Energies

2024

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21 pages, 3350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decomposition Analysis of CO₂ Emissions in 138 Countries During the COVID-19 Pandemic

by Yasunori Ito and Hidemichi Fujii

Energies 2024, 17(23), 5835; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17235835 - 21 Nov 2024

Viewed by 287

Abstract

This study uses factor decomposition analysis from the extended framework of Kaya’s identity to determine the factors influencing CO₂ emissions in 138 countries worldwide from 2019–2022. The results revealed that CO₂ emissions decreased due to economic stagnation caused by COVID-19 from [...] Read more.

This study uses factor decomposition analysis from the extended framework of Kaya’s identity to determine the factors influencing CO₂ emissions in 138 countries worldwide from 2019–2022. The results revealed that CO₂ emissions decreased due to economic stagnation caused by COVID-19 from 2019–2020. From 2020–2021, CO₂ emissions increased due to economic recovery and increased dependence on fossil energy. However, the timing of recovery varies with income level. In low-income countries, economic recovery progressed more from 2021–2022 than from 2020–2021, which was the opposite of the situation in developed countries. In terms of technological factors, carbon intensity was a factor in increasing emissions in high-income countries during the recovery period, whereas fossil dependency and energy efficiency were factors in increasing emissions in upper-medium- and lower-medium-income countries, respectively. The results of the decoupling analysis indicate that lower-medium-income countries tend to exhibit undesirable decoupling. Furthermore, from an analysis of the transition of decoupling states, it is necessary to reduce the carbon intensity and fossil fuel dependency to achieve a desirable decoupling relationship between CO₂ and economic development. Full article

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25 pages, 1077 KiB

Open AccessReview

Environmental Policy vs. the Reality of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Top Emitting Countries

by Nerea Portillo Juan, Vicente Negro Valdecantos, Javier Olalde Rodríguez and Gregorio Iglesias

Energies 2024, 17(22), 5705; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17225705 - 14 Nov 2024

Viewed by 513

Abstract

The 21st century climate crisis has been compounded by the COVID-19 health crisis and the Russian war. What at first appeared to be an opportunity to move towards sustainable growth and development has turned into the opposite. In this context, it seems necessary [...] Read more.

The 21st century climate crisis has been compounded by the COVID-19 health crisis and the Russian war. What at first appeared to be an opportunity to move towards sustainable growth and development has turned into the opposite. In this context, it seems necessary to pause and analyze what countries are doing and where they are heading in order to ensure that their environmental efforts are not in vain. This article analyzes the environmental policies of the seven countries emitting the most GHGs from 1990 to the present day and compares them with the reality of their emissions. These behaviors are extrapolated into the future and, finally, conclusions are drawn as to which countries are not fully living up to their commitments, which have implemented the most effective measures, and where particular attention needs to be directed for maximum efficiency in decarbonizing the energy mix. Full article

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21 pages, 578 KiB

Open AccessReview

Carbon Footprint of Electric Vehicles—Review of Methodologies and Determinants

by Dorota Burchart and Iga Przytuła

Energies 2024, 17(22), 5667; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17225667 - 13 Nov 2024

Viewed by 482

Abstract

The carbon footprint of a product and organization is one of the most important environmental indicators in many sectors, including transport. Consequently, electric vehicles (EV) are being introduced as an alternative to achieve decarbonization targets. This article presents an overview of methodologies for [...] Read more.

The carbon footprint of a product and organization is one of the most important environmental indicators in many sectors, including transport. Consequently, electric vehicles (EV) are being introduced as an alternative to achieve decarbonization targets. This article presents an overview of methodologies for assessing the carbon footprint of electric vehicles, including a review of concepts, methods, standards, and calculation models based on the life cycle of the carbon footprint. The article also includes a systematic review of the results of EV carbon footprint analyses. The analysis of current knowledge on the carbon footprint focuses on road transport vehicles: Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV), Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV), and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV). Additionally, a review of factors determining the carbon footprint assessment of electric vehicles, considering their entire life cycle, has been conducted. Full article

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44 pages, 3236 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of Power-to-Liquid (PtL) Technology for Renewable Methanol (e-MeOH): Recent Developments, Emerging Trends and Prospects for the Cement Plant Industry

by Luísa Marques, Maria Vieira, José Condeço, Henrique Sousa, Carlos Henriques and Maria Mateus

Energies 2024, 17(22), 5589; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17225589 - 8 Nov 2024

Viewed by 473

Abstract

The cement industry is a significant contributor (around 8%) to CO₂ global emissions. About 60% of the industry’s emissions come from limestone calcination, which is essential for clinker production, while 40% are the result of fuel combustion. Reducing these emissions is challenging [...] Read more.

The cement industry is a significant contributor (around 8%) to CO₂ global emissions. About 60% of the industry’s emissions come from limestone calcination, which is essential for clinker production, while 40% are the result of fuel combustion. Reducing these emissions is challenging due to limestone’s role as the primary raw material for cement. Cement plants are required to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, as outlined in the 13th United Nations Sustainable Goals. One strategy to achieve this goal, involves Carbon Capture and utilization (CCU). Among the options for CO₂ utilization, the Power-to-Liquid (PtL) strategy offers a means to mitigate CO₂ emissions. In PtL, the CO₂ captured from cement industrial flue gas is combined with the hydrogen generated by renewable electrolysis (green hydrogen) and is catalytically converted into renewable methanol (e-MeOH). In this sense, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the worldwide existing pilot and demonstration units and projects funded by the EU across several industries. It specifically focuses on PtL technology worldwide within cement plants. This work covers 18 locations worldwide, detailing technology existent at plants of different capacities, location, and project partners. Finally, the review analyses techno-economic assessments related to e-MeOH production processes, highlighting the potential impact on achieving carbon neutrality in the cement industry. Full article

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16 pages, 3152 KiB

Open AccessReview

Energy Poverty Alleviation in the Era of Energy Transition—Case Study of Poland and Sweden

by Olga Janikowska, Natalia Generowicz-Caba and Joanna Kulczycka

Energies 2024, 17(21), 5481; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17215481 - 1 Nov 2024

Viewed by 638

Abstract

The energy transition, aimed at significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change, presents both opportunities and challenges in addressing energy poverty. This article explores the differing approaches of Poland and Sweden in energy poverty alleviation within the context of this transition. [...] Read more.

