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Volume 14
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Energies, Volume 14, Issue 4 (February-2 2021) – 425 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): As the most abundant element in the world, hydrogen is a promising energy carrier and has received continuously growing attention. This review paper summarizes the latest findings on solid-state storage solutions of different non-equilibrium systems that have been synthesized by mechanical routes based on severe plastic deformation. View this paper.
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21 pages, 10215 KiB  
Article
A Novel Co-Phase Power Supply System for Electrified Railway Based on V Type Connection Traction Transformer
by Shaofeng Xie, Yiming Zhang and Hui Wang
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1214; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041214 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3618
Abstract
Power quality and neutral section are two technical problems that hinder the development of electrified railway to high-speed and heavy railway. The co-phase power supply technology is one of the best ways to solve these two technical problems. At present, a V type [...] Read more.
Power quality and neutral section are two technical problems that hinder the development of electrified railway to high-speed and heavy railway. The co-phase power supply technology is one of the best ways to solve these two technical problems. At present, a V type connection traction transformer is widely used in a power frequency single-phase AC traction power supply system, especially in high-speed railway. In this paper, a new type of co-phase power supply system for electrified railway based on V type connection traction transformer is proposed. One single-phase winding in the V type connection traction transformer is used as main power supply channel, and three ports are used as compensation ports. Neutral section is no longer set with traction substation, and the train is continuously powered through. The independent single-phase Static Var Generators (SVGs) are used to compensate the three-phase imbalance caused by single-phase traction load. When necessary, the power factor can be improved at the same time. The principle, structure, control strategy, and capacity configuration of the technical scheme are analyzed in this paper, and the effectiveness of the scheme is verified by using the measured data of electrified railway. The advantage of this scheme lies in the universal applicability of the V type connection traction transformer, and the flexibility of the SVG device. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Power Quality in Electrified Transportation Systems)
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20 pages, 8561 KiB  
Article
Neural Network Approach for Global Solar Irradiance Prediction at Extremely Short-Time-Intervals Using Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm
by Ahmed Aljanad, Nadia M. L. Tan, Vassilios G. Agelidis and Hussain Shareef
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1213; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041213 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 3976
Abstract
Hourly global solar irradiance (GSR) data are required for sizing, planning, and modeling of solar photovoltaic farms. However, operating and controlling such farms exposed to varying environmental conditions, such as fast passing clouds, necessitates GSR data to be available for very short time [...] Read more.
Hourly global solar irradiance (GSR) data are required for sizing, planning, and modeling of solar photovoltaic farms. However, operating and controlling such farms exposed to varying environmental conditions, such as fast passing clouds, necessitates GSR data to be available for very short time intervals. Classical backpropagation neural networks do not perform satisfactorily when predicting parameters within short intervals. This paper proposes a hybrid backpropagation neural networks based on particle swarm optimization. The particle swarm algorithm is used as an optimization algorithm within the backpropagation neural networks to optimize the number of hidden layers and neurons used and its learning rate. The proposed model can be used as a reliable model in predicting changes in the solar irradiance during short time interval in tropical regions such as Malaysia and other regions. Actual global solar irradiance data of 5-s and 1-min intervals, recorded by weather stations, are applied to train and test the proposed algorithm. Moreover, to ensure the adaptability and robustness of the proposed technique, two different cases are evaluated using 1-day and 3-days profiles, for two different time intervals of 1-min and 5-s each. A set of statistical error indices have been introduced to evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm. From the results obtained, the 3-days profile’s performance evaluation of the BPNN-PSO are 1.7078 of RMSE, 0.7537 of MAE, 0.0292 of MSE, and 31.4348 of MAPE (%), at 5-s time interval, where the obtained results of 1-min interval are 0.6566 of RMSE, 0.2754 of MAE, 0.0043 of MSE, and 1.4732 of MAPE (%). The results revealed that proposed model outperformed the standalone backpropagation neural networks method in predicting global solar irradiance values for extremely short-time intervals. In addition to that, the proposed model exhibited high level of predictability compared to other existing models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar Radiation Forecasting and Photovoltaic Systems Performance Modeling)
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14 pages, 4626 KiB  
Article
Effect of the Reactant Transportation on Performance of a Planar Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
by Yongqing Wang, Xingchen Li, Zhenning Guo, Ke Wang and Yan Cao
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1212; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041212 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2140
Abstract
The process of reactant transportation greatly affects the performance of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Therefore, a three-dimension numerical SOFC model was built to evaluate mainly the effect of the reactant transportation coupling of heat and mass transfer and electrochemical reactions, and the [...] Read more.
The process of reactant transportation greatly affects the performance of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Therefore, a three-dimension numerical SOFC model was built to evaluate mainly the effect of the reactant transportation coupling of heat and mass transfer and electrochemical reactions, and the reliability of numerical calculations was validated. Numerical studies revealed the correlation of both increase of reactant concentration gradients and improved mass transfer capability of multi reactants in gas diffusion electrode with the enhancement of the SOFC performance, in the condition of enough supplies of the fuel and the oxidant. Further studies identified the oxygen ions conductivity in electrolytes played a critical role in energy output and thus the performance of SOFCs. For example, the current density would increase by 65% if the ionic conductivity of electrolytes doubled. This study gives insight into the significance of operational conditions, electrolytes, and structures on the ionic oxygen conductivity and further on the optimization of the SOFCs. Overall, the numerical modeling leads a clear path toward the optimization of SOFCs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A5: Hydrogen Energy)
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17 pages, 3773 KiB  
Article
An Analysis of Repeating Thermal Bridges from Timber Frame Fraction in Closed Panel Timber Frame Walls: A Case Study from Wales, UK
by Francesco Zaccaro, John Richard Littlewood and Carolyn Hayles
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1211; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041211 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3447
Abstract
Calculating Repeating Thermal Bridges (RTBs) for Timber Frame (TF) closed panels that could occur in Offsite Manufactured (OSM) Modern Methods of Construction (MMC), such as exterior walls for nearly-to-zero operational energy dwellings to be constructed in Wales, United Kingdom (UK) is discussed in [...] Read more.
