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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A4: Bio-Energy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 May 2022) | Viewed by 32763

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Dr. Hwai Chyuan Ong

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School of Information, Systems, and Modelling, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology, Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
Interests: energy and fuel; renewable energy; environmental sustainability; biomass energy; thermal engineering; green technology
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Biomass can be in the forms of dead cell and living organisms, which are naturally renewable over time, such as plant or animal matter, agricultural waste, municipal solid waste, algal (microalgae & macroalgae), etc. Due to the unique characteristic of biomass, the development of biofuel and bioenergy is seen to be effective as a long-term measure to combat the shortage of conventional fuel reserves, the increase of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the escalating global warning which all contribute to climate change. To date, the synthesis of biofuel and bioenergy from biomass can be achieved through routes such as physical, chemical, thermochemical, as well as biological techniques. The conversion of biomass can be processed by various advanced methods, which are broadly classified into thermochemical conversion, biochemical conversion, electrochemical conversion, other types of conversion, as well as alternative energy sources in solid (charcoal, biochar, and RDF, etc.), liquid (biodiesel, algae biofuel, bioethanol, pyrolysis and liquefaction bio-oils), and gaseous (biogas, syngas, and biohydrogen, etc.) form.

This Special Issue aims to bring forth recent advances and in-depth studies of advanced techniques and methods for bioenergy and biofuel synthesis, processing, and applications for environmental sustainability. Research involving experimental and numerical studies, recent developments, and the current state-of-the-art and emerging technologies in this field are highly encouraged.

Dr. Hwai Chyuan Ong
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Biomass
Biofuel
Biorefinery
Bioenergy
Conversion Technique
Process and optimization design
Thermochemical conversion
Chemical and Biological conversion
Biomass wastes to energy
Thermodynamic analysis
Life cycle analysis and energy balance
Energy policy
Environmental Sustainability
Solid fuel and Biogas

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 180 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability

by Hwai Chyuan Ong, Adi Kusmayadi and Nor Aishah Saidina Amin

Energies 2023, 16(7), 2939; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16072939 - 23 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1458

Abstract

Global population growth and rising living standards have significantly impacted global energy consumption [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

18 pages, 1500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Logistics and Costs of Agricultural Residues for Cellulosic Ethanol Production

by Luis Armando Becerra-Pérez, Luis Rincón and John A. Posada-Duque

Energies 2022, 15(12), 4480; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15124480 - 20 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3355

Abstract

There is global pressure to make advanced biofuels profitable. For cellulosic ethanol, three aspects remain as bottlenecks: collection of feedstocks, pretreatment methods, and enzyme production. In this paper, the first aspect is investigated, by addressing the main challenges for the logistics of agricultural residues. A logistic supply chain of corn stover collection and utilization for cellulosic ethanol production in Mexico is proposed, and a cost structure is designed for its estimation. By applying a value chain methodology, seven links and a set of three minimum selling prices (MSPs) of agricultural residues were determined. Furthermore, the harvest index (HI), crop residue index (CRI), nutrient substitution by extraction of agricultural residues, and harvest costs of corn stover were also calculated for a case study. The main results were a HI of 0.45, a CRI of 1.21, and nutrient substitution potential of 7 kg N, 2.2 kg P₂O₅, and 12.2 kg K₂O per ton of corn stover. The set of the three estimated MSPs for corn stover was: $28.49 USD/ton (for delivery to the biorefinery’s gate), $31.15 USD/ton (for delivery and storage), and $48.14 USD/ton (for delivery, storage, and nutrient replenishment). Given the impact of the feedstock cost on the profitability of cellulosic ethanol, knowing details of the logistical information and its costs is critical to advancing the field of biofuels in Mexico. We also found that only 20% of farmers currently sell their residues; however, 65% of farmers would be willing to do so, a significant percentage for cellulosic ethanol production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability)

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11 pages, 12210 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

How to Reintroduce Arable Crops after Growing Perennial Wild Plant Species Such as Common Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) for Biogas Production

by Moritz von Cossel

Energies 2022, 15(12), 4380; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15124380 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1560

Abstract

The cultivation of perennial wild plant mixtures (WPMs) is becoming increasingly important in Germany for providing sustainably produced bioenergy. However, perennial energy cropping systems always raise the question of how to reclaim the land for arable crops. This study examined this issue by looking at how a former WPM area was returned to arable cropping for an organic farm. From 2013 to 2018, the WPM area was harvested annually in the autumn. From 2019 to 2020, it was co-managed with the surrounding land as a semi-intensive grassland under a three-cut regime. The area was then ploughed in the spring of 2021 to grow silage maize. Weeds were controlled mechanically once. Nevertheless, the perennial wild plant species grew vigorously, with common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) standing out with a total fresh matter share of 29.0%. This maize–WPM mixture achieved a dry matter yield of 15.5 ± 5.5 Mg ha⁻¹, which was notably but not significantly (p < 0.05) lower than that of silage maize growing next to the former WPM area (23.4 ± 5.5 Mg ha⁻¹). After silage maize, winter wheat was sown in the autumn of 2021 and further regrowth of common tansy was observed in the spring of 2022. Yield and quality effects must therefore be given special consideration in the first arable crop following WPM cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability)