The energy transition, aimed at significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change, presents both opportunities and challenges in addressing energy poverty. This article explores the differing approaches of Poland and Sweden in energy poverty alleviation within the context of this transition. Poland, with its historical dependence on coal, faces considerable obstacles as it seeks to shift towards cleaner energy sources while minimizing the impact on vulnerable populations. Conversely, Sweden, supported by its advanced energy infrastructure and strong welfare systems, has implemented effective strategies that have largely mitigated energy poverty, though challenges persist for low-income households, especially in rural areas. The article delves into the definitions, drivers, and alleviation strategies of energy poverty in both countries. Through a comprehensive literature review and the analysis of key initiatives such as Poland’s Clean Air Program and Sweden’s Warm Rent scheme, the study underscores the potential for policy interventions to address energy poverty. It concludes with recommendations on how both countries can further reduce energy poverty, highlighting the critical role of energy efficiency, social support systems, and the integration of renewable energy in achieving a fair and equitable energy transition. Full article

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31 pages, 1990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Empirical Study of the Economic Net-Zero Energy Mix in Industrial Complexes

by MinHyeok Kang, SooJin Park and KangWook Cho

Energies 2024, 17(21), 5404; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17215404 - 30 Oct 2024

Viewed by 600

Abstract

This study examines the optimal energy mix for industrial complexes by incorporating renewable energy systems, decarbonization strategies, and sector coupling technologies. Using data from the Balan Industrial Complex in Korea, five energy scenarios were evaluated, ranging from conventional systems (Scenario 1) to advanced [...] Read more.

This study examines the optimal energy mix for industrial complexes by incorporating renewable energy systems, decarbonization strategies, and sector coupling technologies. Using data from the Balan Industrial Complex in Korea, five energy scenarios were evaluated, ranging from conventional systems (Scenario 1) to advanced renewable configurations (Scenario 5). The results show that Scenario 5, which integrates sector coupling systems and decarbonization technologies, is the most cost-effective and environmentally sustainable. Scenario 5 achieves the lowest Net Present Cost (NPC), and significantly reduces CO₂ emissions. Furthermore, an analysis of electricity prices and CO₂ costs from Korea, the United States, and Germany highlights the critical role of regional electricity tariffs and carbon pricing in determining the economic feasibility of energy systems. While renewable setups require higher initial investments, Scenario 5 proves to be the most economically viable over time, offering both cost savings and environmental benefits. These findings provide valuable insights for policymakers and industry leaders, emphasizing the importance of customized strategies to optimize energy systems in industrial applications. Full article

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23 pages, 2080 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Mini-Review on Recent Developments and Improvements in CO₂ Catalytic Conversion to Methanol: Prospects for the Cement Plant Industry

by Luísa Marques, Maria Vieira, José Condeço, Carlos Henriques and Maria Mateus

Energies 2024, 17(21), 5285; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17215285 - 24 Oct 2024

Viewed by 697

Abstract

The cement industry significantly impacts the environment due to natural resource extraction and fossil fuel combustion, with carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions being a major concern. The industry emits 0.6 tons of CO₂ per ton of cement, accounting for about 8% [...] Read more.

The cement industry significantly impacts the environment due to natural resource extraction and fossil fuel combustion, with carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions being a major concern. The industry emits 0.6 tons of CO₂ per ton of cement, accounting for about 8% of global CO₂ emissions. To meet the 13th United Nations Sustainable Development Goal, cement plants aim for carbon neutrality by 2050 through reducing CO₂ emissions and adopting Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU) technologies. A promising approach is converting CO₂ into valuable chemicals and fuels, such as methanol (MeOH), using Power-to-Liquid (PtL) technologies. This process involves capturing CO₂ from cement plant flue gas and using hydrogen from renewable sources to produce renewable methanol (e-MeOH). Advancing the development of novel, efficient catalysts for direct CO₂ hydrogenation is crucial. This comprehensive mini-review presents a holistic view of recent advancements in CO₂ catalytic conversion to MeOH, focusing on catalyst performance, selectivity, and stability. It outlines a long-term strategy for utilizing captured CO₂ emissions from cement plants to produce MeOH, offering an experimental roadmap for the decarbonization of the cement industry. Full article

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28 pages, 2384 KiB

Open AccessReview

Environmental Impacts and Contaminants Management in Sewage Sludge-to-Energy and Fertilizer Technologies: Current Trends and Future Directions

by Anna Grobelak, Klaudia Całus-Makowska, Anna Jasińska, Marek Klimasz, Aleksandra Wypart-Pawul, Dominika Augustajtys, Estera Baor, Daria Sławczyk and Aneta Kowalska

Energies 2024, 17(19), 4983; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17194983 - 5 Oct 2024

Viewed by 2085

Abstract

The increasing focus on sustainability and the circular economy has brought waste-to-energy technologies to the forefront of renewable energy research. However, the environmental impacts and management of contaminants associated with these technologies remain critical issues. This article comprehensively reviews the environmental impacts of [...] Read more.

The increasing focus on sustainability and the circular economy has brought waste-to-energy technologies to the forefront of renewable energy research. However, the environmental impacts and management of contaminants associated with these technologies remain critical issues. This article comprehensively reviews the environmental impacts of converting sewage sludge into energy and fertilizers, focusing on managing potential contaminants and assessing the implications and ecological risks. It also highlights the latest trends in waste-to-energy technologies, waste-to-soil amendment, and their integration into circular economy frameworks. The discussion encompasses challenges and opportunities in optimizing these processes in wastewater treatment plants to minimize pollutants and enhance sustainability. Addressing these challenges is essential for ensuring the long-term viability and acceptance of waste-to-energy solutions, making this topic highly relevant and timely. Full article

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20 pages, 3843 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combustion Process of Coal–Açai Seed Mixtures in a Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler

by Gabriel C. P. Soares, João V. R. Moreira, Fernando H. B. Santos, Danielle R. S. Guerra and Manoel F. M. Nogueira

Energies 2024, 17(18), 4635; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17184635 - 17 Sep 2024

Viewed by 634

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of the co-combustion of coal and açai seed in circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boilers, highlighting the increase in thermal efficiency and relevance of a less-polluting source of energy. Using the computer software 1.5D CeSFaMB™^® v4.3.0, simulations of [...] Read more.