Calculating Repeating Thermal Bridges (RTBs) for Timber Frame (TF) closed panels that could occur in Offsite Manufactured (OSM) Modern Methods of Construction (MMC), such as exterior walls for nearly-to-zero operational energy dwellings to be constructed in Wales, United Kingdom (UK) is discussed in this paper. Detailed calculations for linear RTBs due to the TF components are often neglected when evaluating thermal transmittance (known as U-values hereafter). The use of standard TF fractions does not allow the designer to perceive their detrimental impact on RTBs and consequent U-values for exterior walls. With the increase of the thermal performance of exterior walls and as such lower U-values due to ever-tightening Building Regulations, specifically related to the energy use and carbon emissions from the space heating of dwellings, then the impacts of RTBs requires more investigation. By not calculating the potential of linear RTB at the design stage could lead to a performance gap where assumed U-values for exterior walls differ from manufacture to onsite. A TF detail from the Welsh manufacture has been chosen as a case study, to develop and apply a methodology using manufacturing drawings to evaluate TF fraction and their effect on the thermal performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental and Sustainable Built Environments)
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15 pages, 4939 KiB  
Article
Field Performance of South-Facing and East-West Facing Bifacial Modules in the Arctic
by Christopher Pike, Erin Whitney, Michelle Wilber and Joshua S. Stein
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1210; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041210 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7365
Abstract
This paper presents the first systematic comparison between south-facing monofacial and bifacial photovoltaic (PV) modules, as well as between south-facing bifacial and vertical east-west facing bifacial PV modules in Alaska. The state’s solar industry, driven by the high price of energy and dropping [...] Read more.
This paper presents the first systematic comparison between south-facing monofacial and bifacial photovoltaic (PV) modules, as well as between south-facing bifacial and vertical east-west facing bifacial PV modules in Alaska. The state’s solar industry, driven by the high price of energy and dropping equipment costs, is quickly growing. The challenges posed by extreme sun angles in Alaska’s northern regions also present opportunities for unique system designs. Annual bifacial gains of 21% were observed between side by side south-facing monofacial and bifacial modules. Vertical east-west bifacial modules had virtually the same annual production as south-facing latitude tilt bifacial modules, but with different energy production profiles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Increasing the Lifetime of Photovoltaics Systems: Advanced Materials, Monitoring, O&M and Energy Modeling)
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36 pages, 8356 KiB  
Article
Influence of Electrification Pathways in the Electricity Sector of Ethiopia—Policy Implications Linking Spatial Electrification Analysis and Medium to Long-Term Energy Planning
by Ioannis Pappis, Andreas Sahlberg, Tewodros Walle, Oliver Broad, Elusiyan Eludoyin, Mark Howells and Will Usher
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1209; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041209 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5785
Abstract
Ethiopia is a low-income country, with low electricity access (45%) and an inefficient power transmission network. The government aims to achieve universal access and become an electricity exporter in the region by 2025. This study provides an invaluable perspective on different aspects of [...] Read more.
Ethiopia is a low-income country, with low electricity access (45%) and an inefficient power transmission network. The government aims to achieve universal access and become an electricity exporter in the region by 2025. This study provides an invaluable perspective on different aspects of Ethiopia’s energy transition, focusing on achieving universal access and covering the country’s electricity needs during 2015–2065. We co-developed and investigated three scenarios to examine the policy and technology levels available to the government to meet their national priorities. To conduct this analysis, we soft-linked OnSSET, a modelling tool used for geospatial analysis, with OSeMOSYS, a cost-optimization modelling tool used for medium to long-run energy planning. Our results show that the country needs to diversify its power generation system to achieve universal access and cover its future electricity needs by increasing its overall carbon dioxide emissions and fully exploit hydropower. With the aim of achieving universal access by 2025, the newly electrified population is supplied primarily by the grid (65%), followed by stand-alone (32%) technologies. Similarly, until 2065, most of the electrified people by 2025 will continue to be grid-connected (99%). The country’s exports will increase to 17 TWh by 2065, up from 832 GWh in 2015, leading to a cumulative rise in electricity export revenues of 184 billion USD. Full article
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11 pages, 9373 KiB  
Article
Analysis and Experimental Verification of a Variable Speed Turbo Air Centrifugal Compressor System for Energy Saving
by Sung-An Kim and Kyung-Pyo Hong
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1208; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041208 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3089
Abstract
Conventional constant speed turbo air centrifugal compressor systems (TACCSs) consist of an electric motor driven at the constant speed and an inlet guide vane (IGV) for pressure control. TACCSs with an inverter for a variable speed drive (VSD) of the electric motor are [...] Read more.
Conventional constant speed turbo air centrifugal compressor systems (TACCSs) consist of an electric motor driven at the constant speed and an inlet guide vane (IGV) for pressure control. TACCSs with an inverter for a variable speed drive (VSD) of the electric motor are more efficient than the conventional constant speed TACCS because they have a wide operating range and can minimize the power consumption. Therefore, this paper proposes a quadratic V/f control and VSD to reduce electrical and mechanical energy losses. To verify the energy saving effect of the TACCS with the proposed controls, this paper analyzes the performances of an electric motor drive system (EMDS) using the proposed quadratic V/f control considering load conditions of the turbo air centrifugal compressor (TACC) to reduce electrical energy losses. Furthermore, the performances of the conventional constant speed drive (CSD) using the IGV control and the proposed VSD were compared and analyzed in the test bench that represented an actual factory environment. As a result, the proposed quadratic V/f control and VSD experimentally verified energy savings of 4.44% and 23.37% compared to conventional controls. In addition, the economic feasibility of the proposed VSD was verified in the TACCS by analyzing the recovery period of the initial investment due to the addition of the inverter. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section F: Electrical Engineering)
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35 pages, 7417 KiB  
Article
Longitudinal Dynamics Simulation Tool for Hybrid APU and Full Electric Vehicle
by Giulia Sandrini, Marco Gadola and Daniel Chindamo
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1207; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041207 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3251
Abstract
Due to problems related to environmental pollution and fossil fuels consumption that have not infinite availability, the automotive sector is increasingly moving towards electric powertrains. The most limiting aspect of this category of vehicles is certainly the battery pack, regarding the difficulty in [...] Read more.
