissions would attain 12.81% reduction by 2030. Finally, the BEP scenario shows the potential for a 19.81% GHG reduction. These results could be used to guide the planning and development of the new city. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section G: Energy and Buildings)

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32 pages, 3876 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact Analysis of Large-Scale Wind Farms Integration in Weak Transmission Grid from Technical Perspectives

by Shah Rukh Abbas, Syed Ali Abbas Kazmi, Muhammad Naqvi, Adeel Javed, Salman Raza Naqvi, Kafait Ullah, Tauseef-ur-Rehman Khan and Dong Ryeol Shin

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5513; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205513 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3407

Abstract

The integration of commercial onshore large-scale wind farms into a national grid comes with several technical issues that predominately ensure power quality in accordance with respective grid codes. The resulting impacts are complemented with the absorption of larger amounts of reactive power by [...] Read more.

The integration of commercial onshore large-scale wind farms into a national grid comes with several technical issues that predominately ensure power quality in accordance with respective grid codes. The resulting impacts are complemented with the absorption of larger amounts of reactive power by wind generators. In addition, seasonal variations and inter-farm wake effects further deteriorate the overall system performance and restrict the optimal use of available wind resources. This paper presented an assessment framework to address the power quality issues that have arisen after integrating large-scale wind farms into weak transmission grids, especially considering inter-farm wake effect, seasonal variations, reactive power depletion, and compensation with a variety of voltage-ampere reactive (Var) devices. Herein, we also proposed a recovery of significant active power deficits caused by the wake effect via increasing hub height of wind turbines. For large-scale wind energy penetration, a real case study was considered for three wind farms with a cumulative capacity of 154.4 MW integrated at a Nooriabad Grid in Pakistan to analyze their overall impacts. An actual test system was modeled in MATLAB Simulink for a composite analysis. Simulations were performed for various scenarios to consider wind intermittency, seasonal variations across four seasons, and wake effect. The capacitor banks and various flexible alternating current transmission systems (FACTS) devices were employed for a comparative analysis with and without considering the inter-farm wake effect. The power system parameters along with active and reactive power deficits were considered for comprehensive analysis. Unified power flow controller (UPFC) was found to be the best compensation device through comparative analysis, as it maintained voltage at nearly 1.002 pu, suppressed frequency transient in a range of 49.88–50.17 Hz, and avoided any resonance while maintaining power factors in an allowable range. Moreover, it also enhanced the power handling capability of the power system. The 20 m increase in hub height assisted the recovery of the active power deficit to 48%, which thus minimized the influence of the wake effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Grids and Flexible Energy Systems)

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21 pages, 3297 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Logistics Management System for a Biomass-to-Energy Production Plant Storage Park

by Leonel J.R. Nunes, Jorge T. Pereira da Costa, Radu Godina, João C.O. Matias and João P.S. Catalão

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5512; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205512 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2696

Abstract

The biomass industry is growing due to the current search for greener and more sustainable alternatives to fossil energy sources. However, this industry, due to its singularity, presents several challenges and disadvantages related to the transportation of raw materials, with the large volumes [...] Read more.

The biomass industry is growing due to the current search for greener and more sustainable alternatives to fossil energy sources. However, this industry, due to its singularity, presents several challenges and disadvantages related to the transportation of raw materials, with the large volumes that are usually involved. This project aimed to address this internal logistics situation in torrefied biomass pellets production with two different biomass storage parks, located in Portugal. The main park receives raw material coming directly from the source and stores it in large amounts as a backup and strategic storage park. The second park, with smaller dimensions, precedes the production unit and must be stocked daily. Therefore, a fleet of transport units with self-unloading cranes is required to help to unload the biomass at the main park and transport the raw material from this park to the one preceding the production unit. Thus, the main goal was to determine the dimensions of the fleet used in internal transportation operations to minimize the idle time of the transport units using a methodology already in use in the mining and quarrying industry. This methodology was analyzed and adapted to the situation presented here. The implementation of this study allows the elimination of unnecessary costs in an industry where the profit margins are low. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Planning, Integration and Management in Sustainable Energy Systems)

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19 pages, 5380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cellulose Ester Insulation of Power Transformers: Researching the Influence of Moisture on the Phase Shift Angle and Admittance

by Pawel Zukowski, Przemyslaw Rogalski, Tomasz N. Koltunowicz, Konrad Kierczynski, Jan Subocz and Marek Zenker

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5511; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205511 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2201

Abstract

This study investigates the frequency–temperature relations between the phase angle φ and admittance Y for composites of cellulose, synthetic ester, and water nanoparticles. We determined the activation energy value for the relaxation time of a phase shift angle ΔW_φ ≈ (0.783 [...] Read more.

