Forests

16 pages, 5950 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome Size Variation within Species of Chinese Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) and Its Wild Ancestor Sour Jujube (Z. acidojujuba Cheng et Liu)

by Lihu Wang, Zhi Luo, Zhiguo Liu, Jin Zhao, Wenping Deng, Hairong Wei, Ping Liu and Mengjun Liu

Forests 2019, 10(5), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050460 - 27 May 2019

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4071

Abstract

One of the most important attributes of a genome is genome size, which can to a large extent reflect the evolutionary history and diversity of a plant species. However, studies on genome size diversity within a species are still very limited. This study [...] Read more.

One of the most important attributes of a genome is genome size, which can to a large extent reflect the evolutionary history and diversity of a plant species. However, studies on genome size diversity within a species are still very limited. This study aims to clarify the variation in genome sizes of Chinese jujube and sour jujube, and to characterize if there exists an association between genome sizes and geographical variation. We measured the genome sizes of 301 cultivars of Chinese jujube and 81 genotypes of sour jujube by flow cytometry. Ten fruit traits, including weight, vertical diameter, horizontal diameter, size, total acids, total sugar, monosaccharide, disaccharide, soluble solids, and ascorbic acid were measured in 243 cultivars of Chinese jujube. The estimated genome sizes of Chinese jujube cultivars ranged from 300.77 Mb to 640.94 Mb, with an average of 408.54 Mb, with the highest number of cultivars (20.93%) falling in the range of 334.787 to 368.804 Mb. The genome size is somewhat different with geographical distribution. The results showed weakly significant positive correlation (p < 0.05) between genome size and fruit size, vertical diameter, horizontal diameter, and weight in the Chinese jujube. The estimated sour jujube genome sizes ranged from 346.93 Mb to 489.44 Mb, with the highest number of genotypes (24.69%) falling in the range of 418.185 to 432.436 Mb. The average genome size of sour jujube genotypes is 423.55 Mb, 15 Mb larger than that of Chinese jujube. There exists a high level of variation in genome sizes within both Chinese jujube cultivars and sour jujube genotypes. Genome contraction may have been occurred during the domestication of Chinese jujube. This study is the first large-scale investigation of genome size variation in both Chinese jujube and sour jujube, which has provided useful resources and data for the characterization of genome evolution within a species and during domestication in plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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16 pages, 2511 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cryptic Risks to Forest Biosecurity Associated with the Global Movement of Commercial Seed

by Michelle Cleary, Funda Oskay, Hatice Tugba Doğmuş, Asko Lehtijärvi, Stephen Woodward and Anna Maria Vettraino

Forests 2019, 10(5), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050459 - 27 May 2019

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 7693

Abstract

The import and export of tree seed carries with it risks of inadvertent introduction of pests and pathogens to hitherto unaffected regions. Although trade in seed of specified trees is regulated, phytosanitary requirements for most tree species are minimal, even those related to [...] Read more.

The import and export of tree seed carries with it risks of inadvertent introduction of pests and pathogens to hitherto unaffected regions. Although trade in seed of specified trees is regulated, phytosanitary requirements for most tree species are minimal, even those related to the most important forest tree species in a given region. A better understanding of the microbiome associated with seed intended for commercial production or ornamental use, and their potential risk with the transport from the source origin of distributors, will help regulatory agencies implement measures to safeguard seed health and avoid trade-related spread of potentially harmful pathogens. In this study we used high-throughput sequencing to show that highly diverse fungal communities were associated with seed of 14 different Pinus species obtained from seed banks (seed orchards) and retail sources (online distributors) in North America and Europe. Fungal diversity differed among the 23 seedlots tested. Community composition did not relate to the species of Pinus nor the country of origin. Assigned potential functions based on sequence identity using FUNGuild provided an overall understanding of the likely life strategies of fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Of those sequences classified to a trophic level, 453 were plant pathogens, with the Dothideomycetes having the highest prevalence. The most common plant pathogens included Sydowia polyspora, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Diplodia intermedia and Diplodia sapinea that were detected from the majority of Pinus species. The evidence presented here illustrates an urgent need for plant protection authorities, practitioners and the general public to recognize the potential risk of introducing harmful pathogens through innocent transport of seed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Invasive Species: Spread, Impact and Management)

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46 pages, 17600 KiB

Open AccessReview

Positioning Methods and the Use of Location and Activity Data in Forests

by Robert F. Keefe, Ann M. Wempe, Ryer M. Becker, Eloise G. Zimbelman, Emily S. Nagler, Sophie L. Gilbert and Christopher C. Caudill

Forests 2019, 10(5), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050458 - 26 May 2019

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 13071

Abstract

In this paper, we provide an overview of positioning systems for moving resources in forest and fire management and review the related literature. Emphasis is placed on the accuracy and range of different localization and location-sharing methods, particularly in forested environments and in [...] Read more.

In this paper, we provide an overview of positioning systems for moving resources in forest and fire management and review the related literature. Emphasis is placed on the accuracy and range of different localization and location-sharing methods, particularly in forested environments and in the absence of conventional cellular or internet connectivity. We then conduct a second review of literature and concepts related to several emerging, broad themes in data science, including the terms location-based services (LBS), geofences, wearable technology, activity recognition, mesh networking, the Internet of Things (IoT), and big data. Our objective in this second review is to inform how these broader concepts, with implications for networking and analytics, may help to advance natural resource management and science in the future. Based on methods, themes, and concepts that arose in our systematic reviews, we then augmented the paper with additional literature from wildlife and fisheries management, as well as concepts from video object detection, relative positioning, and inventory-tracking that are also used as forms of localization. Based on our reviews of positioning technologies and emerging data science themes, we present a hierarchical model for collecting and sharing data in forest and fire management, and more broadly in the field of natural resources. The model reflects tradeoffs in range and bandwidth when recording, processing, and communicating large quantities of data in time and space to support resource management, science, and public safety in remote areas. In the hierarchical approach, wearable devices and other sensors typically transmit data at short distances using Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), or ANT wireless, and smartphones and tablets serve as intermediate data collection and processing hubs for information that can be subsequently transmitted using radio networking systems or satellite communication. Data with greater spatial and temporal complexity is typically processed incrementally at lower tiers, then fused and summarized at higher levels of incident command or resource management. Lastly, we outline several priority areas for future research to advance big data analytics in natural resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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13 pages, 3183 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Soil Burn Severity in Forest Fires Measured In Situ and through Spectral Indices of Remote Detection

by Jose Antonio Sobrino, Rafael Llorens, Cristina Fernández, José M. Fernández-Alonso and José Antonio Vega

Forests 2019, 10(5), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050457 - 26 May 2019

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 5326

Abstract

Forest fires in Galicia have become a serious environmental problem over the years. This is especially the case in the Pontevedra region, where in October 2017 large fires (>500 hectares) burned more than 15,000 Ha. In addition to the area burned being of [...] Read more.

Forest fires in Galicia have become a serious environmental problem over the years. This is especially the case in the Pontevedra region, where in October 2017 large fires (>500 hectares) burned more than 15,000 Ha. In addition to the area burned being of relevance, it is also very important to know quickly and accurately the different severity degrees that soil has suffered in order to carry out an optimal restoration campaign. In this sense, the use of remote sensing with the Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8 satellites becomes a very useful resource due to the variations that appear in soil after a forest fire (changes in soil cover are noticeably appreciated with spectral information). To calculate these variations, the spectral indices NBR (Normalized Burn Ratio) and NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) are used, both before and after the fire and their differences (dNBR and dNDVI, respectively). In addition, as a reference for a correct discrimination between severity degrees, severity data measured in situ after the fire are used to classified at 5 levels of severity and 6 levels of severity. Therefore, this study aims to establish a methodology, which relates remote-sensing data (spectral indices) and severity degrees measured in situ. The R² statistic and the pixel classification accuracy results show the existing synergy of the Sentinel-2 dNBR index with the 5 severity degrees classification (R² = 0.74 and 81% of global accuracy) and, for this case, the good applicability of remote sensing in the forest fire field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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16 pages, 2738 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Variations in Orthotropic Elastic Constants of Green Chinese Larch from Pith to Sapwood

by Fenglu Liu, Houjiang Zhang, Fang Jiang, Xiping Wang and Cheng Guan

Forests 2019, 10(5), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050456 - 25 May 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3168

Abstract

Full sets of elastic constants of green Chinese larch (Larix principis-rupprechtii Mayr) with 95% moisture content at four different cross-section sampling positions (from pith to sapwood) were determined in this work using three-point bending and compression tests. Variations in the material constants [...] Read more.