Due to problems related to environmental pollution and fossil fuels consumption that have not infinite availability, the automotive sector is increasingly moving towards electric powertrains. The most limiting aspect of this category of vehicles is certainly the battery pack, regarding the difficulty in obtaining high range with good performance and low weights. The aim of this work is to provide a simulation tool, which allows for the analysis of the performance of different types of electric and hybrid powertrains, concerning both mechanical and electrical aspects. Through this model it is possible to test different vehicle configurations before prototype realization or to investigate the impact that subsystems’ modifications may have on a vehicle under development. This will allow to speed-up the model-based design process typical for fully electric and hybrid vehicles. The model aims to be at the same time complete but simple enough to lower the simulation time and computational burden so that it can be used in real-time applications, such as driving simulators. All this reduces the time and costs of vehicle design. Validation is also provided, based on a real vehicle and comparison with another consolidated simulation tool. Maximum error on mechanical quantities is proved to be within 5% while on electrical quantities it is always lower than 10%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Dynamics and Control)
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15 pages, 7876 KiB  
Article
Elbows of Internal Resistance Rise Curves in Li-Ion Cells
by Calum Strange, Shawn Li, Richard Gilchrist and Gonçalo dos Reis
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1206; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041206 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4056
Abstract
The degradation of lithium-ion cells with respect to increases of internal resistance (IR) has negative implications for rapid charging protocols, thermal management and power output of cells. Despite this, IR receives much less attention than capacity degradation in Li-ion cell research. Building on [...] Read more.
The degradation of lithium-ion cells with respect to increases of internal resistance (IR) has negative implications for rapid charging protocols, thermal management and power output of cells. Despite this, IR receives much less attention than capacity degradation in Li-ion cell research. Building on recent developments on ‘knee’ identification for capacity degradation curves, we propose the new concepts of ‘elbow-point’ and ‘elbow-onset’ for IR rise curves, and a robust identification algorithm for those variables. We report on the relations between capacity’s knees, IR’s elbows and end of life for the large dataset of the study. We enhance our discussion with two applications. We use neural network techniques to build independent state of health capacity and IR predictor models achieving a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 0.4% and 1.6%, respectively, and an overall root mean squared error below 0.0061. A relevance vector machine, using the first 50 cycles of life data, is employed for the early prediction of elbow-points and elbow-onsets achieving a MAPE of 11.5% and 14.0%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Li-Ion Batteries: Modelling and Control from Manufacturing to Performance Evaluation)
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23 pages, 2075 KiB  
Review
A Survey on Applications of Hybrid PV/T Panels
by Zain Ul Abdin and Ahmed Rachid
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1205; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041205 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5355
Abstract
Photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) collectors have gained a lot of attention in recent years due to their substantial advantages as compared to ST or PV systems alone and even to other non-solar technologies. However, PV/Ts are still not as popular in industry or construction and [...] Read more.
Photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) collectors have gained a lot of attention in recent years due to their substantial advantages as compared to ST or PV systems alone and even to other non-solar technologies. However, PV/Ts are still not as popular in industry or construction and they are not even known to major players implementing solar energy installations. In this article, a general presentation of PV/Ts and a review of their applications are given. First, different heat extraction media (e.g., air, water, bi-fluid, etc.) and hybrid design configurations of hybrid PV/T collectors are addressed. Next, the main applications of PV/T collectors are discussed in order to highlight their feasibility and usefulness and to raise awareness for adoption in the industry and buildings sector. Applications include desalination, air-conditioning, drying, trigeneration, etc. This paper should be considered as a reference form of PV/Ts to extract key points for future research and development as well as for other applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Accelerating the Adoption of Solar Energy towards a Low-Carbon Future)
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25 pages, 7160 KiB  
Article
A Back-of-Queue Model of a Signal-Controlled Intersection Approach Developed Based on Analysis of Vehicle Driver Behavior
by Elżbieta Macioszek and Damian Iwanowicz
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1204; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041204 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3762
Abstract
In smart cities, it is expected that transport, communication as well as the movement of people and goods will take place in the shortest possible time while maintaining a high level of safety. In recent years, due to the significant increase in the [...] Read more.
In smart cities, it is expected that transport, communication as well as the movement of people and goods will take place in the shortest possible time while maintaining a high level of safety. In recent years, due to the significant increase in the number of passengers and vehicles on the road and the capacity limitations of transport networks, it has become necessary to use new technologies for intelligent control and traffic management. Intelligent transport systems use advanced technologies in the field of data gathering, information processing, and traffic control to meet current transport needs. To be able to effectively control and manage road traffic, it is necessary to have reliable mathematical models that allow for a faithful representation of the real traffic conditions. Models of this type are usually the basis of complex algorithms used in practice in road traffic control. The application of appropriate models reflecting the behavior of road users contributes to the reduction of congestion, the vehicles travel time on the transport network, fuel consumption and the emissions, which in turn support broadly understood energy savings. The article proposes a model that allows for the estimation of the maximum queue size at the signal-controlled intersection approach (so-called: maximum back-of-queue). This model takes into account the most important traffic characteristics of the vehicles forming this queue. The verification allowed for the conclusion that the proposed model is characterized by high compliance with the actual traffic and road conditions at the intersections with signal controllers located in built-up areas in Poland. The obtained compliance confirms the possibility of using the model for practical applications in calculating the maximum back-of-queue at signal-controlled intersections located in built-up areas in Poland. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives and Challenges in Traffic and Transportation Engineering Supporting Energy Saving in Smart Cities)
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24 pages, 6100 KiB  
Article
Multi-Objective Optimisation-Based Design of an Electric Vehicle Cabin Heating Control System for Improved Thermal Comfort and Driving Range
by Ivan Cvok, Igor Ratković and Joško Deur
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1203; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041203 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3706
Abstract
Modern electric vehicle heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems operate in more efficient heat pump mode, thus, improving the driving range under cold ambient conditions. Coupling those HVAC systems with novel heating technologies such as infrared heating panels (IRP) results in a complex [...] Read more.