This study investigates the frequency–temperature relations between the phase angle φ and admittance Y for composites of cellulose, synthetic ester, and water nanoparticles. We determined the activation energy value for the relaxation time of a phase shift angle ΔW_φ ≈ (0.783 ± 0.0744) eV, which was related to the shift of φ(f) waveforms in higher frequency area with increasing temperature. We found that the position of admittance frequency waveforms in double logarithmic coordinates was simultaneously influenced by the temperature dependence of admittance and its relaxation time. Activation energy values for the relaxation time of admittance ΔW_τ ≈ (0.796 ± 0.0139) eV and the activation energy value of admittance ∆W_Y ≈ (0.800 ± 0.0162) eV were determined. It was found that all three activation energy values were identical and their average was ΔW ≈ (0.793 ± 0.0453) eV. Impregnation with synthetic ester resulted in a decrease of activation energy by 0.26 eV compared to the impregnation with insulating oil. This was related to higher dielectric permittivity of the synthetic ester. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section A1: Smart Grids and Microgrids)

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22 pages, 2986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Harvesting by Waste Acid/Base Neutralization via Bipolar Membrane Reverse Electrodialysis

by Andrea Zaffora, Andrea Culcasi, Luigi Gurreri, Alessandro Cosenza, Alessandro Tamburini, Monica Santamaria and Giorgio Micale

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5510; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205510 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5349

Abstract

Bipolar Membrane Reverse Electrodialysis (BMRED) can be used to produce electricity exploiting acid-base neutralization, thus representing a valuable route in reusing waste streams. The present work investigates the performance of a lab-scale BMRED module under several operating conditions. By feeding the stack with [...] Read more.

Bipolar Membrane Reverse Electrodialysis (BMRED) can be used to produce electricity exploiting acid-base neutralization, thus representing a valuable route in reusing waste streams. The present work investigates the performance of a lab-scale BMRED module under several operating conditions. By feeding the stack with 1 M HCl and NaOH streams, a maximum power density of ~17 W m⁻² was obtained at 100 A m⁻² with a 10-triplet stack with a flow velocity of 1 cm s⁻¹, while an energy density of ~10 kWh m⁻³ acid could be extracted by a complete neutralization. Parasitic currents along feed and drain manifolds significantly affected the performance of the stack when equipped with a higher number of triplets. The apparent permselectivity at 1 M acid and base decreased from 93% with the five-triplet stack to 54% with the 38-triplet stack, which exhibited lower values (~35% less) of power density. An important role may be played also by the presence of NaCl in the acidic and alkaline solutions. With a low number of triplets, the added salt had almost negligible effects. However, with a higher number of triplets it led to a reduction of 23.4–45.7% in power density. The risk of membrane delamination is another aspect that can limit the process performance. However, overall, the present results highlight the high potential of BMRED systems as a productive way of neutralizing waste solutions for energy harvesting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Membrane Technologies for Energy Production)

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18 pages, 4784 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Potential of Gaussian Process Regression for Solar Radiation Forecasting: A Case Study

by Foster Lubbe, Jacques Maritz and Thomas Harms

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5509; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205509 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3539

Abstract

The proliferation of solar power systems could cause instability within existing power grids due to the variable nature of solar power. A well-defined statistical model is important for managing the supply-and-demand dynamics of a power system that contains a significant variable renewable energy [...] Read more.