Full sets of elastic constants of green Chinese larch (Larix principis-rupprechtii Mayr) with 95% moisture content at four different cross-section sampling positions (from pith to sapwood) were determined in this work using three-point bending and compression tests. Variations in the material constants of green Chinese larch from pith to sapwood were investigated and analyzed. The results showed that the sensitivity of each elastic constant to the sampling position was different, and the coefficient of variation ranged from 4.3% to 48.7%. The Poisson’s ratios ν_RT measured at four different sampling positions were similar and the differences between them were not significant. The coefficient of variation for Poisson’s ratio ν_RT was only 4.3%. The four sampling positions had similar Poisson’s ratios ν_TL, though the coefficient of variation was 11.7%. The Poisson’s ratio ν_LT had the greatest variation in all elastic constants with a 48.7% coefficient of variation. A good linear relationship was observed between the longitudinal modulus of elastic E_L, shear modulus of elasticity G_RT, Poisson’s ratio ν_RT, and sampling distance. E_L, G_RT, and ν_RT all increased with sampling distance R. However, a quadratic relationship existed with the tangential modulus of elasticity E_T, radial modulus of elasticity E_R, shear modulus of elasticity G_LT, and shear modulus of elasticity G_LR. A discrete relationship was found in the other five Poisson’s ratios. The results of this study provide the factual changes in the elastic constants of green wood from pith to sapwood for numerical modelling of stress wave propagation in trees or logs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Properties and Processing)

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20 pages, 7226 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Whitebark Pine Recruitment in Sierra Nevada Driven by Range Position and Disturbance History

by Michèle R. Slaton, Martin MacKenzie, Tanya Kohler and Carlos M. Ramirez

Forests 2019, 10(5), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050455 - 25 May 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3415

Abstract

Effective restoration of whitebark pine populations will require a solid understanding of factors affecting seedling recruitment success, which may vary by site and biogeographic region. We examined the relationship between whitebark pine seedling recruitment, disturbance history, and range position in three independent studies [...] Read more.

Effective restoration of whitebark pine populations will require a solid understanding of factors affecting seedling recruitment success, which may vary by site and biogeographic region. We examined the relationship between whitebark pine seedling recruitment, disturbance history, and range position in three independent studies in the southern Sierra Nevada, California (CA), USA. In 66 plots broadly distributed across watersheds, we found that whitebark pine seedling density and proportion were greatest at upper elevations, and where canopy cover of whitebark pine was higher (density ranged 0–383 seedlings/ha;

\bar{x}

= 4, σ_X = 1). Seedling density and proportion were also greater in plots that had recently experienced loss of canopy cover from insects, avalanche, windthrow, or other disturbance effects. In a second study conducted in popular recreational areas, including campgrounds and trailheads, the response of whitebark pine recruitment to disturbance was strongly dependent on the relative position of stands within the range, or proximity to other forest types. Both studies indicated that low to moderate levels of disturbance enhanced whitebark pine recruitment, especially at its range edge, a finding consistent with the early seral status of whitebark observed in previous studies conducted elsewhere in North America. In our third study, a case study at the June Mt. Ski Area, we demonstrate the potential for a downward shift in the whitebark-lodgepole pine ecotone as a result of insect-caused disturbance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Restoration of Whitebark Pine)

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16 pages, 4724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Change in Atmospheric CO₂ Concentration on Larix gmelinii Forest Growth in Northeast China from 1950 to 2010

by Bin Wang, Mingze Li, Wenyi Fan, Ying Yu and Weiwei Jia

Forests 2019, 10(5), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050454 - 25 May 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3009

Abstract

Although CO₂ fertilization on plant growth has been repeatedly modeled to be the main reason for the current changes in the terrestrial carbon sink at the global scale, there have been controversial findings on the CO₂ fertilization effects on forests from [...] Read more.

Although CO₂ fertilization on plant growth has been repeatedly modeled to be the main reason for the current changes in the terrestrial carbon sink at the global scale, there have been controversial findings on the CO₂ fertilization effects on forests from tree-ring analyses. In this study, we employed conventional dendrochronological tree-ring datasets from Northeast China, to detect the effect of CO₂ fertilization on Larix gmelinii growth from 1950 to 2010. Among four sites, there were two sites exhibiting a significant residual growth enhancement at a 90% confidence level after removing the size, age and climaterelated trends of tree-ring indices. In addition, we found consistency (R from 0.26 to 0.33, p < 0.1) between the high frequency CO₂ fluctuation and residual growth indices at two of the four sites during the common period. A biogeochemical model was used to quantitatively predict the contribution of elevated atmospheric CO₂ on accumulated residual growth enhancement. As found in the tree-ring data, 14% of the residual growth was attributed to the CO₂ fertilization effect, while climate was responsible for approximately the remainding 86%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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22 pages, 5172 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Immediate Changes in Organic Matter and Plant Available Nutrients of Haplic Luvisol Soils Following Different Experimental Burning Intensities in Damak Forest, Hungary

by Jack M. Bridges, George P. Petropoulos and Nicola Clerici

Forests 2019, 10(5), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050453 - 24 May 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4326

Abstract

One of the major pedological changes produced by wildfires is the drastic modification of forest soil systems properties. To our knowledge, large research gaps are currently present concerning the effect of such fires on forest Haplic Luvisols soils in Central Europe. In this [...] Read more.

One of the major pedological changes produced by wildfires is the drastic modification of forest soil systems properties. To our knowledge, large research gaps are currently present concerning the effect of such fires on forest Haplic Luvisols soils in Central Europe. In this study, the effects of experimental fires on soil organic matter and chemical properties at different burning intensities in a Central European forest were examined. The study was conducted at Damak Forest, in Hungary, ecosystem dominated by deciduous broadleaf trees, including the rare Hungarian oak Quercus frainetto Ten. The experimental fires were carried out in nine different plots on Haplic Luvisol soils transferred from Damak Forest to the burning site. Three types of fuel load were collected from the forest: litter layer, understorey and overstorey. Groups of three plots were burned at low (litter layer), medium intensity (litter and understorey) and high intensity (litter, understorey and overstorey). Pre-fire and post-fire soil samples were taken from each plot, analysed in the laboratory and statistically compared. Key plant nutrients of organic matter, carbon, potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus were analysed from each sample. No significant differences in soil organic matter and carbon between pre- and post-fire samples were observed, but high intensity fires did increase soil pH significantly. Calcium, magnesium and phosphorus availability increased significantly at all fire intensity levels. Soil potassium levels significantly decreased (ca. 50%) for all intensity treatments, in contrast to most literature. Potassium is a key nutrient for ion transport in plants, and any loss of this nutrient from the soil could have significant effects on local agricultural production. Overall, our findings provide evidence that support the maintaining of the current Hungarian fire prevention policy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrient Cycling in Forest Ecosystems)

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13 pages, 3981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Horizontal Accuracy, Shape Similarity and Cost of Three Different Road Mapping Techniques

by Hyeongkeun Kweon, Myeongjun Kim, Joon-Woo Lee, Jung Il Seo and Hakjun Rhee

Forests 2019, 10(5), 452; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050452 - 24 May 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3466

Abstract

Accurate spatial information on forest roads is important for forest management and harvest operations. This study evaluated the positional accuracy, shape similarity, and cost of three mapping techniques: GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) mapping, CAD file conversion (as-built drawing), and image warping. We [...] Read more.