Modern electric vehicle heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems operate in more efficient heat pump mode, thus, improving the driving range under cold ambient conditions. Coupling those HVAC systems with novel heating technologies such as infrared heating panels (IRP) results in a complex system with multiple actuators, which needs to be optimally coordinated to maximise the efficiency and comfort. The paper presents a multi-objective genetic algorithm-based control input allocation method, which relies on a multi-physical HVAC model and a CFD-evaluated cabin airflow distribution model implemented in Dymola. The considered control inputs include the cabin inlet air temperature, blower and radiator fan air mass flows, secondary coolant loop pump speeds, and IRP control settings. The optimisation objective is to minimise total electric power consumption and thermal comfort described by predictive mean vote (PMV) index. Optimisation results indicate that HVAC and IRP controls are effectively decoupled, and that a significant reduction of power consumption (typically from 20% to 30%) can be achieved using IRPs while maintaining the same level of thermal comfort. The previously proposed hierarchical HVAC control strategy is parameterised and extended with a PMV-based controller acting via IRP control inputs. The performance is verified through simulations in a heat-up scenario, and the power consumption reduction potential is analysed for different cabin air temperature setpoints. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Cooling and Heating Systems for Improved Passenger Thermal Comfort in Electric Vehicles)
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18 pages, 1769 KiB  
Article
Optimal Selection of Metering Points for Power Quality Measurements in Distribution System
by Krzysztof Piatek, Andrzej Firlit, Krzysztof Chmielowiec, Mateusz Dutka, Szymon Barczentewicz and Zbigniew Hanzelka
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1202; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041202 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2235
Abstract
Quality of power supply in power distribution systems requires continuous measurement using power quality analyzers installed in the grid. The paper reviews the published methods for optimal location of metering points in distribution systems in the context of power quality metering and assessment. [...] Read more.
Quality of power supply in power distribution systems requires continuous measurement using power quality analyzers installed in the grid. The paper reviews the published methods for optimal location of metering points in distribution systems in the context of power quality metering and assessment. Three methods have been selected for detailed analysis and comparative tests. It has been found that utilization of the methods is possible, but their performance varies highly depending on the test grid’s topology. Since the methods rely on the state estimation approach, their performance is strictly related to observability analysis. It has been found that standard observability analysis used for typical state estimation problem yields ambiguous results when applied to power quality assessment. Inherited properties of the selected methods are also analyzed, which allows for the formulation of general recommendations about optimal selection of metering points in a distribution system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from The 12th International Conference on Electrical Power Quality and Utilization (EPQU2020))
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18 pages, 1266 KiB  
Article
On Adaptive Moving Average Algorithms for the Application of the Conservative Power Theory in Systems with Variable Frequency
by Daniel dos Santos Mota and Elisabetta Tedeschi
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1201; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041201 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2873
Abstract
The Conservative Power Theory (CPT) emerged in recent decades as a theoretical framework for coping with harmonically distorted and unbalanced electric networks of ac power systems with a high participation of converter interfaced loads and generation. The CPT measurements are intrinsically linked to [...] Read more.
The Conservative Power Theory (CPT) emerged in recent decades as a theoretical framework for coping with harmonically distorted and unbalanced electric networks of ac power systems with a high participation of converter interfaced loads and generation. The CPT measurements are intrinsically linked to moving averages (MA) over one period of the grid. If the CPT is to be used in a low-inertia isolated-grid scenario, which is subjected to frequency variations, adaptive moving averages (AMA) are necessary. This paper reviews an efficient way of computing MAs and turns it into an adaptive one. It shows that an easily available variable time delay block, from MATLAB, causes steady-state errors in the measurements when the grid frequency varies. A new variable time delay block is, thus, proposed. Nonetheless, natural pulsations in the instantaneous power slip through MAs when the discrete moving average window does not fit perfectly the continuously varying period of the grid. A method consisting of weighing two MAs is reviewed and a new and effective hybrid AMA is proposed. The CPT transducers with the different choices of AMAs are compared via computer simulations of a single-phase voltage source feeding either a linear or a nonlinear load. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Power Filters and Power Quality)
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28 pages, 4332 KiB  
Article
Improvement Effect of Green Remodeling and Building Value Assessment Criteria for Aging Public Buildings
by Yong-Joon Jun, Seung-ho Ahn and Kyung-Soon Park
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1200; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041200 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2500
Abstract
The Green Remodeling Project under South Korea’s Green New Deal policy is a government-led project intended to strengthen the performance sector directly correlated with energy performance among various elements of improvement applicable to building remodeling by replacing insulation materials, introducing new and renewable [...] Read more.