The proliferation of solar power systems could cause instability within existing power grids due to the variable nature of solar power. A well-defined statistical model is important for managing the supply-and-demand dynamics of a power system that contains a significant variable renewable energy component. It is furthermore important to consider the inherent uncertainty in the data when modeling such a complex power system. Gaussian process regression has the potential to address both of these concerns: the probabilistic modeling of solar radiation data could assist in managing the variability of solar power, as well as provide a mechanism to deal with uncertainty. In this paper, solar radiation data was obtained from the Southern African Universities Radiometric Network and used to train a Gaussian process regression model which was developed especially for this purpose. Attention was given to constructing an appropriate Gaussian process kernel. It was found that a carefully constructed kernel allowed for the successful interpolation of global horizontal irradiance data, with a root-mean-squared error of 82.2W/m

^{2}

. Gaps in the data, due to possible meter failure, were also bridged by the Gaussian process with a root-mean-squared error of 94.1 W/m

^{2}

and accompanying confidence intervals. A root-mean-squared error of 151.1 W/m

^{2}

was found when forecasting the global horizontal irradiance with a forecasting horizon of five days. These results, achieved in modeling solar radiation data using Gaussian process regression, could open new avenues in the development of probabilistic renewable energy management systems. Such systems could aid smart grid operators and support energy trading platforms, by allowing for better-informed decisions that incorporate the inherent uncertainty of stochastic power systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Forecasting and the Integration of Solar Generation to the Grid)

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18 pages, 7487 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reduced Model and Comparative Analysis of the Thermal Performance of Indirect Solar Dryer with and without PCM

by Camilo Ramirez, Mario Palacio and Mauricio Carmona

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5508; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205508 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2680

Abstract

A thermal model is proposed to analyze the performance of an indirect solar dryer (ISD) with latent heat storage using phase change material (PCM). The estimations are compared with experimental data presented in the scientific literature taken in real conditions. The validated thermal [...] Read more.

A thermal model is proposed to analyze the performance of an indirect solar dryer (ISD) with latent heat storage using phase change material (PCM). The estimations are compared with experimental data presented in the scientific literature taken in real conditions. The validated thermal model is used in order to address a comprehensive analysis of the performance of the ISDs under the same operation conditions, the model is able to estimate the temperatures of glass cover, absorber plate, PCM, useful heat, thermal and storage efficiencies, and variables that are difficult to measure experimentally such as liquid fraction, heat losses, and accumulated energy of the ISDs. Three study cases are considered: Case 1 consists of two collectors with and without alternating nocturnal and diurnal operation (benchmarking case). Case 2 and 3 consist in a unique collector operating continuously for 24 h with PCM and without PCM, respectively. It was determined that the use of PCM in ISD increased the night thermal performance and extended the operational time of the system. On the other hand, results indicate that the use of two alternating collectors presents similar discharge behavior to using one collector with PCM operating continuously. Concerning the overall thermal performance, cases 1, 2, and 3 obtained thermal efficiencies of 20%, 28%, and 24%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phase Change Materials for Thermal Energy Applications)

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14 pages, 755 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Solar PV-Based Inverter-Less Grid-Integrated Cooking Solution for Low-Cost Clean Cooking

by M. Rezwan Khan and Intekhab Alam

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5507; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205507 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2966

Abstract

The cost of solar PV has been reduced to a level such that the levelized cost of solar electricity is either cheaper or competitive relative to the grid electricity. So, a low-cost integration of solar PV with grid can be a cost-effective solution [...] Read more.

The cost of solar PV has been reduced to a level such that the levelized cost of solar electricity is either cheaper or competitive relative to the grid electricity. So, a low-cost integration of solar PV with grid can be a cost-effective solution for clean cooking. The usual technique of using grid-tied inverters contribute ~20% towards the energy cost. The proposed system incorporates a control circuit that connects grid electricity to the solar PV via a DC link and provides a DC output eliminating the requirement of grid-tied inverters. Most of the cooking utensils either have a resistive heating element or an electronic control circuit that is insensitive to input AC or DC and no modification is needed for the cooking utensils while using with DC voltage. In the proposed system, preference for power delivery is always given to the solar PV and the grid effectively operates as the backup for the system when solar PV output fluctuates due to varying weather and climatic conditions. As the absence of a grid-tied inverter in the system restricts the excess solar energy to be transferred to the grid, some kind of energy storage device is essential to run the system efficiently. A novel idea of storing solar PV energy in the form of hot water has been presented in this paper, with a cost-effective clean cooking concept. A simple and low-cost heat preservation technique has been suggested that requires a minimal change in habit for the users. Experimental results with multiple cooking utensils and foods have been presented and energy cost for cooking has been found to be as low as 4.75 USD/month, which is significantly lower (32%) than that of the grid-connected regular cooking system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section A1: Smart Grids and Microgrids)