Accurate spatial information on forest roads is important for forest management and harvest operations. This study evaluated the positional accuracy, shape similarity, and cost of three mapping techniques: GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) mapping, CAD file conversion (as-built drawing), and image warping. We chose five road routes within the national forest road system in the Republic of Korea and made digital road maps using each technique. We then compared map accuracy to reference maps made from field surveys. The mapping and field-survey results were compared using point-correspondence, buffering analysis, shape index, and turning function methods. The comparisons indicate that GNSS mapping is the best technique because it generated the highest accuracy (Root Mean Square Error: GNSS mapping 1.28, image warping 7.13, CAD file conversion 13.35), the narrowest buffering width for 95% of the routes overlapped (buffering width: GNSS mapping 1.5 m, image warping 18 m, CAD file conversion 24 m), highest shape similarity (shape index: GNSS mapping 19.6–28.9, image warping 7.2–10.8, CAD file conversion 6.5–7.4), and smallest area size difference in turning function analysis (GNSS mapping 2814–4949, image warping 7972–26,256, CAD file conversion 8661–27,845). However, GNSS requires more time (236 min/km) and costs more ($139.64/km) to produce a digital road map as compared to CAD file conversion (99 min/km and $40.90/km) and image warping (180 min/km and $81.84/km). Managers must decide on the trade-off between accuracy and cost while considering the demand and purpose of maps. GNSS mapping can be used for small-scale mapping or short-haul routes that require a small error range. Image warping was the lowest cost and produced low-accuracy maps, but may be suitable for large-scale mapping at the regional or national level. CAD file conversion was expected to be the most accurate method, because it converted as-built drawings to a map. However, we found that it was the least accurate method, indicating low accuracy of the as-built drawings. Efforts should be made to improve the accuracy of the as-built drawings in Korea. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Planning, Design, and Maintenance of Forest Road Networks)

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24 pages, 5901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Generalized Nonlinear Mixed-Effects Individual Tree Diameter Increment Models for Beech Forests in Slovakia

by Ram P. Sharma, Igor Štefančík, Zdeněk Vacek and Stanislav Vacek

Forests 2019, 10(5), 451; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050451 - 24 May 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4181

Abstract

Individual tree growth and yield models precisely describe tree growth irrespective of stand complexity and are capable of simulating various silvicultural alternatives in the stands with diverse structure, species composition, and management history. We developed both age dependent and age independent diameter increment [...] Read more.

Individual tree growth and yield models precisely describe tree growth irrespective of stand complexity and are capable of simulating various silvicultural alternatives in the stands with diverse structure, species composition, and management history. We developed both age dependent and age independent diameter increment models using long-term research sample plot data collected from both monospecific and mixed stands of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in the Slovak Republic. We used diameter at breast height (DBH) as a main predictor and other characteristics describing site quality (site index), stand development stage (dominant height and stand age), stand density or competition (ratio of individual tree DBH to quadratic mean diameter), species mixture (basal area proportion of a species of interest), and dummy variable describing stand management regimes as covariate predictors to develop the models. We evaluated eight versatile growth functions in the first stage using DBH as a single predictor and selected the most suitable one, i.e., Chapman-Richards function for further analysis through the inclusion of covariate predictors. We introduced the random components describing sample plot-level random effects and stochastic variations on the diameter increment, into the models through the mixed-effects modelling. The autocorrelation caused by hierarchical data-structure, which is assumed to be partially reduced by mixed-effects modelling, was removed through the inclusion of the parameter accounting for the autoregressive error-structures. The models described about two-third parts of a total variation in the diameter increment without significant trends in the residuals. Compared to the age independent mixed-effects model (conditional coefficient of determination,

R_{c}^{2}

= 0.6566; root mean square error, RMSE = 0.1196), the age dependent model described a significantly larger proportion of the variations in diameter increment (

R_{c}^{2}

= 0.6796, RMSE = 0.1141). Diameter increment was significantly influenced differently by covariate predictors included into the models. Diameter increment decreased with the advancement of stand development stage (increased dominant height and stand age), increasing intraspecific competition (increased basal area proportion of European beech per sample plot), and diameter increment increased with increasing site quality (increased site index) and decreased competition (increased ratio of DBH to quadratic mean diameter). Our mixed-effects models, which can be easily localized with the random effects estimated from prior measurement of diameter increments of four randomly selected trees per sample plot, will provide high prediction accuracies. Our models may be used for simulating growth of European beech irrespective of its stand structural complexity, as these models have included various covariate variables describing both tree-and stand-level characteristics, thinning regimes, except the climate characteristics. Together with other forest models, our models will be used as inputs to the growth simulator to be developed in the future, which is important for decision-making in forestry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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16 pages, 1864 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Productivity, Growth Patterns, and Cellulosic Pulp Properties of Hybrid Aspen Clones

by Marzena Niemczyk, Piotr Przybysz, Kamila Przybysz, Marek Karwański, Adam Kaliszewski, Tomasz Wojda and Mirko Liesebach

Forests 2019, 10(5), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050450 - 24 May 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3810

Abstract

Research Highlights: This research provides a firm basis for understanding the improved aspen hybrid performance that aims at facilitating optimal clone selection for industrial application. Background and Objectives: Rapid growth and wood properties make aspen (Populus tremula L.) suitable for the production [...] Read more.

Research Highlights: This research provides a firm basis for understanding the improved aspen hybrid performance that aims at facilitating optimal clone selection for industrial application. Background and Objectives: Rapid growth and wood properties make aspen (Populus tremula L.) suitable for the production of pulp and paper. We assessed the potential of tree improvement through hybridization to enhance aspen productivity in northern Poland, and investigated the effects of Populus tremula hybridization with Populus tremuloides Michaux and Populus alba L. on the growth and cellulosic pulp properties for papermaking purposes. Materials and Methods: A common garden trial was utilized that included 15 hybrid aspen clones of P. tremula × P. tremuloides, four of P. tremula × P. alba, and one, previously tested P. tremula clone. Clones of P. tremula, plus trees from wild populations, were used as a reference. Tree height and diameter at breast height (DBH) were measured after growing seasons four through seven. At seven years of age, the three clones representing all species combinations were harvested, and their cellulosic pulp properties and paper sheet characteristics were assessed. Results: The clones from wild populations exhibited the poorest growth. In contrast, the clone ‘Wä 13′ (P. tremula × P. tremuloides) demonstrated the highest DBH, height, volume production, and mean annual increment (MAI) (25.4 m³ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹). The MAI ratio calculated for interspecific crosses ranged from 1.35- to 1.42-fold, higher than that for the P. tremula. Chemical properties of pulp, fiber morphology, and the physical properties of paper sheets were more desirable for interspecific hybrid clones than those for the pure P. tremula clone. Conclusions: The results indicated that plantations of hybrid aspen may constitute an important additional source of wood for pulp and paper products in Poland. Our findings further suggested that the standard rotation of these trees may be reduced from 40 to 20 years, increasing overall biomass yield and enhancing atmospheric carbon sequestration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Short Rotation Woody Crop Production Systems for Ecosystem Services and Phytotechnologies)

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20 pages, 4230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Characterization of AspATs in Populus: Gene Expression Variation and Enzyme Activities in Response to Nitrogen Perturbations

by Tao Su, Mei Han, Jie Min, Dan Cao, Guangqing Zhai, Huaiye Zhou, Nanyue Li and Mingzhi Li

Forests 2019, 10(5), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050449 - 23 May 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3694

Abstract

Aspartate aminotransferase (AspAT) catalyzes a reversible transamination reaction between glutamate and oxaloacetate to yield aspartate and 2-oxoglutarate, exerting a primary role in amino acid biosynthesis and homeostasis of nitrogen (N) and carbon metabolism within all cellular organisms. While progress in biochemical characterization of [...] Read more.