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23 pages, 2488 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Calorific Value of Festuca rubra Biomass in the Phytostabilization of Soil Contaminated with Nickel, Cobalt and Cadmium Which Disrupt the Microbiological and Biochemical Properties of Soil

by Jadwiga Wyszkowska, Edyta Boros-Lajszner and Jan Kucharski

Energies 2022, 15(9), 3445; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093445 - 9 May 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2271

Abstract

The choice of optimal plant species for phytoremediation and organic fertilization plays an important role in stabilizing the functions of soils contaminated with heavy metals. The influence of nickel, cobalt and cadmium on the biomass yield and calorific value of Festuca rubra, heavy metal concentrations in soil and plants and the microbiological, biochemical and physicochemical proprieties of soil were analyzed in a pot experiment. The tolerance index (TI) describing Festuca rubra’s ability to tolerate heavy metals, as well as the translocation (TF), accumulation (AF) and bioaccumulation (BF) factors of heavy metals in Festuca rubra were calculated. The experiment was conducted in two series: In soil fertilized and not fertilized with compost. Nickel and cobalt significantly inhibited the growth and development of Festuca rubra. The experiment demonstrated that this plant species can be grown on soil contaminated with heavy metals. Festuca rubra contained on average 46.05% C, 34.59% O, 5.91% H, 3.49% N, 0.19% S and 9.76% ash. Festuca rubra has a stable calorific value which is not affected by heavy metals; therefore, biomass harvested from heavy metal-polluted soil can be used for energy generation. The calorific value of Festuca rubra ranged from 15.924 to 16.790 MJ kg⁻¹ plant d.m., and the heat of combustion from 17.696 to 18.576 MJ kg⁻¹. It has a stable calorific value which is not affected by heavy metals, therefore biomass harvested from heavy metal-polluted soil can be used for energy generation. Festuca rubra is particularly useful for the phytostabilization of soil contaminated with cadmium and cobalt. Compost minimizes the adverse effects of heavy metal pollution on the microbiological, biochemical and physicochemical properties of soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability)

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9 pages, 2092 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analyses of Pellets Produced from Spruce Sawdust, Spruce Bark, and Pine Cones in Different Proportions

by Nikola Čajová Kantová, Michal Holubčík, Alexander Čaja, Juraj Trnka and Jozef Jandačka

Energies 2022, 15(8), 2725; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15082725 - 8 Apr 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2054

Abstract

A lot of residual biomass has energy value and can be used for further applications through suitable treatments, such as pelletization. This treatment can improve properties, mainly energy density, but can also lead to problems due to their low ash melting temperatures, high ash content, and the formation of harmful compounds during combustion. This article deals with the energy potential of pellets produced from spruce sawdust, spruce bark, and pine cones in different proportions. The impact of cone and bark contents on pellet properties was also observed. The energy properties of the produced pellets were measured, such as the contents of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, moisture, volatile, fixed carbon, and ash, as well as calorific values and ash melting temperatures. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the addition of pine cones and spruce bark to spruce sawdust mainly affected the contents of nitrogen and ash and melting temperatures. Despite this, all produced pellets met the standard EN ISO 17225-2 for the content of nitrogen, ash, and also lower calorific value at least B quality. However, only three pellet samples of five met this standard for A2 and B quality for ash melting behavior. Therefore, they present an alternative fuel with interesting energy potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability)

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11 pages, 1166 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anaerobic Biodegradation of Wheat Straw Lignin: The Influence of Wet Explosion Pretreatment

by Muhammad Usman Khan and Birgitte Kiaer Ahring

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5940; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185940 - 18 Sep 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2195