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16 pages, 2381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Entropy Generation in a Dissipative Nanofluid Flow under the Influence of Magnetic Dissipation and Transpiration

by Dianchen Lu, Muhammad Idrees Afridi, Usman Allauddin, Umer Farooq and Muhammad Qasim

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5506; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205506 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2321

Abstract

The present study explores the entropy generation, flow, and heat transfer characteristics of a dissipative nanofluid in the presence of transpiration effects at the boundary. The non-isothermal boundary conditions are taken into consideration to guarantee self-similar solutions. The electrically conducting nanofluid flow is [...] Read more.

The present study explores the entropy generation, flow, and heat transfer characteristics of a dissipative nanofluid in the presence of transpiration effects at the boundary. The non-isothermal boundary conditions are taken into consideration to guarantee self-similar solutions. The electrically conducting nanofluid flow is influenced by a magnetic field of constant strength. The ultrafine particles (nanoparticles of

{Fe}_{3} O_{4} / CuO

) are dispersed in the technological fluid water (

H_{2} O

). Both the base fluid and the nanofluid have the same bulk velocity and are assumed to be in thermal equilibrium. Tiwari and Dass’s idea is used for the mathematical modeling of the problem. Furthermore, the ultrafine particles are supposed to be spherical, and Maxwell Garnett’s model is used for the effective thermal conductivity of the nanofluid. Closed-form solutions are derived for boundary layer momentum and energy equations. These solutions are then utilized to access the entropy generation and the irreversibility parameter. The relative importance of different sources of entropy generation in the boundary layer is discussed through various graphs. The effects of space free physical parameters such as mass suction parameter

(S)

, viscous dissipation parameter

(E c)

, magnetic heating parameter

(M)

, and solid volume fraction

(ϕ)

of the ultrafine particles on the velocity, Bejan number, temperature, and entropy generation are elaborated through various graphs. It is found that the parabolic wall temperature facilitates similarity transformations so that self-similar equations can be achieved in the presence of viscous dissipation. It is observed that the entropy generation number is an increasing function of the Eckert number and solid volume fraction. The entropy production rate in the

{Fe}_{3} O_{4} - H_{2} O

nanofluid is higher than that in the

CuO - H_{2} O

nanofluid under the same circumstances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heat Transfer in Energy Conversion Systems)

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27 pages, 6938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Time-Scale Economic Dispatch of Electricity-Heat Integrated System Based on Users’ Thermal Comfort

by Xin-Rui Liu, Si-Luo Sun, Qiu-Ye Sun and Wei-Yang Zhong

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5505; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205505 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2381

Abstract

The electricity-heat integrated system can realize the cascade utilization of energy and the coordination and complementarity between multiple energy sources. In this paper, considering the thermal comfort of users, taking into account the difference in dynamic characteristics of electric and heating networks and [...] Read more.

The electricity-heat integrated system can realize the cascade utilization of energy and the coordination and complementarity between multiple energy sources. In this paper, considering the thermal comfort of users, taking into account the difference in dynamic characteristics of electric and heating networks and the response of users’ demands, a dispatch model is constructed. In this model, taking into account the difference in the time scale of electric and thermal dispatching, optimization of the system can be improved by properly extending the thermal balance cycle of the combined heat and power (CHP) unit. Based on the time-of-use electricity prices and heat prices to obtain the optimal energy purchase cost, a user demand response strategy is adopted. Therefore, a minimum economic cost on the energy supply side and a minimum energy purchase cost on the demand side are considered as a bilevel optimization strategy for the operation of the system. Finally, using an IEEE 30 nodes power network and a 31 nodes heating network to form an electricity-heat integrated system, the simulation results show that the optimal thermal balance cycle can maximize the economic benefits on the premise of meeting the users’ thermal comfort and the demand response can effectively realize the wind curtailment and improve the system economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Demand Response in Energy System)

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15 pages, 33835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Twin for Operation of Microgrid: Optimal Scheduling in Virtual Space of Digital Twin

by Hyang-A Park, Gilsung Byeon, Wanbin Son, Hyung-Chul Jo, Jongyul Kim and Sungshin Kim

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5504; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205504 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 5915

Abstract

Due to the recent development of information and communication technology (ICT), various studies using real-time data are now being conducted. The microgrid research field is also evolving to enable intelligent operation of energy management through digitalization. Problems occur when operating the actual microgrid, [...] Read more.