The Green Remodeling Project under South Korea’s Green New Deal policy is a government-led project intended to strengthen the performance sector directly correlated with energy performance among various elements of improvement applicable to building remodeling by replacing insulation materials, introducing new and renewable energy, introducing high-efficiency equipment, etc., with public buildings taking the lead in green remodeling in order to induce energy efficiency enhancement in private buildings. However, there is an ongoing policy that involves the application of a fragmentary value judgment criterion, i.e., whether to apply technical elements confined to the enhancement of the energy performance of target buildings and the prediction of improvement effects according thereto, thus resulting in the phenomenon of another important value criterion for green remodeling, i.e., the enhancement of the occupant (user) comfort performance of target buildings as one of its purposes, being neglected instead. In order to accurately grasp the current status of these problems and to promote ‘expansion of the value judgment criteria for green remodeling’ as an alternative, this study collected energy usage data of buildings actually used by public institutions and then conducted a total analysis. After that, the characteristics of energy usage were analyzed for each of the groups of buildings classified by year of completion, thereby carrying out an analysis of the correlation between the non-architectural elements affecting the actual energy usage and the actual energy usage data. The correlation between the improvement performance of each technical element and the actual improvement effect was also analyzed, thereby ascertaining the relationship between the direction of major policy strategies and the actual energy usage. As a result of the relationship analysis, it was confirmed that the actual energy usage is more affected by the operating conditions of the relevant building than the application of individual strategic elements such as the performance of the envelope insulation and the performance of the high-efficiency system. In addition, it was also confirmed that the usage of public buildings does not increase in proportion to their aging. The primary goal of reducing energy usage in target buildings can be achieved if public sector (government)-led green remodeling is pushed ahead with in accordance with biased value judgment criteria, just as in the case of a campaign to refrain from operating cooling facilities in aging public buildings. However, it was possible to grasp through the progress of this study that the remodeling may also result in the deterioration of environmental comfort and stability, such as the numerical value of the indoor thermal environment. The results of this study have the significance of providing basic data for pushing ahead with a green remodeling policy in which the value judgment criteria for aging existing public buildings are more expanded, and it is necessary to continue research in such a direction that the quantitative purpose of green remodeling, which is to reduce energy usage in aging public buildings, and its qualitative purpose, which is to enhance their environmental performance for occupants’ comfort, can be mutually balanced and secured at the same time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section G: Energy and Buildings)
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2 pages, 147 KiB  
Editorial
Special Issue on Global Market for Crude Oil
by Pierre Failler
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1199; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041199 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1914
Abstract
The dynamic of the world’s crude oil market has drastically changed over the last decade [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Market for Crude Oil)
12 pages, 4075 KiB  
Article
Modified SPWM Technique with Zero-Sequence Voltage Injection for a Five-Phase, Three-Level NPC Inverter
by Charles Odeh, Dmytro Kondratenko, Arkadiusz Lewicki and Andrzej Jąderko
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1198; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041198 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3134
Abstract
This article presents a modified sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM) scheme for a five-phase, three-level neutral-point-clamped inverter. The modulation scheme deploys a modified min–max function to inject the zero-sequence components into the reference modulating signals; hence enabling the effective utilization of the DC-link voltage. [...] Read more.
This article presents a modified sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM) scheme for a five-phase, three-level neutral-point-clamped inverter. The modulation scheme deploys a modified min–max function to inject the zero-sequence components into the reference modulating signals; hence enabling the effective utilization of the DC-link voltage. Balanced split-input DC-link voltages were achieved through further incorporation of adjustable voltage-dependent variables into the reference signals. The dynamic performance of the control approach is demonstrated through simulations and experiments on a laboratory inverter prototype; the results are well presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Control and Modeling of Power Converters and Inverters)
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15 pages, 509 KiB  
Review
Molten Salts for Sensible Thermal Energy Storage: A Review and an Energy Performance Analysis
by Adrián Caraballo, Santos Galán-Casado, Ángel Caballero and Sara Serena
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1197; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041197 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 110 | Viewed by 9516
Abstract
A comprehensive review of different thermal energy storage materials for concentrated solar power has been conducted. Fifteen candidates were selected due to their nature, thermophysical properties, and economic impact. Three key energy performance indicators were defined in order to evaluate the performance of [...] Read more.
A comprehensive review of different thermal energy storage materials for concentrated solar power has been conducted. Fifteen candidates were selected due to their nature, thermophysical properties, and economic impact. Three key energy performance indicators were defined in order to evaluate the performance of the different molten salts, using Solar Salt as a reference for low and high temperatures. The analysis provided evidence that nitrate-based materials are the best choice for the former and chloride-based materials are best for the latter instead of fluoride and carbonate-based candidates, mainly due to their low cost. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section D: Energy Storage and Application)
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18 pages, 6545 KiB  
Article
An Innovative Metaheuristic Strategy for Solar Energy Management through a Neural Networks Framework
by Hossein Moayedi and Amir Mosavi
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1196; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041196 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 3796
Abstract
Proper management of solar energy as an effective renewable source is of high importance toward sustainable energy harvesting. This paper offers a novel sophisticated method for predicting solar irradiance (SIr) from environmental conditions. To this end, an efficient metaheuristic technique, namely electromagnetic field [...] Read more.
Proper management of solar energy as an effective renewable source is of high importance toward sustainable energy harvesting. This paper offers a novel sophisticated method for predicting solar irradiance (SIr) from environmental conditions. To this end, an efficient metaheuristic technique, namely electromagnetic field optimization (EFO), is employed for optimizing a neural network. This algorithm quickly mines a publicly available dataset for nonlinearly tuning the network parameters. To suggest an optimal configuration, five influential parameters of the EFO are optimized by an extensive trial and error practice. Analyzing the results showed that the proposed model can learn the SIr pattern and predict it for unseen conditions with high accuracy. Furthermore, it provided about 10% and 16% higher accuracy compared to two benchmark optimizers, namely shuffled complex evolution and shuffled frog leaping algorithm. Hence, the EFO-supervised neural network can be a promising tool for the early prediction of SIr in practice. The findings of this research may shed light on the use of advanced intelligent models for efficient energy development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Design, Development and Testing for Solar System)
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19 pages, 5943 KiB  
Article
Model Predictive Control Strategies to Activate the Energy Flexibility for Zones with Hydronic Radiant Systems
by Ali Saberi Derakhtenjani and Andreas K. Athienitis
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1195; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041195 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2264
Abstract
This paper presents control strategies to activate energy flexibility for zones with radiant heating systems in response to changes in electricity prices. The focus is on zones with radiant floor heating systems for which the hydronic pipes are located deep in the concrete [...] Read more.