Aspartate aminotransferase (AspAT) catalyzes a reversible transamination reaction between glutamate and oxaloacetate to yield aspartate and 2-oxoglutarate, exerting a primary role in amino acid biosynthesis and homeostasis of nitrogen (N) and carbon metabolism within all cellular organisms. While progress in biochemical characterization of AspAT has been made for decades, the molecular and physiological characteristics of different members of the AspAT gene family remain poorly known particularly in forest trees. Here, extensive genome-wide survey of AspAT encoding genes was implemented in black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa Torr. & A. Gray), a model species of woody plants. Thorough inspection of the phylogenies, gene structures, chromosomal distribution, cis-elements, conserved motifs, and subcellular targeting resulted in the identification of 10 AspAT isogenes (PtAspAT1-10) in the Populus genome. RNA-seq along with quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) validation revealed that PtAspATs displayed diverse patterns of tissue-specific expression. Spatiotemporal expressions of homologous AspATs in the poplar hybrid clone ‘Nanlin895’ were further evaluated, showing that gene expressions varied depending on source-sink dynamics. The impact on AspAT transcripts upon N starvation and seasonal senescence showed the upregulation of five AspAT in leaves concurrent with drastic downregulation of six or more AspATs in roots. Additionally, marked reductions of many more AspATs transcripts were observed in roots upon N excess. Accordingly, AspAT activities were significantly suppressed upon N starvation by an in-gel assay, prompting the argument that enzyme activity was a more direct indicator of the growth morphology under a N stress regime. Taken together, the expression profiling and enzyme activities upon stress cues provide a theoretical basis for unraveling the physiological significance of specific gene(s) in regulation of N acquisition and remobilization in woody plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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19 pages, 6385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Positive Results of an Early Intervention Strategy to Suppress a Spruce Budworm Outbreak after Five Years of Trials

by David A. MacLean, Peter Amirault, Luke Amos-Binks, Drew Carleton, Chris Hennigar, Rob Johns and Jacques Régnière

Forests 2019, 10(5), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050448 - 23 May 2019

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 5584

Abstract

Spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana Clem.; SBW) outbreaks are one of the dominant natural disturbances in North America, having killed balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.) and spruce (Picea sp.) trees over tens of millions of hectares. Responses to past SBW [...] Read more.

Spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana Clem.; SBW) outbreaks are one of the dominant natural disturbances in North America, having killed balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.) and spruce (Picea sp.) trees over tens of millions of hectares. Responses to past SBW outbreaks have included the aerial application of insecticides to limit defoliation and keep trees alive, salvage harvesting of dead and dying trees, or doing nothing and accepting the resulting timber losses. We tested a new ‘early intervention strategy’ (EIS) focused on suppressing rising SBW populations before major defoliation occurs, from 2014 to 2018 in New Brunswick, Canada. The EIS approach included: (1) intensive monitoring of overwintering SBW to detect ‘hot spots’ of low but rising populations; (2) targeted insecticide treatment to prevent spread; and (3) proactive public communications and engagement on project activities and results. This is the first attempt of area-wide (all areas within the jurisdiction of the province of New Brunswick) management of a native forest insect population. The project was conducted by a consortium of government, forest industry, researchers, and other partners. We developed a treatment priority and blocking model to optimize planning and efficacy of EIS SBW insecticide treatment programs. Following 5 years of over 420,000 ha of EIS treatments of low but increasing SBW populations, second instar larvae (L2) SBW levels across northern New Brunswick were found to be considerably lower than populations in adjacent Québec. Treatments increased from 4500 ha in 2014, to 56,600 ha in 2016, and to 199,000 ha in 2018. SBW populations in blocks treated with Bacillus thuringiensis or tebufenozide insecticide were consistently reduced, and generally did not require treatment in the subsequent year. Areas requiring treatment increased up to 2018, but SBW L2 populations showed over 90% reductions in that year. Although this may be a temporary annual decline in SBW population increases, it is counter to continued increases in Québec. Following 5 years of tests, the EIS appears to be effective in reducing the SBW outbreak. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection Strategy against Spruce Budworm)

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20 pages, 2768 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Shortened Winter Road Access on Costs of Forest Operations

by Tevfik Z. Kuloglu, Victor J. Lieffers and Axel E. Anderson

Forests 2019, 10(5), 447; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050447 - 23 May 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3601

Abstract

A significant portion of the forest harvesting in the cooler regions of North America occurs in the winter when the ground is frozen and can support machine traffic. Climate change may influence the cost of forestry operations by reducing the period of winter [...] Read more.

A significant portion of the forest harvesting in the cooler regions of North America occurs in the winter when the ground is frozen and can support machine traffic. Climate change may influence the cost of forestry operations by reducing the period of winter access in those cold regions. In this study, we examined the impact of a shortened period of frozen ground conditions on logging operation and costs. To adapt to shorter period of frozen soil conditions, logging contractors might need to provide more machines and labor to complete logging in a shorter period of frozen conditions. The objectives were to calculate the costs of logging operations of a hypothetical forestry company in Alberta, Canada under two conditions: first, when the wood was hauled to the mill directly; and second, when part of the wood was hauled to satellite yards close to the logging area, thereby minimizing the annual number of idle hauling trucks. General Circulation Models were used to predict future winter weather conditions. Using the current type of harvesting machines and hauling directly to the mill, the unit cost of logging operations ($/m³) was projected to increase by an average of 1.6% to 2.5% in 2030s, 2.8% to 5.3% in the 2050s and 4.8% to 10.9% in the 2080s compared to the base year of 2015–2016. With use of satellite yards during the winter logging, the total logging cost will increase over direct haul, by 1.8% to 2.8% in the 2030s, 3.1% to 5.7% in the 2050s and 5.2% to 11.4% in the 2080s. Using satellite yards, however, will provide year-around employment for hauling truckers and more consistent and reliable hauling operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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14 pages, 1516 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Economics of Rapid Multiplication of Hybrid Poplar Biomass Varieties

by Brian J. Stanton, Kathy Haiby, Carlos Gantz, Jesus Espinoza and Richard A. Shuren

Forests 2019, 10(5), 446; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050446 - 23 May 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3217

Abstract

Background: Poplar (Populus spp.) hybridization is key to advancing biomass yields and conversion efficiency. Once superior varieties are selected, there is a lag in commercial use while they are multiplied to scale. Objective: The purpose of this study was to assess the [...] Read more.