Due to the recent development of information and communication technology (ICT), various studies using real-time data are now being conducted. The microgrid research field is also evolving to enable intelligent operation of energy management through digitalization. Problems occur when operating the actual microgrid, causing issues such as difficulty in decision making and system abnormalities. Using digital twin technology, which is one of the technologies representing the fourth industrial revolution, it is possible to overcome these problems by changing the microgrid configuration and operating algorithms of virtual space in various ways and testing them in real time. In this study, we proposed an energy storage system (ESS) operation scheduling model to be applied to virtual space when constructing a microgrid using digital twin technology. An ESS optimal charging/discharging scheduling was established to minimize electricity bills and was implemented using supervised learning techniques such as the decision tree, NARX, and MARS models instead of existing optimization techniques. NARX and decision trees are machine learning techniques. MARS is a nonparametric regression model, and its application has been increasing. Its performance was analyzed by deriving performance evaluation indicators for each model. Using the proposed model, it was found in a case study that the amount of electricity bill savings when operating the ESS is greater than that incurred in the actual ESS operation. The suitability of the model was evaluated by a comparative analysis with the optimization-based ESS charging/discharging scheduling pattern. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Planning and Operation of Distributed Energy Resources in Smart Grids)

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12 pages, 926 KiB

Open AccessReview

Islanding Detection in Rural Distribution Systems

by Wen Fan, Ning Kang, Robert Hebner and Xianyong Feng

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5503; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205503 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2516

Abstract

This paper summarizes the literature on detection of islanding resulting from distributed generating capabilities in a power distribution system, with emphasis on the rural distribution systems. It is important to understand the legacy technology and equipment in the rural distribution electrical environment due [...] Read more.

This paper summarizes the literature on detection of islanding resulting from distributed generating capabilities in a power distribution system, with emphasis on the rural distribution systems. It is important to understand the legacy technology and equipment in the rural distribution electrical environment due to the growth of power electronics and the potential for adding the new generations of intelligent sensors. The survey identified four areas needing further research: 1. Robustness in the presence of distribution grid disturbances; 2. the future role of artificial intelligence in the islanding application; 3. more realistic standard tests for the emerging electrical environment; 4. smarter sensors. In addition, this paper presents a synchro-phasor-based islanding detection approach based on a wireless sensor network developed by the University of Texas at Austin. Initial test results in a control hardware-in-the-loop (CHIL) simulation environment suggest the effectiveness of the developed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Developments in Energy Resources Management, Distribution Systems, Microgrids and Energy Communities)

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17 pages, 643 KiB

Open AccessReview

Barriers and Solutions for Increasing the Integration of Solar Photovoltaic in Kenya’s Electricity Mix

by Dominic Samoita, Charles Nzila, Poul Alberg Østergaard and Arne Remmen

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5502; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205502 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4358

Abstract

Currently, Kenya depends mainly on oil, geothermal energy and hydro resources for electricity production, however all three have associated issues. Oil-based electricity generation is environmentally harmful, expensive and a burden to the national trade balance. The rivers for hydropower and their tributaries are [...] Read more.