This study investigates the effects of the co-combustion of coal and açai seed in circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boilers, highlighting the increase in thermal efficiency and relevance of a less-polluting source of energy. Using the computer software 1.5D CeSFaMB™^® v4.3.0, simulations of the co-combustion process of coal and biomass were carried out in a CFB boiler, obtaining results such as the temperature profile, boiler efficiency and emissions. The work acquired data regarding the equipment in real operational conditions, consisting of the fundamental geometric and operational parameters used in the simulation campaign. The thermal and chemical properties of the fuels were analyzed by carrying out proximate, ultimate, heating value, particle size and specific mass analyses. The model validation was achieved by simulating the boiler in its real operating conditions and comparing the obtained results with the real data; the obtained error was below 10%. Simulations with different fractions of açai seed for energy replacement (10% and 30%) were carried out. As a result, an increase in the average temperature of the bed was observed, highlighting the region immediately above the dense bed. An increase in boiler efficiency was verified from 56% to 85% with 10% açai and to 83% with 30% açai seed. Decreases in SO₂ and CO emissions with the insertion of açai were obtained, showing that co-combustion is more complete, while CO₂ emissions were increased due to the higher quantity of fuel inserted into the equipment. The fossil CO₂ emissions were reduced. Full article

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19 pages, 1819 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Artificial Neural Networks as a Tool to Understand Complex Energy Poverty Relationships: The Case of Greece

by Lefkothea Papada and Dimitris Kaliampakos

Energies 2024, 17(13), 3163; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17133163 - 27 Jun 2024

Viewed by 872

Abstract

The present paper provides an innovative approach in the existing methods of studying energy poverty, i.e., a crucial socio-economic challenge of the past decade in Europe. Since the literature has shown that conventional statistical models lack effectiveness in handling unconventional relationships between variables [...] Read more.

The present paper provides an innovative approach in the existing methods of studying energy poverty, i.e., a crucial socio-economic challenge of the past decade in Europe. Since the literature has shown that conventional statistical models lack effectiveness in handling unconventional relationships between variables and present limitations in terms of accurate classification and prediction, the paper explores the ability of Artificial Intelligence and, particularly, of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), to successfully predict energy poverty in Greece. The analysis included the prediction of seven energy poverty indicators (output indicators) based on certain socio-economic/geographical factors (input variables), via training an ANN, i.e., the Multilayer Perceptron. Three models (Model A, Model B and Model C) of different combinations of the input variables were tested for each one of the seven indicators. The analysis showed that ANNs managed to predict energy poverty at a remarkably good level of accuracy, ranging from 61.71% (lowest value) up to 82.72% (highest accuracy score). The strong relationships that came up on the examined cases confirmed that ANNs are a promising tool towards a deeper understanding of the energy poverty roots, which in turn can lead to more targeted policies. Full article

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16 pages, 6214 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Effect of Carpinus betulus Ash on the Maize as an Energy Crop and the Enzymatic Soil Properties

by Edyta Boros-Lajszner, Jadwiga Wyszkowska and Jan Kucharski

Energies 2024, 17(12), 3031; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17123031 - 20 Jun 2024

Viewed by 701

Abstract

Maize can easily adapt to changing weather conditions, has moderate soil requirements, and offers high green mass productivity. The goals of this study were to assess the possibility of using ash from Carpinus betulus aided by soil amendment with compost and HumiAgra in [...] Read more.

Maize can easily adapt to changing weather conditions, has moderate soil requirements, and offers high green mass productivity. The goals of this study were to assess the possibility of using ash from Carpinus betulus aided by soil amendment with compost and HumiAgra in Zea mays cultivation and to determine the energy potential of maize. Wood ash had a relatively minimal effect on the combustion heat and calorific value of maize biomass. It increased the contents of C, H, S, N, O, and ash in the aerial parts of the maize. In addition, it positively affected the contents of organic carbon, total nitrogen, soil pH, sum of exchangeable base cations, total exchangeable capacity of soil, and degree of soil saturation with alkaline cations. In contrast, it strongly decreased the yield of maize, negatively affected the biochemical activity of the soil, and reduced the hydrolytic acidity of the soil. Soil amendment with compost and HumiAgra had positive effects on the heat of combustion; calorific value; the contents of C, H, S, N, O, and ash in the aerial parts of maize; and on the properties of the soil. In addition, they mitigated the adverse effects of wood ash on maize biomass and the enzymatic properties of the soil. Full article

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25 pages, 2695 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advanced Technology for Energy, Plant Nutrients and Water Recovery at Wastewater Treatment Plants

by Andrzej G. Chmielewski, Marcin Sudlitz and Monika Żubrowska-Sudoł

Energies 2024, 17(11), 2749; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112749 - 4 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1055

Abstract

In present times, with increasing emphasis on circular economies, municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are considered resource recovery facilities. The targeted resources are water, biogas, and sludge, organic residuals containing nutrients and elements needed by plants (nitrogen and phosphorus). Sludge is a byproduct [...] Read more.

In present times, with increasing emphasis on circular economies, municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are considered resource recovery facilities. The targeted resources are water, biogas, and sludge, organic residuals containing nutrients and elements needed by plants (nitrogen and phosphorus). Sludge is a byproduct that constitutes the largest volume of all other byproducts obtained in wastewater treatment plants. Its processing and disposal are challenging for environmental engineers because of its complexity. Thus, quick development and implementation in industrial practice of sludge valorization and utilization technologies is required, where high nutrient content must be taken into account. Also, the occurrence of a variety of pathogens in sewage sludge is a matter of concern, even in the case of developed countries. The use of untreated sludge or wastewater in agricultural activities poses a serious risk of bacterial and parasitic infection in human beings. To overcome such issues, the application of ionizing radiation processing, especially electron beam (EB), can be considered a promising method. Its effectiveness in pathogen removal has been proven by researchers. Water radiolysis products created during irradiation of water are highly reactive and cause some effects such as DNA damage,

{}^{•}{O H}

radical production, etc. Additionally, ionizing radiation technologies in sewage sludge treatment enhance the efficiency of the methane fermentation process. Depending on specific needs, different types of ionizing radiation sources can be discussed. Based on the review information and our research results, the basic engineering parameters of hybrid installation have been presented as the conclusion of the report. In this technical solution, a notably effective additional step would be the use of EB irradiation, combined with conventional wastewater treatment, to achieve efficient removal of pollutants. Full article

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15 pages, 4639 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study of Pollutant Emissions from Biomass Combustion and Modeling of PM Transportation

by François Delcourt, Abdelkader Izerroukyene, Damien Méresse, David Uystepruyst, François Beaubert and Céline Morin

Energies 2024, 17(11), 2586; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112586 - 27 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 829

Abstract

Experimental measurements and modeling have been performed in the chimney of a biomass boiler to study the gaseous and particulate matter (PM) emissions during the combustion of wood pellets. A 10 kW boiler with an underfeed burner is equipped with different sensors located [...] Read more.