Background: Poplar (Populus spp.) hybridization is key to advancing biomass yields and conversion efficiency. Once superior varieties are selected, there is a lag in commercial use while they are multiplied to scale. Objective: The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of gains in biomass yield and quality on investment in rapid propagation techniques that speed the time to commercial deployment. Material and Methods: A factorial experiment of propagation method and hybrid variety was conducted to quantify the scale-up rate of in vitro and greenhouse clonal multiplication. These data were used in modeling the internal rate of return (IRR) on investment into rapid propagation as a function of genetic gains in biomass yield and quality and compared to a base case that assumed the standard method of supplying operational varieties in commercial quantities from nurseries as hardwood cuttings, capable of yields of 16.5 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Results: Analysis of variance in macro-cutting yield showed that propagation method and varietal effects as well as their interaction were highly significant, with hedge propagation exceeding serial propagation in macro-cutting productivity by a factor of nearly 1.8. The Populus deltoides × P. maximowiczii and the Populus trichocarpa × P. maximowiczii varieties greatly exceeded the multiplication rate of the P. × generosa varieties due to their exceptional response to repeated hedging required to initiate multiple tracks of serial propagation. Analyses of investment into rapid propagation to introduce new material into plantation establishment followed by a 20-year rotation of six coppice harvests showed that gains in biomass yield and quality are warranted for a commitment to rapid propagation systems. The base case analysis was generally favored at yields up to 18 Mg⁻¹ year⁻¹ dependent on pricing. The rapid multiplication analysis proved superior to the base case analysis at the two highest yield levels (27.0 and 31.5 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹,) at all price levels and at yields of 22.5 Mg⁻¹ year⁻¹, dependent on price and farm location. Conclusion: Rapid multiplication is a reliable method to move improved plant material directly into operations when valued appropriately in the marketplace. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Short Rotation Woody Crop Production Systems for Ecosystem Services and Phytotechnologies)

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19 pages, 1089 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Building a Social Discount Rate to be Applied in US Afforestation Project Appraisal

by María José Muñoz Torrecillas, Julian Roche and Salvador Cruz Rambaud

Forests 2019, 10(5), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050445 - 23 May 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2983

Abstract

This paper is focused on searching for the suitable discount rate to be applied to the valuation of a project related to forests in the USA, e.g., a recreational area inside a national park. To do this, we propose a new model based [...] Read more.

This paper is focused on searching for the suitable discount rate to be applied to the valuation of a project related to forests in the USA, e.g., a recreational area inside a national park. To do this, we propose a new model based on hazard rate concepts, i.e., based on the risk that waiting time implies. More specifically, we derive the discount function whose instantaneous discount rate is the hazard rate of the system supporting the investment. We determine the rate of failure corresponding to different partition criteria of the whole system; in our case, we can use the information on forest fires caused in different ways, in different states or in different types of forest surfaces. After showing independence between the forest fires by states and causes, we derive a specific discount function for each cause which can be applied to every state or set of states which agree to fight against a concrete cause of forest fire. Additionally, we obtain a unique discount function by weighting the partial discount functions by type of forest surfaces. Our results are in line with the recommendations from several authors about using decreasing discount rates for projects with very long-term impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Management Strategies for an Ecologically, Economically and Socially Sustainable Future)

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13 pages, 3692 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationships between Satellite-Based Spectral Burned Ratios and Terrestrial Laser Scanning

by Akira Kato, L. Monika Moskal, Jonathan L. Batchelor, David Thau and Andrew T. Hudak

Forests 2019, 10(5), 444; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050444 - 23 May 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3685

Abstract

Three-dimensional point data acquired by Terrestrial Lidar Scanning (TLS) is used as ground observation in comparisons with fire severity indices computed from Landsat satellite multi-temporal images through Google Earth Engine (GEE). Forest fires are measured by the extent and severity of fire. Current [...] Read more.

Three-dimensional point data acquired by Terrestrial Lidar Scanning (TLS) is used as ground observation in comparisons with fire severity indices computed from Landsat satellite multi-temporal images through Google Earth Engine (GEE). Forest fires are measured by the extent and severity of fire. Current methods of assessing fire severity are limited to on-site visual inspection or the use of satellite and aerial images to quantify severity over larger areas. On the ground, assessment of fire severity is influenced by the observers’ knowledge of the local ecosystem and ability to accurately assess several forest structure measurements. The objective of this study is to introduce TLS to validate spectral burned ratios obtained from Landsat images. The spectral change was obtained by an image compositing technique through GEE. The 32 plots were collected using TLS in Wood Buffalo National Park, Canada. TLS-generated 3D points were converted to voxels and the counted voxels were compared in four height strata. There was a negative linear relationship between spectral indices and counted voxels in the height strata between 1 to 5 m to produce R² value of 0.45 and 0.47 for unburned plots and a non-linear relationship in the height strata between 0 to 0.5m for burned plots to produce R² value of 0.56 and 0.59. Shrub or stand development was related with the spectral indices at unburned plots, and vegetation recovery in the ground surface was related at burned plots. As TLS systems become more cost efficient and portable, techniques used in this study will be useful to produce objective assessments of structure measurements for fire refugia and ecological response after a fire. TLS is especially useful for the quick ground assessments which are needed for forest fire applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Remote Sensing Applications in Forest Ecology: Composition, Structure and Function)

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19 pages, 2787 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Tropical Dry Forest Diversity, Climatic Response, and Resilience in a Changing Climate

by Kayla Stan and Arturo Sanchez-Azofeifa

Forests 2019, 10(5), 443; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050443 - 23 May 2019

Cited by 70 | Viewed by 13209

Abstract

Central and South America tropical dry forest (TDF) is a water-limited biome with a high number of endemic species and numerous ecosystem services which has experienced a boom in research in the last decade. Although the number of case studies across these seasonal, [...] Read more.

Central and South America tropical dry forest (TDF) is a water-limited biome with a high number of endemic species and numerous ecosystem services which has experienced a boom in research in the last decade. Although the number of case studies across these seasonal, water-limited, tropical forests has increased, there has not been a comprehensive review to assess the physiological variability of this biome across the continent and assess how these forests respond to climatic variables. Additionally, understanding forest change and resilience under climatic variability, currently and in the future, is essential for assessing the future extent and health of forests in the future. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to provide a literature review on the variability of TDF diversity and structure across a latitudinal gradient and to assess how these components respond to differences in climatic variables across this geographic area. We first assess the current state of understanding of the structure, biomass, phenological cycles, and successional stages across the latitudinal gradient. We subsequently review the response of these five areas to differences in precipitation, temperature, and extreme weather events, such as droughts and hurricanes. We find that there is a range of adaptability to precipitation, with many areas exhibiting drought tolerance except under the most extreme circumstances, while being susceptible to damage from increased extreme precipitation events. Finally, we use this climatic response to provide a commentary on the projected resilience of TDFs under climatic changes, finding a likelihood of resilience under drying scenarios, although model projections do not agree on the magnitude or direction of precipitation change. This review of quantitative studies will provide more concrete details on the current diversity that encompasses the TDF, the natural climatic ranges under which this ecosystem can survive and thrive, and can help inform future forest management practices under climate change scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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26 pages, 2250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Degradation of Ecosystem Services and Deforestation in Landscapes With and Without Incentive-Based Forest Conservation in the Ecuadorian Amazon

by Paúl Eguiguren, Richard Fischer and Sven Günter

Forests 2019, 10(5), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050442 - 22 May 2019

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 11555

Abstract

Anthropogenic activities such as logging or forest conversion into agricultural lands are affecting Ecuadorian Amazon forests. To foster private and communal conservation activities an economic incentive-based conservation program (IFC) called Socio Bosque was established. Existing analyses related to conservation strategies are mainly focused [...] Read more.