This paper presents control strategies to activate energy flexibility for zones with radiant heating systems in response to changes in electricity prices. The focus is on zones with radiant floor heating systems for which the hydronic pipes are located deep in the concrete and, therefore, there is a significant thermal lag. A perimeter zone test-room equipped with a hydronic radiant floor system in an environmental chamber is used as a case study. A low order thermal network model for the perimeter zone, validated with experimental measurements, is utilized to study various control strategies in response to changes in the electrical grid price signal, including short term (nearly reactive) changes of the order of 10–15 min notice. An index is utilized to quantify the building energy flexibility with the focus on peak demand reduction for specific periods of time when the electricity prices are higher than usual. It is shown that the developed control strategies can aid greatly in enhancing the zone energy flexibility and minimizing the cost of electricity and up to 100% reduction in peak power demand and energy consumption is attained during the high-price and peak-demand periods, while maintaining acceptable comfort conditions. Full article
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28 pages, 5906 KiB  
Article
The Innovative FlexPlan Grid-Planning Methodology: How Storage and Flexible Resources Could Help in De-Bottlenecking the European System
by Gianluigi Migliavacca, Marco Rossi, Dario Siface, Matteo Marzoli, Hakan Ergun, Raúl Rodríguez-Sánchez, Maxime Hanot, Guillaume Leclerq, Nuno Amaro, Aleksandr Egorov, Jawana Gabrielski, Björn Matthes and Andrei Morch
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1194; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041194 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4710
Abstract
The FlexPlan Horizon2020 project aims at establishing a new grid-planning methodology which considers the opportunity to introduce new storage and flexibility resources in electricity transmission and distribution grids as an alternative to building new grid elements, in accordance with the intentions of the [...] Read more.
The FlexPlan Horizon2020 project aims at establishing a new grid-planning methodology which considers the opportunity to introduce new storage and flexibility resources in electricity transmission and distribution grids as an alternative to building new grid elements, in accordance with the intentions of the Clean Energy for all Europeans regulatory package of the European Commission. FlexPlan creates a new innovative grid-planning tool whose ambition is to go beyond the state of the art of planning methodologies by including the following innovative features: assessment of the best planning strategy by analysing in one shot a high number of candidate expansion options provided by a pre-processor tool, simultaneous mid- and long-term planning assessment over three grid years (2030, 2040, 2050), incorporation of a full range of cost–benefit analysis criteria into the target function, integrated transmission distribution planning, embedded environmental analysis (air quality, carbon footprint, landscape constraints), probabilistic contingency methodologies in replacement of the traditional N-1 criterion, application of numerical decomposition techniques to reduce calculation efforts and analysis of variability of yearly renewable energy sources (RES) and load time series through a Monte Carlo process. Six regional cases covering nearly the whole European continent are developed in order to cast a view on grid planning in Europe till 2050. FlexPlan will end up formulating guidelines for regulators and planning offices of system operators by indicating to what extent system flexibility can contribute to reducing overall system costs (operational + investment) yet maintaining current system security levels and which regulatory provisions could foster such process. This paper provides a complete description of the modelling features of the planning tool and pre-processor and provides the first results of their application in small-scale scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Verifying the Targets—Selected Papers from the 55th International Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC 2020))
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11 pages, 780 KiB  
Article
Integrated Electric Vehicle Shunt Current Sensing System for Concurrent Revenue Metering and Detection of DC Injection
by Olga Mironenko, Garrett Ejzak and Willett Kempton
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1193; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041193 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2575
Abstract
Certified electric vehicle power converters can inject DC current into the AC grid if they fail. Verification of DC injection by electric vehicle supply equipment can be a cost-effective extra measure to ensure power quality from a variety of plugged-in electric vehicles. As [...] Read more.
Certified electric vehicle power converters can inject DC current into the AC grid if they fail. Verification of DC injection by electric vehicle supply equipment can be a cost-effective extra measure to ensure power quality from a variety of plugged-in electric vehicles. As electric vehicle supply equipment typically performs high-accuracy revenue energy metering, we propose that measurement of AC current and DC injection with a single sensor is the most economically efficient design. This article presents an integrated shunt current sensing system with separation of AC and DC signals for concurrent revenue metering and DC injection detection. It also shows how the combined sensor is integrated into 19.2 kW single-phase electric vehicle supply equipment, and outlines how the design would be extended to 100 kW three-phase electric vehicle supply equipment. The prototype can detect DC injection of ≥400 mA in an AC current up to 80 A in accordance with the IEEE 1547-2018 standard. The prototype can also conduct revenue metering within the 1.0 accuracy class. The prototype does not have high power dissipation at high currents typical for shunt systems. Finally, the prototype is less costly than common electric vehicle supply equipment revenue metering CT systems with the addition of the popular Hall-effect sensor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Electric Vehicle Techniques)
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15 pages, 1125 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Cow Dung Pellets as a Renewable Solid Fuel in Direct Combustion Technologies
by Aneta Szymajda, Grażyna Łaska and Magdalena Joka
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1192; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041192 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6946
Abstract
Recently, biomass application as a renewable energy source is increasing worldwide. However, its availability differs in dependence on the location and climate, therefore, agricultural residues as cow dung (CD) are being considered to supply heat and/or power installation. This paper aims at a [...] Read more.