Experimental measurements and modeling have been performed in the chimney of a biomass boiler to study the gaseous and particulate matter (PM) emissions during the combustion of wood pellets. A 10 kW boiler with an underfeed burner is equipped with different sensors located in the chimney (anemometer, thermocouples). The PM emissions were measured in the chimney through the engine exhaust particle sizer (EEPS) technique. Moreover, the gaseous emissions (CO₂, CO, total hydrocarbons THC, O₂) were obtained through infrared (IR) spectroscopy and flame ionization detector (FID). The emissions were recorded during the steady phase of the boiler and averaged over several tests. Four locations were investigated in the chimney to evaluate the evolution of the particle size and the potential deposition on the surface. The experimental results were compared with a CFD model with particle transportation. The modeling of turbulent flow in the chimney is based on a Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) approach with turbulent viscosity closure. To account for flow anisotropy, the

\bar{v^{2}} - f

turbulence model was selected for this study. The effect of turbulent fluctuations on the discrete phase is considered by the discrete random walk (DRW) turbulent dispersion model. The results obtained provide access to the topology of the carrier phase flow as well as the complete distribution of the particle field within the chimney enclosure. Advanced measurement of pollutant emissions and modeling of the PM transportation are developed for the first time in a domestic biomass boiler operating in real conditions. Experimental results demonstrate several relevant information. The CO and THC emissions show a similar evolution versus time. The PM granulometric distribution measured along the chimney highlights the particle agglomeration phenomena. Moreover, the CFD model and experimental results give similar results in terms of flow characteristics and PM granulometry. Full article

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21 pages, 1935 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Consumption-Based Energy Footprints in Iceland: High and Equally Distributed

by Anna Kristín Einarsdóttir, Gereon tho Pesch, Kevin Joseph Dillman, Marta Rós Karlsdóttir and Jukka Heinonen

Energies 2024, 17(10), 2375; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17102375 - 15 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1446

Abstract

With the urgent global need to limit warming to 2 °C as well as a localized need in our case study to address rising energy demand amid electrical and thermal network limitations, a critical examination of demand-side energy reductions and the concept of [...] Read more.

With the urgent global need to limit warming to 2 °C as well as a localized need in our case study to address rising energy demand amid electrical and thermal network limitations, a critical examination of demand-side energy reductions and the concept of energy sufficiency is needed. This paper contributes to the sparse literature on bottom-up analysis by utilizing Iceland—a leader in renewable energy generation—as a case study to explore the socio-economic factors influencing energy footprints. Our findings reveal significant energy footprints across various consumption domains, particularly housing and mobility, influenced by income levels, urbanization, and lifestyle choices. The study highlights the paradox of a high renewable energy supply leading to potential misconceptions regarding abundant and low-cost energy, resulting in substantial energy consumption-related environmental impacts. Using detailed household consumption survey data, this research provides insights crucial for developing sustainable energy policies that not only target technological advancements but also address the need for a reduction in energy demand and a shift towards energy sufficiency. This work marks a contribution to the literature through the provision of a case study of low income inequality and high energy footprints in a highly renewable energy system context. Further, this work is useful for Icelandic and international policymakers to understand in such high-demand contexts which consumption domains would be most relevant for sufficiency policies. This comprehensive analysis opens pathways for future research to further explore the intersections of energy consumption, socio-economic factors, and well-being, offering a nuanced understanding necessary for crafting sufficiency and demand-side policies aimed at a sustainable energy future. Full article

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18 pages, 3618 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Air Purification Performance Analysis of Magnetic Fluid Filter with AC Non-Thermal Plasma Discharge

by Takuya Kuwahara and Yusuke Asaka

Energies 2024, 17(8), 1865; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17081865 - 13 Apr 2024

Viewed by 759

Abstract

Air pollution caused by particulate matter (PM) is a worldwide concern. PM is particularly problematic from fossil-fuel-based energy conversion devices. For PM collection, a low-pressure loss method is ideal. Although PM collection via electrostatic force is an effective method with low pressure loss [...] Read more.

Air pollution caused by particulate matter (PM) is a worldwide concern. PM is particularly problematic from fossil-fuel-based energy conversion devices. For PM collection, a low-pressure loss method is ideal. Although PM collection via electrostatic force is an effective method with low pressure loss for PM with a wide range of diameters, it is difficult to apply to low-resistive PM, such as diesel particulates, owing to re-entrainment on the collection electrode. A magnetic fluid filter with an AC non-thermal plasma discharge solves the problem of re-entrainment. Based on our previous study, we hypothesized that an increase in the number of magnetic fluid spikes leads to an improvement in collection efficiencies with energy conservation. In this study, experiments are performed to verify this hypothesis. By improving our previous experimental methodology, the experiments include not only collection efficiency but also pressure loss, power consumption, and ozone generation efficiency. PM collection efficiencies using diesel fine particles and the ozone generation efficiencies required for air purification are investigated under different discharge conditions. The results revealed that the PM collection and ozone generation efficiencies increase proportionally with the number of spikes of the magnetic fluid with discharge, as hypothesized. The resulting PM collection and ozone generation efficiencies are sufficiently high for air purification. Full article

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18 pages, 3304 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unlocking the Technology Potential for Universal Access to Clean Energy in Developing Countries

by Boucar Diouf and Ekra Miezan

Energies 2024, 17(6), 1488; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17061488 - 20 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1141

Abstract

Access to clean energy remains a major issue in developing countries, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa, despite successive policies and the assistance of international institutions or organizations. The United Nations (UN) launched some of the most ambitious initiatives with the Millennium Development Goals and, more [...] Read more.