Currently, Kenya depends mainly on oil, geothermal energy and hydro resources for electricity production, however all three have associated issues. Oil-based electricity generation is environmentally harmful, expensive and a burden to the national trade balance. The rivers for hydropower and their tributaries are found in arid and semi-arid areas with erratic rainfall leading to problems of supply security, and geothermal exploitation has cost and risk issues amongst others. Given these problems and the fact that Kenya has a significant yet underexploited potential for photo voltaic (PV)-based power generation, the limited—although growing—exploitation of solar PV in Kenya is explored in this paper as a means of diversifying and stabilising electricity supply. The potential for integration of PV into the Kenyan electricity generation mix is analysed together with the sociotechnical, economic, political, and institutional and policy barriers, which limit PV integration. We argue that these barriers can be overcome with improved and more robust policy regulations, additional investments in research and development, and improved coordination of the use of different renewable energy sources. Most noticeably, storage solutions and other elements of flexibility need to be incorporated to balance the intermittent character of electricity generation based on solar PV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy for Sustainable Future)

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11 pages, 3598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Bipolar ±13 mV Self-Starting and 85% Peak Efficiency DC/DC Converter for Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting

by Harald Dillersberger, Bernd Deutschmann and Douglas Tham

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5501; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205501 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3232

Abstract

This paper presents a novel converter for boosting the low-voltage output of thermoelectric energy harvesters to power standard electronic circuits. The converter can start up from a fully depleted state of the system off a bipolar ±13 mV input and can boost it [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel converter for boosting the low-voltage output of thermoelectric energy harvesters to power standard electronic circuits. The converter can start up from a fully depleted state of the system off a bipolar ±13 mV input and can boost it to output voltages of up to 5 V. The converter comprises two transformers, one for each polarity that are multiplexed between an oscillator (used during startup) and a flyback converter (used during normal operation). To eliminate leakage currents in the input stage, the unused converter is completely turned off at startup and both converters are automatically shut off if the input power is found to be too low. Measurement results of the converter designed in a 180 nm CMOS process demonstrate a peak end-to-end conversion efficiency of 85% and nearly perfect impedance matching over the full input voltage range. This is the first time that a converter for ultra-low bipolar input voltages achieves the same performance as a unipolar converter. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Researches on Integrated DC/DC Converters)

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20 pages, 1918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Disturbance Observer and L₂-Gain-Based State Error Feedback Linearization Control for the Quadruple-Tank Liquid-Level System

by Xiangxiang Meng, Haisheng Yu, Tao Xu and Herong Wu

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5500; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205500 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2948

Abstract

This paper proposes a fresh state error feedback linearization control method with disturbance observer (DOB) and

L_{2}

gain for a quadruple-tank liquid-level system. Firstly, in terms of the highly nonlinear and strong coupling characteristics of the quadruple-tank system, a state error feedback [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a fresh state error feedback linearization control method with disturbance observer (DOB) and

L_{2}

gain for a quadruple-tank liquid-level system. Firstly, in terms of the highly nonlinear and strong coupling characteristics of the quadruple-tank system, a state error feedback linearization technique is employed to design the controller to achieve liquid-level position control and tracking control. Secondly, DOB is purposed to estimate uncertain exogenous disturbances and applied to compensation control. Moreover, an

L_{2}

-gain disturbance attenuation technology is designed to resolve one class of disturbance problem by uncertain parameter perturbation existing in the quadruple-tank liquid-level system. Finally, compared with the classical proportion integration differentiation (PID) and sliding mode control (SMC) methods, the extensive experimental results validate that the proposed strategy has good position control, tracking control, and disturbance rejection performances. Full article

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17 pages, 376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Far-Field Maximal Power Absorption of a Bulging Cylindrical Wave Energy Converter

by Matthieu Ancellin, Marlène Dong, Philippe Jean and Frédéric Dias

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5499; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205499 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3264

Abstract

The maximal power that is absorbed by a wave energy converter can be estimated from the far-field behavior of the waves that are radiated by the device. For realistic estimates, constraints must be used to enforce restrictions on the set of admissible motions [...] Read more.

The maximal power that is absorbed by a wave energy converter can be estimated from the far-field behavior of the waves that are radiated by the device. For realistic estimates, constraints must be used to enforce restrictions on the set of admissible motions when deriving the maximal absorption width. This work is dedicated to the numerical computation of the maximal absorption width under constraints for devices with several non-trivial degrees of freedom. In particular, the method is applied to a model of SBM Offshore’s S3 wave energy converter, a bulging horizontal cylinder. The results are compared with a more classical approach, which consists of computing the linear dynamic response of the wave energy converter interacting with the waves. The far-field maximal absorption width can be seen as an upper bound to evaluate what would be the power captured by a perfect control strategy. The method also shows that the absorption width of the S3 wave energy converter is larger for wavelengths that are smaller than the device length. In practice, this means that S3 wave energy converters will be longer than the maximal wavelength to be captured on the targeted production site. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Modelling of Wave Energy Converters)