Recently, biomass application as a renewable energy source is increasing worldwide. However, its availability differs in dependence on the location and climate, therefore, agricultural residues as cow dung (CD) are being considered to supply heat and/or power installation. This paper aims at a wide evaluation of CD fuel properties and its prospect to apply in the form of pellets to direct combustion installations. Therefore, the proximate, ultimate composition and calorific value were analyzed, then pelletization and combustion tests were performed, and the ash characteristics were tested. It was found that CD is a promising source of bioenergy in terms of LHV (16.34 MJ·kg−1), carbon (44.24%), and fixed carbon (18.33%) content. During pelletization, CD showed high compaction properties and at a moisture content of 18%,and the received pellets’ bulk density reached ca. 470 kg·m−3 with kinetic durability of 98.7%. While combustion, in a fixed grate 25 kW boiler, high emissions of CO, SO2, NO, and HCl were observed. The future energy sector might be based on biomass and this work shows a novel approach of CD pellets as a potential source of renewable energy available wherever cattle production is located. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Analysis of Biomass Energy Production Process)
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22 pages, 4722 KiB  
Article
A Multi-Point Meso–Micro Downscaling Method Including Atmospheric Stratification
by Renko Buhr, Hassan Kassem, Gerald Steinfeld, Michael Alletto, Björn Witha and Martin Dörenkämper
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1191; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041191 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3301
Abstract
In wind energy site assessment, one major challenge is to represent both the local characteristics as well as general representation of the wind climate on site. Micro-scale models (e.g., Reynolds-Averaged-Navier-Stokes (RANS)) excel in the former, while meso-scale models (e.g., Weather Research and Forecasting [...] Read more.
In wind energy site assessment, one major challenge is to represent both the local characteristics as well as general representation of the wind climate on site. Micro-scale models (e.g., Reynolds-Averaged-Navier-Stokes (RANS)) excel in the former, while meso-scale models (e.g., Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF)) in the latter. This paper presents a fast approach for meso–micro downscaling to an industry-applicable computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling framework. The model independent postprocessing tool chain is applied using the New European Wind Atlas (NEWA) on the meso-scale and THETA on the micro-scale side. We adapt on a previously developed methodology and extend it using a micro-scale model including stratification. We compare a single- and multi-point downscaling in critical flow situations and proof the concept on long-term mast data at Rödeser Berg in central Germany. In the longterm analysis, in respect to the pure meso-scale results, the statistical bias can be reduced up to 45% with a single-point downscaling and up to 107% (overcorrection of 7%) with a multi-point downscaling. We conclude that single-point downscaling is vital to combine meso-scale wind climate and micro-scale accuracy. The multi-point downscaling is further capable to include wind shear or veer from the meso-scale model into the downscaled velocity field. This adds both, accuracy and robustness, by minimal computational cost. The new introduction of stratification in the micro-scale model provides a marginal difference for the selected stability conditions, but gives a prospect on handling stratification in wind energy site assessment for future applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Wind Power Meteorology)
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20 pages, 8239 KiB  
Article
Strength Tests of Hardened Cement Slurries for Energy Piles, with the Addition of Graphite and Graphene, in Terms of Increasing the Heat Transfer Efficiency
by Tomasz Sliwa, Aneta Sapińska-Śliwa, Tomasz Wysogląd, Tomasz Kowalski and Izabela Konopka
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1190; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041190 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2726
Abstract
The development of civilization, and subsequent increase in the number of new buildings, poses engineering problems which are progressively more difficult to solve, especially in the field of geotechnics and geoengineering. When designing new facilities, particular attention should be paid to environmental aspects, [...] Read more.
The development of civilization, and subsequent increase in the number of new buildings, poses engineering problems which are progressively more difficult to solve, especially in the field of geotechnics and geoengineering. When designing new facilities, particular attention should be paid to environmental aspects, and thus any new facility should be a passive building, fully self-sufficient in energy. The use of load-bearing energy piles could be a solution. This article presents research on the cement slurry formulas with the addition of graphite and graphene, that can be used as a material for load-bearing piles. The proposed solution is to introduce U-tubes into the pile to exchange heat with the rock mass (the so-called energy piles). A comparison of four slurry formulas is presented: the first one consisting mainly of cement (CEM I), graphite, and water, and the remaining three with different percentages of graphene relative to the weight of dry cement. The results could contribute to the industrial application of those formulas in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Thermal and Energy Geotechnics)
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14 pages, 2613 KiB  
Communication
DEAP Actuator Composed of a Soft Pneumatic Spring Bias with Pressure Signal Sensing
by Jakub Bernat and Jakub Kołota
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1189; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041189 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2147
Abstract
Dielectric electroactive actuators are novel and significant smart actuators. The crucial aspect of construction of these devices is the bias mechanism. The current literature presents three main types of biases used in the construction of the DEAP actuators. In these solutions, the bias [...] Read more.
Dielectric electroactive actuators are novel and significant smart actuators. The crucial aspect of construction of these devices is the bias mechanism. The current literature presents three main types of biases used in the construction of the DEAP actuators. In these solutions, the bias is caused by the action of a spring, a force of a permanent magnet or an applied mass. The purpose of this article is to present a novel type of DEAP bias mechanism using soft pneumatic spring. In contrast to the solutions presented so far, the soft pneumatic spring has been equipped with a sensor that measures the variable pressure of its inner chamber. We performed the modeling process of a soft pneumatic spring with the finite element method to predict its mechanical behavior. Furthermore, a prototype of the soft spring was molded and used to construct a dielectric electroactive polymer actuator. The principle of operation has been confirmed by the experiments with measurement of static and dynamics characteristics. The presented device can be used to control systems with an additional pressure-sensing feedback. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Inspired Materials for Energy and Environmental Applications)
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16 pages, 694 KiB  
Article
Solar Prosumers in the German Energy Transition: A Multi-Level Perspective Analysis of the German ‘Mieterstrom’ Model
by Raphael Moser, Chun Xia-Bauer, Johannes Thema and Florin Vondung
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1188; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041188 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5583
Abstract
The expansion of photovoltaics in German cities has so far fallen short of expectations. The concept of ‘tenant electricity’ (‘Mieterstrom’ in German), in which tenants of a building are supplied with solar power produced on site, offers great potential here. A [...] Read more.