Access to clean energy remains a major issue in developing countries, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa, despite successive policies and the assistance of international institutions or organizations. The United Nations (UN) launched some of the most ambitious initiatives with the Millennium Development Goals and, more recently, the Sustainable Development Goals and Power Africa, a United States (US) government initiative. Sub-Saharan Africa has an important potential in renewable energy for both biogas and solar photovoltaic energy, but they remain underexploited. This paper presents the challenges of access to clean energy in developing countries and the failure of remedial policies mostly based on public–private partnerships (PPPs) in the context of endemic poverty of rural populations. In addition, the development of modern energy technologies remains very limited. Appropriate reforms should be carried out to change the paradigm and allow universal access to clean energy. This paper also addresses the different structural barriers that hinder access to technology in Sub-Saharan Africa and the consequences of access to clean energy in the context of poverty. Full article

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19 pages, 4855 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Energy Self-Sufficiency of Wastewater Treatment Plants—A Case Study from Poland

by Adam Masłoń, Joanna Czarnota, Paulina Szczyrba, Aleksandra Szaja, Joanna Szulżyk-Cieplak and Grzegorz Łagód

Energies 2024, 17(5), 1164; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051164 - 1 Mar 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1865

Abstract

Currently, one of the main goals is to make municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) energy-neutral. However, advanced wastewater treatments and sewage sludge processing are still classified as highly energy-intensive. In this study, the energy self-sufficiency potential assessment of the WWTP located in Krosno [...] Read more.

Currently, one of the main goals is to make municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) energy-neutral. However, advanced wastewater treatments and sewage sludge processing are still classified as highly energy-intensive. In this study, the energy self-sufficiency potential assessment of the WWTP located in Krosno (Poland) was evaluated. Moreover, the possible paths for improving the energy balance of the analyzed facility are presented in this paper. The performed evaluation indicated that in 2016–2019, the energy consumption at WWTP Krosno varied from 0.25 to 0.71 kWh/m³ of wastewater (average 0.51 kWh/m³), and the highest energy utilization values in each year were recorded around the summer season. An analysis of the data showed that as the pollutant load flowing into the WWTP increased, its energy utilization decreased. Such results indicate that the treatment cost per cubic meter decreases as the load increases due to the capital cost being the same. The estimated self-sufficiency of the facility in the years analyzed was 50.5%. The average energy recovery from 1 m³ of wastewater was 0.27 kWh/m³, and the average energy recovery from 1 m³ of biogas was 1.54 kWh/m³. Since the energy balance of this wastewater treatment plant, determined primarily by the continuously increasing cost of energy purchases, has to be improved, two courses of action were identified that will allow for increasing self-sufficiency. The co-digestion strategy was indicated as the easiest solution to implement, given the on-going anaerobic stabilization of sewage sludge at this WWTP. Moreover, the possible co-substrates that can be obtained from local suppliers were indicated. The second course of action, which requires a thorough economic analysis, is sludge pre-treatment, which might improve sewage sludge properties, resulting in a more favorable biogas yield. Full article

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25 pages, 411 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digitization Meets Energy Transition: Shaping the Future of Environmental Sustainability

by Lin Wang, Yugang He and Renhong Wu

Energies 2024, 17(4), 767; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17040767 - 6 Feb 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2086

Abstract

This paper presents an empirical investigation into the effects of energy transition and digitization on carbon dioxide emissions, serving as a proxy for environmental sustainability, across 28 Chinese provinces from 2000 to 2021. Utilizing both static and dynamic regression analyses, the study reveals [...] Read more.

This paper presents an empirical investigation into the effects of energy transition and digitization on carbon dioxide emissions, serving as a proxy for environmental sustainability, across 28 Chinese provinces from 2000 to 2021. Utilizing both static and dynamic regression analyses, the study reveals a significant driving effect of the energy transition on environmental sustainability, primarily through a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. Notably, this influence is more pronounced in the eastern region of China, followed by the central and western regions, indicating regional heterogeneity in the impact of the energy transition. Furthermore, digitization is found to have a substantial moderating effect, enhancing energy conservation and emission reductions. As digitization progresses, its capability to diminish the impact of energy transitions on carbon dioxide emissions becomes more apparent, particularly in the eastern region, while this effect is less marked in central and western China. The study also delves into the nonlinear relationship between energy transitions and carbon dioxide emissions, discovering that increased levels of digitization can exacerbate the negative effects of energy transitions on emissions. These findings offer valuable insights into the dynamics of energy transition and digitalization, highlighting their crucial roles in shaping environmental sustainability in China. Full article

2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021, 2020

16 pages, 1694 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Real-Emitted Particulate Matter and PM-Bound Chemicals from Residential and Automotive Sources: A Case Study in Poland

by Katarzyna Szramowiat-Sala, Katarzyna Styszko, Lucyna Samek, Magdalena Kistler, Mariusz Macherzyński, Jiří Ryšavý, Kamil Krpec, Jiří Horák, Anne Kasper-Giebl and Janusz Gołaś

Energies 2023, 16(18), 6514; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186514 - 9 Sep 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1110

Abstract

The awareness of environmental pollution has been continuously growing in recent decades and is currently reaching its maximum. Europe and most developed countries are determined to ensure safe breathing air for their citizens, and the measures to do so are stricter than ever [...] Read more.

The awareness of environmental pollution has been continuously growing in recent decades and is currently reaching its maximum. Europe and most developed countries are determined to ensure safe breathing air for their citizens, and the measures to do so are stricter than ever before. Combustion procedures remain the primary means of producing energy and warmth in Poland. Among the notable constituents of flue gases produced as a result of fuel combustion, solid particles (or particulate matter) hold significant prominence. The paper presents the chemical characterisation of particulate matter emitted from stationary and automotive emission sources. Stationary emission sources included the combustion process of fossil fuels (soft wood, bituminous coal, ecopea coal, culm) in domestic heating units and the process of combustion of bituminous coal in a power plant. Automotive emission sources included light duty and medium duty vehicles fuelled by diesel. Exhaust toxicity tests were carried out maintaining the real conditions of PM emission. In all field measurements particulate matter was gravimetrically measured and collected on quartz or glass fibre filters. Subsequently, the content of carbonaceous fraction, inorganic ions, and metals and metalloids was analyzed using different analytical techniques. The chemical composition of the particulate matter differed depending on the emission source. With respect to stationary combustion sources, the main factors determining solid particle emission are related primarily to the fuel quality. The duty of vehicles was also a factor that influenced the chemical characterisation of the particulate matter emitted from the engines. Full article

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18 pages, 821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Environmental Policy Mix on Carbon Emission Reduction and Social Welfare: Scenario Simulation Based on Private Vehicle Trajectory Big Data

by Wenjie Chen, Xiaogang Wu and Zhu Xiao

Energies 2023, 16(15), 5839; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155839 - 7 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1185

Abstract

Analyzing and investigating the impact of implementing an environmental policy mix on carbon emission from private cars and social welfare holds significant reference value. Firstly, based on vehicle trajectory big data, this paper employs reverse geocoding and artificial neural network models to predict [...] Read more.