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23 pages, 2231 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Bi-Level Optimisation Framework for Optimising a Multi-Mode Wave Energy Converter Design: A Case Study for the Marettimo Island, Mediterranean Sea

by Mehdi Neshat, Nataliia Y. Sergiienko, Erfan Amini, Meysam Majidi Nezhad, Davide Astiaso Garcia, Bradley Alexander and Markus Wagner

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5498; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205498 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3752

Abstract

To advance commercialisation of ocean wave energy and for the technology to become competitive with other sources of renewable energy, the cost of wave energy harvesting should be significantly reduced. The Mediterranean Sea is a region with a relatively low wave energy potential, [...] Read more.

To advance commercialisation of ocean wave energy and for the technology to become competitive with other sources of renewable energy, the cost of wave energy harvesting should be significantly reduced. The Mediterranean Sea is a region with a relatively low wave energy potential, but due to the absence of extreme waves, can be considered at the initial stage of the prototype development as a proof of concept. In this study, we focus on the optimisation of a multi-mode wave energy converter inspired by the CETO system to be tested in the west of Sicily, Italy. We develop a computationally efficient spectral-domain model that fully captures the nonlinear dynamics of a wave energy converter (WEC). We consider two different objective functions for the purpose of optimising a WEC: (1) maximise the annual average power output (with no concern for WEC cost), and (2) minimise the levelised cost of energy (LCoE). We develop a new bi-level optimisation framework to simultaneously optimise the WEC geometry, tether angles and power take-off (PTO) parameters. In the upper-level of this bi-level process, all WEC parameters are optimised using a state-of-the-art self-adaptive differential evolution method as a global optimisation technique. At the lower-level, we apply a local downhill search method to optimise the geometry and tether angles settings in two independent steps. We evaluate and compare the performance of the new bi-level optimisation framework with seven well-known evolutionary and swarm optimisation methods using the same computational budget. The simulation results demonstrate that the bi-level method converges faster than other methods to a better configuration in terms of both absorbed power and the levelised cost of energy. The optimisation results confirm that if we focus on minimising the produced energy cost at the given location, the best-found WEC dimension is that of a small WEC with a radius of 5 m and height of 2 m. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Open Data and Models for Energy and Environment)

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16 pages, 1309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrocracking of a Heavy Vacuum Gas Oil with Fischer–Tropsch Wax

by Olga Pleyer, Dan Vrtiška, Petr Straka, Aleš Vráblík, Jan Jenčík and Pavel Šimáček

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5497; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205497 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3523

Abstract

Catalytic hydrocracking represents an optimal process for both heavy petroleum fractions and Fischer–Tropsch (FT) wax upgrading because it offers high flexibility regarding the feedstock, reaction conditions and products’ quality. The hydrocracking of a heavy vacuum gas oil with FT wax was carried out [...] Read more.

Catalytic hydrocracking represents an optimal process for both heavy petroleum fractions and Fischer–Tropsch (FT) wax upgrading because it offers high flexibility regarding the feedstock, reaction conditions and products’ quality. The hydrocracking of a heavy vacuum gas oil with FT wax was carried out in a continuous-flow catalytic unit with a fixed-bed reactor and a co-current flow of the feedstock and hydrogen at the reaction temperatures of 390, 400 and 410 °C and a pressure of 8 MPa. The increasing reaction temperature and content of the FT wax in the feedstock caused an increasing yield in the gaseous products and a decreasing yield in the liquid products. The utilisation of the higher reaction temperatures and feedstocks containing the FT wax showed a positive influence on the conversion of the fraction boiling above 400 °C to lighter fractions. Although the naphtha and middle distillate fractions obtained via atmospheric and vacuum distillations of the liquid products of hydrocracking did not comply with the particular quality standards of automotive gasolines and diesel fuels, the obtained products still present valuable materials which could be utilised within an oil refinery and in the petrochemical industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section B: Energy and Environment)

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