Abstract

Large amounts of lignin residue is expected in the future when biorefineries for producing biofuels and bio-products will increase in numbers. It is, therefore, valuable to find solutions for using this resource for the sustained production of useful bioenergy or bio-products. Anaerobic digestion could potentially be an option for converting the biorefinery lignin into a valuable energy product. However, lignin is recalcitrant to biodegradation under anaerobic conditions unless the structure is modified. Wet oxidation followed by steam explosion (wet explosion) was previously found to make significant changes to the lignin structure allowing for biodegradation under anaerobic conditions. In this study, we examine the effect of wet explosion pretreatment for anaerobic digestion of wheat straw lignin under mesophilic (37 °C) conditions. Besides the biorefinery lignin produced from wheat straw, untreated lignin was further tested as feed material for anaerobic digestion. Our results showed that wet exploded lignin pretreated with 2% NaOH showed the highest lignin degradation (41.8%) as well as the highest methane potential of 157.3 ± 9.9 mL/g VS. The untreated lignin with no pretreatment showed the lowest methane yield of 65.8 ± 4.8 and only 3.5% of the lignin was degraded. Overall, increased severity of the pretreatment was found to enhance anaerobic degradation of lignin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability)

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12 pages, 940 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Storage and Upgrading of Biogas by Physicochemical Purification in a Sudano-Sahelian Context

by Djomdi, Leonel Junior Mintsop Nguela, Hamadou Bakari, Hamadou Fadimatou, Gwendoline Christophe and Philippe Michaud

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5855; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185855 - 16 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2123

Abstract

The global energy trends are currently dominated by a massive use of fossil non-renewable energy sources which are progressively depleting. In this way, the production of second-generation biogas production from organic wastes by the dark fermentation process offers, therefore, an attractive solution to diversify the present energy mix. The development of biogas production units has led to an increase in the quantity of biomethane, but it contains impurities. A biomethane purification and storage system was developed in this work to improve the quality of this biofuel. Solutions were first developed to capture carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, water, and volatile organic compounds found in the initial biogas. These solutions were based on a system of purification made up of water absorption reactions and iron oxide, activated charcoal, and steel wool adsorption. Thus, the biomethane obtained after purification has been stored in an inflatable balloon before being compressed into a refrigerant bottle of R134a. The treatment system was used to release a biogas with 95 % biomethane and a law heating value (LHV) of 54 MJ/kg after purification. It also emerges that purification of 2 m³ of biogas requires 0.15 m³ of water at 20oC to produce 1.4 m³ of biomethane. This biomethane can meet an energy demand of 1624 Wh or 0.2 m³ of daily biomethane requirements. The system as a whole can allow customers with a biodigester to produce their own energy (cooking or electric) while reducing the production of green-house gases in the atmosphere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability)

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22 pages, 3656 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energetic Value of Elymus elongatus L. and Zea mays L. Grown on Soil Polluted with Ni²⁺, Co²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Sensitivity of Rhizospheric Bacteria to Heavy Metals

by Edyta Boros-Lajszner, Jadwiga Wyszkowska, Agata Borowik and Jan Kucharski

Energies 2021, 14(16), 4903; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14164903 - 11 Aug 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2311

Abstract

Plants, and microorganisms associated with them, offer an effective tool for removing pollutants, such as heavy metals, from the soil environment. The aim of this study was to determine changes caused by Ni²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ in the genetic diversity of soil-populating bacteria and the effect these heavy metals on the heating value of elongated coach grass (Elymus elongatus L.) and maize (Zea mays L.). Microorganisms support plants in removing heavy metals from soil. These plants can then be used for energetic purposes. The study aim was accomplished by determining counts of microorganisms and their resistance (RS) to Ni²⁺, Co²⁺, Cd²⁺, their colony development index (CD), ecophysiological diversity index (EP), and diversity established with the next generation sequencing (NGS) method. Further analyses aimed to establish test plants resistance to pollution with heavy metals and their heating value. Organotrophic bacteria turned out to be the most resistant to Co²⁺, whereas actinobacteria—to Cd²⁺ effects. At all taxonomic levels, the genetic diversity of bacteria was most adversely influenced by Cd²⁺ in the soil sown with Zea mays L. Bacteria belonging to Arthrobacter, Rhodoplanes, Kaistobacter, Devosia, Phycicoccus, and Thermomonas genera showed high tolerance to soil pollution with Ni²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺, hence they should be perceived as potential sources of microorganisms useful for bioaugmentation of soils polluted with these heavy metals. Ni²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ had no effect on the heating value of Elymus elongatus L. and Zea mays L. The heating value of 1 kg of air-dry biomass of the tested plants was relatively high and ranged from 14.6 to 15.1 MJ. Elymus elongatus L. proved more useful in phytoremediation than Zea mays L. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability)

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12 pages, 4268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Application of Similarity Theory and Dimensional Analysis to the Study of Centrifugal-Rotary Chopper of Forage Grain

by Wacław Romaniuk, Petr Savinykh, Kinga Borek, Kamil Roman, Alexey Y. Isupov, Aleksandr Moshonkin, Grzegorz Wałowski and Michał Roman

Energies 2021, 14(15), 4501; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154501 - 26 Jul 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2525