Analyzing and investigating the impact of implementing an environmental policy mix on carbon emission from private cars and social welfare holds significant reference value. Firstly, based on vehicle trajectory big data, this paper employs reverse geocoding and artificial neural network models to predict carbon emissions from private cars in various provinces and cities in China. Secondly, by simulating different scenarios of carbon tax, carbon trading, and their policy mix, the propensity score matching model is constructed to explore the effects of the policy mix on carbon emission reduction from private cars and social welfare while conducting regional heterogeneity analysis. Finally, policy proposals are proposed to promote carbon emission reduction from private cars and enhance social welfare in China. The results indicate that the environmental policy mix has a significant positive impact on carbon emission reduction from private cars and social welfare. Furthermore, in the regional heterogeneity analysis, the implementation of the policy mix in eastern regions has a significant positive effect on both carbon emission reduction from private cars and social welfare, while in central and western regions, it shows a significant positive impact on social welfare but has no significant effect on carbon emission reduction in the private car sector. Full article

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30 pages, 6750 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Addressing Multidimensional Energy Poverty Implications on Achieving Sustainable Development

by George E. Halkos and Panagiotis-Stavros C. Aslanidis

Energies 2023, 16(9), 3805; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093805 - 28 Apr 2023

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3837

Abstract

This study examines whether shifts in the stance of policymaking can account for the observed predictability in excess energy poverty (EP) or fuel poverty (FP) levels. Energy-related poverty is a subcategory of global poverty and can be categorized into accessibility problems related to [...] Read more.

This study examines whether shifts in the stance of policymaking can account for the observed predictability in excess energy poverty (EP) or fuel poverty (FP) levels. Energy-related poverty is a subcategory of global poverty and can be categorized into accessibility problems related to EP and affordability issues associated with FP, which have a similar but not identical meaning. Furthermore, developed and developing countries have different energy issues, as the former deal with FP and the latter with EP. However, there are discrepancies in EP not only between countries but within counties as well; for instance, there are differences in urban and rural areas too. Difficulties in energy access can be devastating for people living at risk of poverty. Social welfare, although at stake due to the energy crisis sparked at the same time as the warfare in eastern Europe. Renewables and green fossil fuels have price fluctuations, and inflation is also a stress factor in EP. Generally, solutions to EP and FP could be, inter alia, the adoption of renewables, governmental regulation, and supranational support through the green deals and sustainable development goals (SDGs). In short, the inflationary trend disequilibrium and raging war have put Agenda 2030 at stake due to the provocation of sustainability via energy-related vulnerability, insecurity, and poverty phenomena. Full article

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26 pages, 1423 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Behaviors of Prosumers in Example of Polish Households

by Bożena Gajdzik, Magdalena Jaciow, Radosław Wolniak, Robert Wolny and Wieslaw Wes Grebski

Energies 2023, 16(7), 3186; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073186 - 31 Mar 2023

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3338

Abstract

This paper explores ways to save energy in households with energy prosumers who generate energy using photovoltaic panels and heat pumps. On the basis of a literature analysis, we formulated a research gap in the case of the energy behaviors of prosumers. This [...] Read more.

This paper explores ways to save energy in households with energy prosumers who generate energy using photovoltaic panels and heat pumps. On the basis of a literature analysis, we formulated a research gap in the case of the energy behaviors of prosumers. This research is important due to the growing demand for energy and the transitions of countries toward renewable energy sources. The role of prosumers in the economy is growing as they ensure energy independence and cost savings. The main purpose of this research is to understand the energy behaviors of prosumers and to examine the differences in energy behaviors between users of photovoltaic systems and heat pumps. A sample of 326 Polish prosumer households was selected using the CAWI method in order to obtain empirical data. The results suggest that prosumers show advanced ecological behaviors, and more than half of the respondents implement pro-ecological behaviors in their homes. Being a prosumer is associated with energy independence, which leads to economic stability and less dependence on traditional energy sources. The results indicate that prosumers show a general inclination toward pro-ecological behavior. Thus, this study recommends promoting prosumers and encouraging the use of pro-ecological energy as a priority for the economy. This initiative will contribute to a reduction in energy consumption in various areas, thus raising ecological awareness and a sense of responsibility for the environment. Full article

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18 pages, 668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Environmental Regulations, Renewable Energy, and Energy Efficiency in Finding the Path to Green Economic Growth

by Henryk Dzwigol, Aleksy Kwilinski, Oleksii Lyulyov and Tetyana Pimonenko

Energies 2023, 16(7), 3090; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073090 - 28 Mar 2023

Cited by 69 | Viewed by 4677

Abstract

European Union (EU) countries pay meticulous attention to environmental issues and achieve carbon-free development. In this direction, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and extending renewable energy are the primary goals. At the same time, the energy price and declining energy efficiency increase countries’ environmental [...] Read more.

European Union (EU) countries pay meticulous attention to environmental issues and achieve carbon-free development. In this direction, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and extending renewable energy are the primary goals. At the same time, the energy price and declining energy efficiency increase countries’ environmental expenditures and hinder their capabilities for economic growth. Against this backdrop, this research aims to examine the influence of environmental regulations, renewable energy, and energy efficiency on green economic growth. The originality of the study is twofold: first, it evaluates the green economic growth of a country, which simultaneously reveals the options for economic growth and the capability to eliminate its negative effect on the environment by applying the Global Malmquist–Luenberger productivity index; second, it develops an econometric model based on panel data for EU countries for 2000–2020 to investigate the nonlinear impact of environmental regulations, the effect of extending renewable energies, and the growth of energy efficiency on a country’s green economic growth. The study applies the following methodology: a system generalized method of moments (GMM) analysis. The empirical results confirm the U-shape, nonlinear impact of environmental regulations on a country’s green economic growth along with a gradual increase in energy efficiency. In addition, the findings indicate that renewable energy is crucial for furthering a country’s green economic growth. At the same time, environmental regulation has a significant role in extending renewable energy. The study results could be used as the basis for implementing green economic growth for EU countries and improving the policy of carbon-free development of these countries. Full article

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22 pages, 3296 KiB

Open AccessReview

Pricing and Simulating Energy Transactions in Energy Communities

by João Mello, Cristina de Lorenzo, Fco. Alberto Campos and José Villar

Energies 2023, 16(4), 1949; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041949 - 15 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2622

Abstract

Extensive literature is available for modeling and simulating local electricity markets, often called P2P electricity markets, and for pricing local energy transactions in energy communities. Market models and pricing mechanisms provide simulation tools to better understand how these new markets behave, helping to [...] Read more.