The expansion of photovoltaics in German cities has so far fallen short of expectations. The concept of ‘tenant electricity’ (‘Mieterstrom’ in German), in which tenants of a building are supplied with solar power produced on site, offers great potential here. A study on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy estimated the number of tenant households with good conditions for solar tenant electricity at 3.8 million. At the same time, the federal tenant electricity promotion scheme has been in place since 2017, but only about 1% of the annual budget has been claimed. The aim of this study is to identify the barriers for and drivers of diffusion of the tenant electricity model. To this end, a qualitative document analysis and a range of semi-structured expert interviews have been conducted. The theoretical framework used to guide the analysis is the multi-level perspective. The main barrier found for tenant electricity diffusion is the legal framework on the regime level, which also leads to high transaction costs of implementing tenant electricity. A social barrier is the inertia of some residents to actively concern themselves with their electricity supply and switch to a tenant electricity contract. Among its drivers are long-term trends such as the increasing electricity demand in urban areas, technical developments like blockchain technology and the increasing deployment of smart meters, and the EU Renewable Energy Directive. As long as the restrictive legal framework prevails, the further diffusion of tenant electricity will remain limited. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the SDEWES 2020 Conference on Sustainable Development of Energy, Water, and Environment Systems)
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16 pages, 4197 KiB  
Article
Impact of Actual Weather Datasets for Calibrating White-Box Building Energy Models Base on Monitored Data
by Vicente Gutiérrez González, Germán Ramos Ruiz and Carlos Fernández Bandera
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1187; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041187 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3550
Abstract
The need to reduce energy consumption in buildings is an urgent task. Increasing the use of calibrated building energy models (BEM) could accelerate this need. The calibration process of these models is a highly under-determined problem that normally yields multiple solutions. Among the [...] Read more.
The need to reduce energy consumption in buildings is an urgent task. Increasing the use of calibrated building energy models (BEM) could accelerate this need. The calibration process of these models is a highly under-determined problem that normally yields multiple solutions. Among the uncertainties of calibration, the weather file has a primary position. The objective of this paper is to provide a methodology for selecting the optimal weather file when an on-site weather station with local sensors is available and what is the alternative option when it is not and a mathematically evaluation has to be done with sensors from nearby stations (third-party providers). We provide a quality assessment of models based on the Coefficient of Variation of the Root Mean Square Error (CV(RMSE)) and the Square Pearson Correlation Coefficient (R2). The research was developed on a control experiment conducted by Annex 58 and a previous calibration study. This is based on the results obtained with the study case based on the data provided by their N2 house. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency and Indoor Environment Quality)
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27 pages, 22223 KiB  
Article
Microseismic Temporal-Spatial Precursory Characteristics and Early Warning Method of Rockburst in Steeply Inclined and Extremely Thick Coal Seam
by Zhenlei Li, Shengquan He, Dazhao Song, Xueqiu He, Linming Dou, Jianqiang Chen, Xudong Liu and Panfei Feng
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1186; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041186 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2229
Abstract
Early warning of a potential rockburst risk and its area of occurrence helps to take effective and targeted measures to mitigate rockburst hazards. This study investigates the microseismic (MS) spatial-temporal precursory characteristic parameters in a typical steeply inclined and extremely thick coal seam [...] Read more.
Early warning of a potential rockburst risk and its area of occurrence helps to take effective and targeted measures to mitigate rockburst hazards. This study investigates the microseismic (MS) spatial-temporal precursory characteristic parameters in a typical steeply inclined and extremely thick coal seam (SIETCS) with high rockburst risk and proposes three spatial/temporal quantification parameters and a spatial-temporal early warning method. Analysis results of temporal parameters show that the sharp-rise-sharp-drop variation in total daily energy and event count can be regarded as a precursor for high energy tremor. The appearance of peak values of both energy deviation (≥20) and event count deviation (≥1) can be regarded as precursors that indicate imminent rockburst danger. A laboratory acoustic emission (AE) experiment reveals that precursor characteristics obtained from the study can be feasibly used to warn the rockburst risk. The spatial evolution laws of spatial parameters show that the high energy density index of MS (EDIM), velocity, velocity anomaly regions correlate well with stress concentration and rockburst risk areas. The field application verifies that the temporal-spatial early warning method can identify the potential rockburst risk in a temporal sequence and rockburst risk areas during the temporal early warning period. Full article
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21 pages, 3581 KiB  
Article
Energy Efficiency in OECD Countries: A DEA Approach
by Filip Fidanoski, Kiril Simeonovski and Violeta Cvetkoska
Energies 2021, 14(4), 1185; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041185 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3298
Abstract
This paper deals with energy efficiency examined through an integrated model that links energy with environment, technology, and urbanisation as related areas. Our main goal is to discover how efficiently developed countries use primary energy and electricity (secondary energy). We additionally want to [...] Read more.
This paper deals with energy efficiency examined through an integrated model that links energy with environment, technology, and urbanisation as related areas. Our main goal is to discover how efficiently developed countries use primary energy and electricity (secondary energy). We additionally want to find out how the inclusion of environmental care and renewable energy capacity affects efficiency. For that purpose, we set up an output-oriented BCC data envelopment analysis that employs a set of input variables with non-negative values to calculate the efficiency scores on minimising energy use and losses as well as environmental emissions for a sample of 30 OECD member states during the period from 2001 to 2018. We develop a couple of baseline models in which we find that countries have mean inefficiency margins of 16.1% for primary energy and from 10.8 to 13.5% for electricity. The results from the extended models show that taking care about environment does not affect efficiency in general, while the reliance on energy produced from renewable sources does slightly reduce it. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Sustainable Financial and Economic Development on Greenhouse Gas Emission)
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