Anthropogenic activities such as logging or forest conversion into agricultural lands are affecting Ecuadorian Amazon forests. To foster private and communal conservation activities an economic incentive-based conservation program (IFC) called Socio Bosque was established. Existing analyses related to conservation strategies are mainly focused on deforestation; while degradation and the role of IFC to safeguard ecosystem services are still scarce. Further on, there is a lack of landscape-level studies taking into account potential side effects of IFC on different forest types. Therefore we assessed ecosystem services (carbon stocks, timber volume) and species richness in landscapes with and without IFC. Additionally, we evaluated potential side-effects of IFC in adjacent forest types; hypothesizing potential leakage effects of IFC. Finally, we tested if deforestation rates decreased after IFC implementation. Forest inventories were conducted in 72 plots across eight landscapes in the Ecuadorian Central Amazon with and without IFC. Plots were randomly selected within three forest types (old-growth, logged and successional forests). In each plot all individuals with a diameter at breast height greater than 10 cm were measured. Old-growth forests in general showed higher carbon stocks, timber volume and species richness, and no significant differences between old-growth forests in IFC and non-IFC landscapes were found. Logged forests had 32% less above-ground carbon (AGC) and timber volume in comparison to old-growth forests. Surprisingly, logged forests near IFC presented higher AGC stocks than logged forests in non-IFC landscapes, indicating positive side-effects of IFC. Successional forests contain 56% to 64% of AGC, total carbon and timber volume, in comparison to old-growth forests, and 82% to 87% in comparison to logged forests. Therefore, successional forests could play an important role for restoration and should receive more attention in national climate change policies. Finally, after IFC implementation deforestation rate decreased on parish level. Our study presents scientific evidence of IFC contribution to conserving ecosystem services and species richness. In addition IFC could help indirectly to reduce degradation effects attributed to logging, indicating potential compatibility of conservation aims with forest activities at a landscape level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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16 pages, 5580 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Suitable Reference Genes for RT-qPCR Assays in Liriodendron chinense (Hemsl.) Sarg

by Zhonghua Tu, Ziyuan Hao, Weiping Zhong and Huogen Li

Forests 2019, 10(5), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050441 - 22 May 2019

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 3395

Abstract

The precision and reliability of reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) depend mainly on suitable reference genes; however, reference genes have not yet been identified for Liriodendron chinense (Hemsl.) Sarg. In this study, the expression stability of 15 candidate reference genes, ACT7 [...] Read more.

The precision and reliability of reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) depend mainly on suitable reference genes; however, reference genes have not yet been identified for Liriodendron chinense (Hemsl.) Sarg. In this study, the expression stability of 15 candidate reference genes, ACT7, ACT97, UBQ1, eIF2, eIF3, HIS, BIG, AGD11, EFG, GAPDH, CYP, RPL25, UBC, RPB1, and TUB, was tested across multiple organs of L. chinense using four algorithms, geNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper, and RefFinder. To understand the difference between the selected reference genes and the unsuitable candidate reference genes, the expression level of a target gene, LcPAT7, was normalized across various plant samples. ACT97 and eIF3 represented the best combination across all samples tested, while AGD11 and UBQ1 were unsuitable for normalization in this case. In the vegetative organ subset, ACT97, ACT7, and GAPDH showed the highest expression stability. For floral organs, UBC and eIF3 were the most stable reference genes. Unsuitable reference genes underestimated the expression levels of a target gene, LcPAT7. This study identified two reference genes (ACT97 and eIF3) for the precise and reliable normalization of L. chinense RT-qPCR data across various organs. Our work provides an effective framework for quantifying gene expression in L. chinense. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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20 pages, 6317 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Decision Support Tool for Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Multiple Ecosystem Services

by Irina Cristal, Aitor Ameztegui, Jose Ramon González-Olabarria and Jordi Garcia-Gonzalo

Forests 2019, 10(5), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050440 - 21 May 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6628

Abstract

In the climate change era, forest managers are challenged to use innovative tools to encourage a sustained provision of goods and services. Many decision support tools (DSTs), developed to address global changes in forest management practices, reflect the complexity of the scientific knowledge [...] Read more.

In the climate change era, forest managers are challenged to use innovative tools to encourage a sustained provision of goods and services. Many decision support tools (DSTs), developed to address global changes in forest management practices, reflect the complexity of the scientific knowledge produced, a fact that could make it difficult for practitioners to understand and adopt them. Acknowledging the importance of knowledge transfer to forestry practitioners, this study describes a user-centric decision support software tool, aiming to assess forest management and climate change impacts on multiple ecosystem services (ESs) at a stand level. SORTIE-ND, a spatially explicit tree-level simulator for projecting stand dynamics that is sensitive to climate change, is encapsulated into the decision support tool and used as the simulation engine for stand development. Linking functions are implemented to evaluate ecosystem services and potential risks, and decision support is provided in form of interactive 2D and 3D visualizations. Five main components were identified to delineate the workflow and to shape the decision support tool: the information base, the alternative generator, the forest simulator, the ecosystem services calculator, and the visualization component. In order to improve the interaction design and general user satisfaction, the usability of the system was tested at an early stage of the development. While we have specifically focused on a management-oriented approach through user-centric interface design, the utilization of the product is likely to be of importance in facilitating education in the field of forest management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Forest Management and Decision Making Models under Climate Change (Risk and Uncertainty))

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17 pages, 5423 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential for Forest Restoration and Deficit Compensation in Itacaiúnas Watershed, Southeastern Brazilian Amazon

by Sâmia Nunes, Rosane B. L. Cavalcante, Wilson R. Nascimento, Jr., Pedro Walfir M. Souza-Filho and Diogo Santos

Forests 2019, 10(5), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050439 - 21 May 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4507

Abstract

The conservation and restoration of native vegetation is vital for providing key hydrological services (i.e., maintaining high water quality, atmospheric humidity, and precipitation patterns). However, this research area lacks fine-scale studies at the watershed level to evaluate opportunities for forest restoration and deficit [...] Read more.

The conservation and restoration of native vegetation is vital for providing key hydrological services (i.e., maintaining high water quality, atmospheric humidity, and precipitation patterns). However, this research area lacks fine-scale studies at the watershed level to evaluate opportunities for forest restoration and deficit (the shortfall of forest required to be restored or compensated), as well as the implications for watershed management. We provide the first fine-scale estimation of forest and deficit distribution, integrating permanent preservation areas (APPs, in Portuguese) and legal reserves (RL, in Portuguese), according to Brazilian environmental law, for the 41,300 km² Itacaiúnas watershed in the Brazilian state of Pará, which has lost 50% of its vegetation cover. Using 30 m- and 10 m-resolution imagery, a multi-temporal land use classification was performed by geographic object-based image analysis (GEOBIA). The results were combined with a set of Brazilian regulations on the conservation and restoration of APPs and RL to assess patterns of forest cover and legal compliance. We found that the total RL deficit (4383 km²) was higher than the total forest surplus (above legal obligation) (3241 km²). However, most of this deficit (56%) could be compensated by protecting a forest area in another property within the Amazon biome, while 44% must be legally restored. Only 4% of the total forest surplus can be legally deforested, and the remaining 96% is already protected by law but can be used to compensate for areas under the deficit. We also found that, despite 57% (3017 km²) of the total APP being forested, only 26% (1356 km²) of the APP must be restored and 17% (881 km²) can remain deforested (consolidated areas). The 2012 law revision reduced the obligation to restore RL and APPs. This change could affect hydrological and ecological services. Compensation mechanisms could be used to protect forest within the Itacaiúnas watershed, rather than in the biome, to reduce further deforestation pressure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Watershed Scale Forest Restoration and Sustainable Development)

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15 pages, 1972 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Impacts of Fuel Treatment Placement with Respect to Forest Cover Type on Potential Fire Behavior across a Mountainous Landscape

by Seth A. Ex, Justin P. Ziegler, Wade T. Tinkham and Chad M. Hoffman

Forests 2019, 10(5), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050438 - 21 May 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3506

Abstract

Research Highlights: The impact of variation in fuels and fuel dynamics among forest cover types on the outcome of fuel treatments is poorly understood. This study investigated the potential effects of treatment placement with respect to cover type on the development of potential [...] Read more.