Extensive literature is available for modeling and simulating local electricity markets, often called P2P electricity markets, and for pricing local energy transactions in energy communities. Market models and pricing mechanisms provide simulation tools to better understand how these new markets behave, helping to design their main rules for real applications, and assessing the financial compensations of the internal energy transactions. As such, pricing mechanisms are often needed in energy management systems when centralized management approaches are preferred to market-based ones. First, this paper highlights the links between local electricity markets, pricing mechanisms for local electricity transactions, and other approaches to sharing the collective benefits of participating in transactive energy communities. Then, a standard nomenclature is defined to review some of the main pricing mechanisms for local energy transactions, an innovative pricing mechanism based on the economic principles of a post-delivery pool market is proposed, and other relevant approaches for local electricity market simulation such as Nash equilibrium or agent-based simulation are also revisited. The revision was based on systematic searches in common research databases and on the authors’ experience in European and national projects, including local industrial applications for the past five years. A qualitative assessment of the reviewed methods is also provided, and the research challenges are highlighted. This review is intended to serve as a practical guide to pricing mechanisms and market simulation procedures for practical designs of internal financial compensation to share the collective benefits of energy communities. Full article

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23 pages, 3611 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strategies of Energy Suppliers and Consumer Awareness in Green Energy Optics

by Aleksandra Sus, Rafał Trzaska, Maciej Wilczyński and Joanna Hołub-Iwan

Energies 2023, 16(4), 1613; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041613 - 6 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2222

Abstract

This research aims to identify (1) whether consumers have an impact on the energy sector, (2) to what extent consumers have an impact on the energy sector, and (3) whether there is so-called energy communism. We understand this phenomenon as the process of [...] Read more.

This research aims to identify (1) whether consumers have an impact on the energy sector, (2) to what extent consumers have an impact on the energy sector, and (3) whether there is so-called energy communism. We understand this phenomenon as the process of energy suppliers imposing energy sources on which the end consumer has zero or very little influence. The research, therefore, focused on a B2C analysis, in five selected countries: the USA, Canada, Australia, the UK, and Poland (N = 500). The research subjects are a homogeneous group in terms of the sources of green energy, and the volume of production of this type of energy and its increments. The investigation was conducted using the procedure appropriate for the triangulation of research methods. Three hypotheses were verified. The first one was rejected, which aimed to determine whether individual consumers are guided by green energy in their choices. The second hypothesis—that energy suppliers do not take into account customer needs/expectations and pursue their strategies—was partially confirmed but was also directed for further exploration. The third hypothesis was whether the consumer is free to make the decision to switch energy suppliers—if so, what is the hierarchy of the most and least decisive factors in the choice of supplier? The verification of this hypothesis indicates that there is no specific pattern that consumers follow when choosing an energy supplier. Full article

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24 pages, 13093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Three-Stage Model to Manage Energy Communities, Share Benefits and Provide Local Grid Services

by Rogério Rocha, Ricardo Silva, João Mello, Sérgio Faria, Fábio Retorta, Clara Gouveia and José Villar

Energies 2023, 16(3), 1143; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031143 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2779

Abstract

This paper proposes a three-stage model for managing energy communities for local energy sharing and providing grid flexibility services to tackle local distribution grid constraints. The first stage addresses the minimization of each prosumer’s individual energy bill by optimizing the schedules of their [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a three-stage model for managing energy communities for local energy sharing and providing grid flexibility services to tackle local distribution grid constraints. The first stage addresses the minimization of each prosumer’s individual energy bill by optimizing the schedules of their flexible resources. The second stage optimizes the energy bill of the whole energy community by sharing the prosumers’ energy surplus internally and re-dispatching their batteries, while guaranteeing that each prosumer’s new energy bill is always be equal to or less than the bill that results for this prosumer from stage one. This collective optimization is designed to ensure an additional collective benefit, without loss for any community member. The third stage, which can be performed by the distribution system operator (DSO), aims to solve the local grid constraints by re-dispatching the flexible resources and, if still necessary, by curtailing local generation or consumption. Stage three minimizes the impact on the schedule obtained at previous stages by minimizing the loss of profit or utility for all prosumers, which are furthermore financially compensated accordingly. This paper describes how the settlement should be performed, including the allocation coefficients to be sent to the DSO to determine the self-consumed and supplied energies of each peer. Finally, some case studies allow an assessment of the performance of the proposed methodology. Results show, among other things, the potential benefits of allowing the allocation coefficients to take negative values to increase the retail market competition; the importance of stage one or, alternatively, the need for a fair internal price to avoid unfair collective benefit sharing among the community members; or how stage three can effectively contribute to grid constraint solving, profiting first from the existing flexible resources. Full article

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2022

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2021, 2020

18 pages, 3202 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Photovoltaic Production Management in a Hall of Residence with High Energy Consumption

by Ivo Araújo, Leonel J. R. Nunes, David Patíño Vilas and António Curado

Energies 2022, 15(22), 8412; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228412 - 10 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1838

Abstract

A hall of residence with low energy performance was subjected to an extensive retrofitting program due to its high energy consumption, to enhance the building’s energy efficiency and reduce its energy costs and greenhouse gas emissions. The retrofitting program included the integration of [...] Read more.