Abstract

This article presents the device and the principle of operation of forage grain crushers that use the centrifugal force of inertia to supply the working bodies—which occurs as a result of rotation of the rotor with a vertical axis. The results of some tests of machines working on this principle have been characterized. Attention is drawn to the disadvantages of most research works, namely the lack of premises for creating shredders of this class with a wide range of performance. The aim of this work is to establish the relationship between the design and technological parameters for the operation of a centrifugal-rotary shredder using the theory of similarity and a dimensional analysis. Moreover, the experimental data show an empirical relationship when calculating the efficiency for the shredder model considered above. By applying the similarity criteria, dimensionless complexes were obtained, which allow to determine the significance of the parameters selected at the initial stage for the efficiency of the shredder. The novelty of this research is the application of the theory of similarity and the use of dimensional analysis, which allowed for scaling the results of the experimental data and obtaining a centrifugal-rotary shredder with higher efficiency, while maintaining the quality of the obtained product. This technique indicates the energy costs of the grinding process, which can be used to select the ratio of parameters in the shredder that would ensure that a minimum amount of energy is consumed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability)

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19 pages, 3069 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Analysis of a Prototype Installation for Biogas Production from Chosen Agricultural Substrates

by Kinga Borek, Wacław Romaniuk, Kamil Roman, Michał Roman and Maciej Kuboń

Energies 2021, 14(8), 2132; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082132 - 11 Apr 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3035

Abstract

Methane production by fermentation is a complex biochemical process, in which micromolecular organic substances are broken down by anaerobic bacteria into simple stabilized chemicals—mainly methane CH₄ and carbon dioxide CO₂. The organic matter of the slurry consists mainly of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. As a result of biochemical changes in the process of anaerobic decomposition, some of this matter is mineralized to simple chemical compounds. Cattle and pig husbandry offers enormous potential for useable biogas plant substrates. As a result of the constantly increasing amounts of animal husbandry products, and increasingly stringent environmental protection requirements aimed at reusing natural fertilizers, it is necessary to look for alternative processing methods. The need for efficiency in obtaining biogas from substrates (e.g., manure) was met by the laboratory stand presented in this article, for which the Polish patent No. 232200 was obtained. The new technology also allows leaching of the organic liquid, e.g., from manure, and subjecting it to methane fermentation. The solution allows the individual elements of the technological line that determine the fermentation process to be tested under laboratory conditions. It also allows testing of the substrates in terms of fermentation, to determine their physical and chemical characteristics, and then to characterize the fermentation process in terms of the quality and quantity of the resulting biogas and the quality of post-fermentation residues. Compressing biogas for local distribution was also proposed. As part of the research, using a laboratory stand, the organic matter was leached from manure, for the purpose of biogas production. In addition, the biogas yield from manure at varying degrees of maturity was assessed. The best properties in terms of biogas yield forecasting were demonstrated by manure composted for 4–8 weeks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability)

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Review

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23 pages, 1765 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Overview of Biodiesel Production via Calcium Oxide Based Catalysts: Current State and Perspective

by Hoora Mazaheri, Hwai Chyuan Ong, Zeynab Amini, Haji Hassan Masjuki, M. Mofijur, Chia Hung Su, Irfan Anjum Badruddin and T.M. Yunus Khan

Energies 2021, 14(13), 3950; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133950 - 1 Jul 2021

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 7813

Abstract

Biodiesel is a clean, renewable, liquid fuel that can be used in existing diesel engines without modification as pure or blend. Transesterification (the primary process for biodiesel generation) via heterogeneous catalysis using low-cost waste feedstocks for catalyst synthesis improves the economics of biodiesel production. Heterogeneous catalysts are preferred for the industrial generation of biodiesel due to their robustness and low costs due to the easy separation and relatively higher reusability. Calcium oxides found in abundance in nature, e.g., in seashells and eggshells, are promising candidates for the synthesis of heterogeneous catalysts. However, process improvements are required to design productive calcium oxide-based catalysts at an industrial scale. The current work presents an overview of the biodiesel production advancements using calcium oxide-based catalysts (e.g., pure, supported, and mixed with metal oxides). The review discusses different factors involved in the synthesis of calcium oxide-based catalysts, and the effect of reaction parameters on the biodiesel yield of calcium oxide-based catalysis are studied. Further, the common reactor designs used for the heterogeneous catalysis using calcium oxide-based catalysts are explained. Moreover, the catalytic activity mechanism, challenges and prospects of the application of calcium oxide-based catalysts in biodiesel generation are discussed. The study of calcium oxide-based catalyst should continue to be evaluated for the potential of their application in the commercial sector as they remain the pivotal goal of these studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Energy for Environmental Sustainability)

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