Research Highlights: The impact of variation in fuels and fuel dynamics among forest cover types on the outcome of fuel treatments is poorly understood. This study investigated the potential effects of treatment placement with respect to cover type on the development of potential fire behavior over time for 48 km² of forest in Colorado, USA. Our findings can inform the placement of fuel treatments in similar forests to maximize their effectiveness and longevity. Background and Objectives: Efficient placement of fuel treatments is essential to maximize the impact of limited resources for fuels management. We investigated how the placement of treatments with respect to forest cover type affected the rate of spread, size, and prevalence of different fire types for simulated wildfires for 50 years after treatment. Materials and Methods: We generated an analysis landscape consisting of two cover types: stands on southerly aspects had low rates of tree growth and regeneration compared to stands on northerly aspects. We then simulated 1) thinning treatments across 20% of the landscape, with treatments exclusively located on either southerly (‘south treatment’) or northerly (‘north treatment’) aspects; 2) subsequent tree growth and regeneration; and 3) wildfires at 10-year intervals. Finally, we used metrics of fuel hazard and potential fire behavior to understand the interplay between stand-level fuel dynamics and related impacts to potential fire behavior across the broader landscape. Results: Although post-treatment metrics of stand-level fuel hazard were similar among treatment scenarios, only the south treatment reduced rates of fire spread and fire size relative to no treatment. Most differences in modeled fire behavior between treatment scenarios disappeared after two decades, despite persistently greater rates of stand-level fuel hazard development post-treatment for the north treatment. For all scenarios, the overall trajectory was of shrinking fires and less crown fire behavior over time, owing to crown recession in untreated stands. Conclusions: Systematic differences among cover types, such as those in our study area, have the potential to influence fuel treatment outcomes. However, complex interactions between treatment effects, topography, and vegetation structure and dynamics warrant additional study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire and Forest Management: Impacts, Trade-offs and Interactions)

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13 pages, 2218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Projecting Monterey Pine (Pinus radiata) Populations over Time in the Presence of Various Representations of Pitch Canker Disease, Caused by Fusarium circinatum

by Gregory J. Reynolds, Thomas R. Gordon and Neil McRoberts

Forests 2019, 10(5), 437; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050437 - 21 May 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3651

Abstract

Monterey pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) is native to California and widely planted in Mediterranean climates around the world. Pitch canker, a disease caused by Fusarium circinatum Nirenberg and O’Donnell, is a serious threat to P. radiata in native forests and in [...] Read more.

Monterey pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) is native to California and widely planted in Mediterranean climates around the world. Pitch canker, a disease caused by Fusarium circinatum Nirenberg and O’Donnell, is a serious threat to P. radiata in native forests and in plantations. Because of its economic importance worldwide, conservation of P. radiata native populations is a high priority. We developed a demographic matrix projection model to simulate dynamics of naturally occurring P. radiata populations in California in the presence of the disease. Tree demography data for the model were collected from seven sites in a native forest on the Monterey Peninsula. Height and stem diameter were recorded for all trees, which were divided into five size classes based on these data. Transition probabilities were calculated for each size class; cone production, seed release, and seed transition probability were estimated using an iterative search process. In the model, pitch canker influences state-specific fecundity and survival probabilities. Five different approaches to include these effects were compared. Populations were projected over 50 decades from three specified initial population sizes. Elasticity analysis indicated that facilitating survival of all size classes is vital to maintaining the structure of the forest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrating Forest Health Patterns in Growth and Yield Models)

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16 pages, 3143 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shifting States, Altered Fates: Divergent Fuel Moisture Responses after High Frequency Wildfire in an Obligate Seeder Eucalypt Forest

by Jamie Burton, Jane Cawson, Philip Noske and Gary Sheridan

Forests 2019, 10(5), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050436 - 20 May 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4379

Abstract

High frequency wildfires can shift the structure and composition of obligate seeder forests and initiate replacement with alternative vegetation states. In some forests, the alternative stable state is drier and more easily burned by subsequent fires, driving a positive feedback that promotes further [...] Read more.

High frequency wildfires can shift the structure and composition of obligate seeder forests and initiate replacement with alternative vegetation states. In some forests, the alternative stable state is drier and more easily burned by subsequent fires, driving a positive feedback that promotes further wildfire and perpetuates alternative stable states. Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus regnans (F.Muell.)) forests are highly valued for their biodiversity, water, timber and carbon. Fires are a natural part of the lifecycle of these forests, but too frequent fires can eliminate Mountain Ash and trigger a transition to lower stature, non-eucalypt forests which are dominated by understorey species. This study sought to better understand the fuel moisture dynamics of alternative stable states resulting from high frequency wildfires. A vegetation mosaic in the Central Highlands, Victoria created a unique opportunity to measure fuel moisture in adjacent forest stands that differed in overstorey species composition and time since fire. Specifically, we measured fuel moisture and microclimate at two eucalypt sites (9 and 79 years old) and three non-eucalypt sites (two 9 year old and one 79 year old). Fuel availability, defined here as the number of days surface fuels were below 16% and dry enough to ignite and sustain fire, was calculated to estimate flammability. Fuel availability differed between sites, particularly as a function of time since fire, with recently burnt sites available to burn more often (4–17 versus 0–3 days). There were differences in fuel availability between non-eucalypt sites of the same age, suggesting that high frequency fire does not always lead to the same vegetation condition or outcome for fuel availability. This indicates there is potential for both positive and negative flammability feedbacks following state transition depending on the composition of the non-eucalypt state. This is the first study to provide empirical insight into the fuel moisture dynamics of alternative stable states in Mountain Ash forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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16 pages, 3780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nitrogen Addition Affects Soil Respiration Primarily through Changes in Microbial Community Structure and Biomass in a Subtropical Natural Forest

by Jiacong Zhou, Xiaofei Liu, Jinsheng Xie, Maokui Lyu, Yong Zheng, Zhangtian You, Yuexin Fan, Chengfang Lin, Guangshui Chen, Yuehmin Chen and Yusheng Yang

Forests 2019, 10(5), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050435 - 20 May 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4177

Abstract

Forest soil respiration plays an important role in global carbon (C) cycling. Owing to the high degree of C and nitrogen (N) cycle coupling, N deposition rates may greatly influence forest soil respiration, and possibly even global C cycling. Soil microbes play a [...] Read more.

Forest soil respiration plays an important role in global carbon (C) cycling. Owing to the high degree of C and nitrogen (N) cycle coupling, N deposition rates may greatly influence forest soil respiration, and possibly even global C cycling. Soil microbes play a crucial role in regulating the biosphere–atmosphere C exchange; however, how microbes respond to N addition remains uncertain. To better understand this process, the experiment was performed in the Castanopsis kawakamii Hayata Nature Reserve, in the subtropical zone of China. Treatments involved applying different levels of N (0, 40, and 80 kg ha⁻² year⁻¹) over a three-year period (January 2013–December 2015) to explore how soil physicochemical properties, respiration rate, phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) concentration, and solid state ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance responded to various N addition rate. Results showed that high levels of N addition significantly decreased soil respiration; however, low levels of N addition significantly increased soil respiration. High levels of N reduced soil pH and enhanced P and C co-limitation of microorganisms, leading to significant reductions in total PLFA and changes in the structure of microbial communities. Significant linear relationships were observed between annual cumulative respiration and the concentration of microbial biomass (total PLFA, gram-positive bacteria (G⁺), gram-negative bacteria (G⁻), total bacteria, and fungi) and the microbial community structure (G⁺: G⁻ ratio). Taken together, increasing N deposition changed microbial community structure and suppressed microbial biomass, ultimately leading to recalcitrant C accumulation and soil C emissions decrease in subtropical forest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Disturbance Effects on Soil Carbon and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Forest Ecosystems)

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21 pages, 1656 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phytophthora ramorum and Phytophthora gonapodyides Differently Colonize and Contribute to the Decomposition of Green and Senesced Umbellularia californica Leaves in a Simulated Stream Environment

by Kamyar Aram and David M. Rizzo

Forests 2019, 10(5), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050434 - 20 May 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3315

Abstract

Plant pathogenic as well as saprotrophic Phytophthora species are now known to inhabit forest streams and other surface waters. How they survive and function in aquatic ecosystems, however, remains largely uninvestigated. Phytophthora ramorum, an invasive pathogen in California forests, regularly occurs in [...] Read more.

Plant pathogenic as well as saprotrophic Phytophthora species are now known to inhabit forest streams and other surface waters. How they survive and function in aquatic ecosystems, however, remains largely uninvestigated. Phytophthora ramorum, an invasive pathogen in California forests, regularly occurs in forest streams, where it can colonize green leaves shed in the stream but is quickly and largely succeeded by saprotrophically competent clade 6 Phytophthora species, such as Phytophthora gonapodyides. We investigated, using controlled environment experiments, whether leaf litter quality, based on senescence, affects how P. ramorum and P. gonapodyides compete in leaf colonization and to what extent each species can contribute to leaf decomposition. We found that both Phytophthora species effectively colonized and persisted on green or yellow (senescing) bay leaves, but only P. gonapodyides could also colonize and persist on brown (fully senesced and dried) leaves. Both Phytophthora species similarly accelerated the decomposition of green leaves and yellow leaves compared with non-inoculated controls, but colonization of brown leaves by P. gonapodyides did not affect their decomposition rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytophthora Infestations in Forest Ecosystems)

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14 pages, 2376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Forest Conversion Effects on Soil Erosion, Soil Organic Carbon and Total Nitrogen Based on ¹³⁷Cs Tracer Technique

by Xi Zhu, Jie Lin, Qiao Dai, Yanying Xu and Haidong Li

Forests 2019, 10(5), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050433 - 20 May 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3619

Abstract

Soil erosion can affect the horizontal and the vertical distribution of soil carbon at the landscape scale. The ¹³⁷Cs tracer technique can overcome the shortcomings of traditional erosion research and has proven to be the best method to study soil erosion. To [...] Read more.

Soil erosion can affect the horizontal and the vertical distribution of soil carbon at the landscape scale. The ¹³⁷Cs tracer technique can overcome the shortcomings of traditional erosion research and has proven to be the best method to study soil erosion. To understand the responses of soil organic carbon and nitrogen to soil erosion and forest conversion in the development of slope economic forests in rocky mountain areas, three representative types of economic forests that were all formed after clear-cutting and afforestation on the basis of CBF (coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forests) were selected: CF (chestnut forests) with small human disturbance intensity, AF (apple forests), and HF (hawthorn forests) with high interference intensity. The results showed that all land use types have significantly eroded since 1950; the average annual loss of soil was 0.79 mm in the CBF, 2.31 mm in the AF, 1.84 mm in the HF, and 0.87 mm in the CF. The results indicated aggravation of soil erosion after the transformation of the CBF into an economic forest. The economic forest management reduced the average carbon storage and accelerated nutrient loss. The better vegetation coverage and litter coverage of CF made them stand out among the three economic forest varieties. Therefore, when developing economic forests, we should select species that can produce litter to ensure as much soil conservation as possible to reduce the risk of soil erosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Disturbance Effects on Soil Carbon and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Forest Ecosystems)

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19 pages, 3570 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combining a Quantum Cascade Laser Spectrometer with an Automated Closed-Chamber System for δ¹³C Measurements of Forest Soil, Tree Stem and Tree Root CO₂ Fluxes

by Andreas Brændholt, Andreas Ibrom, Per Ambus, Klaus Steenberg Larsen and Kim Pilegaard

Forests 2019, 10(5), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050432 - 19 May 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3671

Abstract

Recent advances in laser spectroscopy have allowed for real-time measurements of the ¹³C/¹²C isotopic ratio in CO₂, thereby providing new ways to investigate carbon cycling in natural ecosystems. In this study, we combined an Aerodyne quantum cascade laser [...] Read more.

Recent advances in laser spectroscopy have allowed for real-time measurements of the ¹³C/¹²C isotopic ratio in CO₂, thereby providing new ways to investigate carbon cycling in natural ecosystems. In this study, we combined an Aerodyne quantum cascade laser spectrometer for CO₂ isotopes with a LI-COR LI-8100A/8150 automated chamber system to measure the δ¹³C of CO₂ during automated closed-chamber measurements. The isotopic composition of the CO₂ flux was determined for each chamber measurement by applying the Keeling plot method. We found that the δ¹³C measured by the laser spectrometer was influenced by water vapour and CO₂ concentration of the sample air and we developed a method to correct for these effects to yield accurate measurements of δ¹³C. Overall, correcting for the CO₂ concentration increased the δ¹³C determined from the Keeling plots by 3.4‰ compared to 2.1‰ for the water vapour correction. We used the combined system to measure δ¹³C of the CO₂ fluxes automatically every two hours from intact soil, trenched soil, tree stems and coarse roots during a two-month campaign in a Danish beech forest. The mean δ¹³C was −29.8 ± 0.32‰ for the intact soil plots, which was similar to the mean δ¹³C of −29.8 ± 1.2‰ for the trenched soil plots. The lowest δ¹³C was found for the root plots with a mean of −32.6 ± 0.78‰. The mean δ¹³C of the stems was −30.2 ± 0.74‰, similar to the mean δ¹³C of the soil plots. In conclusion, the study showed the potential of using a quantum cascade laser spectrometer to measure δ¹³C of CO₂ during automated closed-chamber measurements, thereby allowing for measurements of isotopic ecosystem CO₂ fluxes at a high temporal resolution. It also highlighted the importance of proper correction for cross-sensitivity with water vapour and CO₂ concentration of the sample air to get accurate measurements of δ¹³C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stable Isotopes in Forest Ecosystem Research)

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21 pages, 8702 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analyzing Visitors’ Preferences and Evaluation of Satisfaction Based on Different Attributes, with Forest Trails in the Akasawa National Recreational Forest, Central Japan

by Tong Zhang, Weikang Zhang, Huan Meng and Zhi Zhang

Forests 2019, 10(5), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050431 - 19 May 2019

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4869

Abstract

For forest park managers and designers, it is very important to provide forest trails and high–quality forest landscapes that meet visitor’s needs. In this study, based on demographic characteristics, our main purpose is to analyze whether the preferences of visitors for different trails [...] Read more.

For forest park managers and designers, it is very important to provide forest trails and high–quality forest landscapes that meet visitor’s needs. In this study, based on demographic characteristics, our main purpose is to analyze whether the preferences of visitors for different trails differ, and to discuss whether forest park visitors’ satisfaction is affected when preferences for choosing trails change, mainly in order to improve knowledge about visitors’ needs for forest walking spaces. Through this analysis, we can aid in the planning and management of forest parks to improve visitors’ experiences. We mainly consider five attributes, namely, sex, age, number of visitors, number of visits and duration of stay in the park, in a questionnaire, and use the Kruskal–Wallis Test and Mann–Whitney U Test to analyze multigroup data in “SPSS for Windows”. The results are as follows: (1) Visitors with different attributes exhibit significant differences in terms of their choices of forest trails and the evaluation of visitor satisfaction in the duration of stay. (2) The correlation analysis showed that trail condition factors, such as the degree of difficulty and facility status, affect the satisfaction evaluation of tourists on many levels. In addition, the number of visits by visitors is negatively correlated with the preference for a forest trail based on recreational indicators. (3) Compared to visitors who stay in the forest for a short amount of time, visitors who remain in the forest for longer have a higher satisfaction level. Based on these results, we recommend that parks consider the number of visits (visiting experience) and the duration of stays in the forest when planning walking routes to more effectively plan forest park trails. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Landscape Management: From Data to Decision)

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Forests, Volume 10, Issue 5 (May 2019) – 100 articles

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