A hall of residence with low energy performance was subjected to an extensive retrofitting program due to its high energy consumption, to enhance the building’s energy efficiency and reduce its energy costs and greenhouse gas emissions. The retrofitting program included the integration of a solar photovoltaic (PV) system installed on the building’s flat roof, among other factors. Nevertheless, the electricity supply provided by the system during the daytime proved insufficient to cover the building’s energy demand. Based on this, a study was implemented to analyze the contribution of the electricity produced by the solar PV system throughout the year to reduce power consumption under distinct solar radiation conditions, and to define a strategy to optimize renewable energy use by drawing up a set of organizational measures to be implemented to manage the PV solar system energy strategically. The strategic measures are mainly related to selecting the residence tasks with higher energy consumption to fit into higher PV energy production periods. Additionally, it is fundamental to raise the residence’s occupants’ education and awareness of energy efficiency, optimize the excess PV energy produced in specific periods by converting it into other energy forms, and install complementary storage systems for surplus production. Full article

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18 pages, 2649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Waste Incineration and Heavy Metal Emission—Laboratory Tests

by Danuta Król, Przemysław Motyl and Sławomir Poskrobko

Energies 2022, 15(21), 8130; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218130 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2075

Abstract

The main sources of environmental pollution with heavy (ecotoxic) metals include industry, including utility and municipal power engineering, but also waste incineration plants. Fuel shortages and their constantly growing prices raise concerns that energy will be commonly obtained from waste outside of installations [...] Read more.

The main sources of environmental pollution with heavy (ecotoxic) metals include industry, including utility and municipal power engineering, but also waste incineration plants. Fuel shortages and their constantly growing prices raise concerns that energy will be commonly obtained from waste outside of installations intended for this purpose (i.e., outside waste incineration plants). The greatest concern stems from the risk of burning waste in low-power boilers—domestic boilers. Waste incineration plants and utility power plants are equipped with flue gas cleaning installations (FGD), but low-power boilers are not. The exhaust gases are directly introduced into the atmosphere, which results in the introduction into the air of, inter alia, toxic heavy metals. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct activities aimed at retaining ecotoxic metals in the solid–slag residue. The paper presents the results of laboratory tests of the emission capacity of Cd, Cu, Zn bound in various chemical forms—nitrates (V), chlorides and sulphates (VI). The tests were carried out at 1073 K, 1173 K and 1273 K. It was found that the emissivity of metals increased with increasing temperature. This is innovative as there are no reports of experiments with pure forms of metal salts. The advantage of this type of research is the lack of influence from other factors, apart from temperature, on metal emissions. To check the possibility of reducing metal emissions, additives (bauxite, dolomite, V₂O₅) immobilized in a solid residue were tested. The mechanism of action of each of the additives to limit the mobility of metals was different. The use of V₂O₅ for this purpose is new. The additives kept the metals solid in the residue, but their effect was different for each of the metals. The effectiveness of the tested additives was checked in the same temperature conditions, burning waste such as: rubber, sewage sludge and SRF fuel from waste. The effect of the additives depended on the type of waste, type of metal and the furnace temperature. If the additive effectively retained metals, then their amounts in the ashes were higher by several to several dozen percent in relation to the amount in the ashes remaining after waste incineration without additives. The results of the experiment with waste are open to research on the influence of other factors (except temperature) on the emissivity of Cd, Cu, Zn and the possibility of its reduction. The next step will be to verify the effects of laboratory tests in real conditions. Full article

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21 pages, 3897 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Model to Determine the Best Modifications of Products with Consideration Customers’ Expectations

by Grzegorz Ostasz, Dominika Siwiec and Andrzej Pacana

Energies 2022, 15(21), 8102; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218102 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 1385

Abstract

The current situation in the energy market contributes not only to the sales growth of photovoltaic panels (PV) but also to the intense search for possibilities for its improvement. The purpose of this research was to develop a model to determine, where possible, [...] Read more.

The current situation in the energy market contributes not only to the sales growth of photovoltaic panels (PV) but also to the intense search for possibilities for its improvement. The purpose of this research was to develop a model to determine, where possible, the most beneficial modifications to improve products. The model used combination techniques, i.e., the SMARTER method, brainstorming (BM), the 7 ± 2 rule, questionnaire, ant colony optimization (ACO), and importance-performance analysis (IPA). In addition, an algorithm supporting ACO was proposed in the MATLAB program. The test was carried out on PV and showed that it is possible to determine the way of product (PV) improvement by determining a sequence of modifications for product criteria states while simultaneously considering customers’ expectations. It was shown that each state of the short-circuit electricity and peak power was satisfactory for customers. It was necessary to modify the maximum current and idle voltage. In addition, the selected modification states of the weight and dimensions will be more satisfactory compared to the current states. The proposed model is based on searching for the best changes in product criteria to achieve the highest possible customer satisfaction (i.e., product quality level). Originality is the ability to define a product improvement method (PV) depending on customer expectations but also taking into account the requirements of the company. Full article

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34 pages, 1570 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Understanding Urban Heat Vulnerability Assessment Methods: A PRISMA Review

by Fei Li, Tan Yigitcanlar, Madhav Nepal, Kien Nguyen Thanh and Fatih Dur

Energies 2022, 15(19), 6998; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15196998 - 23 Sep 2022

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5142

Abstract

Increasingly people, especially those residing in urban areas with the urban heat island effect, are getting exposed to extreme heat due to ongoing global warming. A number of methods have been developed, so far, to assess urban heat vulnerability in different locations across [...] Read more.

Increasingly people, especially those residing in urban areas with the urban heat island effect, are getting exposed to extreme heat due to ongoing global warming. A number of methods have been developed, so far, to assess urban heat vulnerability in different locations across the world concentrating on diverse aspects of these methods. While there is growing literature, thorough review studies that compare, contrast, and help understand the prospects and constraints of urban heat vulnerability assessment methods are scarce. This paper aims to bridge this gap in the literature. A systematic literature review with the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) approach is utilized as the methodological approach. PRISMA is an evidence-based minimum set of items for reporting in systematic reviews and meta-analyses. The results are analyzed in three aspects—i.e., indicators and data, modelling approaches, and validation approaches. The main findings disclose that: (a) Three types of indicators are commonly used—i.e., demographic properties and socioeconomic status, health conditions and medical resources, and natural and built environmental factors; (b) Heat vulnerability indexing models, equal weighting method, and principal component analysis are commonly used in modelling and weighting approaches; (c) Statistical regressions and correlation coefficients between heat vulnerability results and adverse health outcomes are commonly used in validation approaches, but the performance varies across studies. This study informs urban policy and generates directions for prospective research and more accurate vulnerability assessment method development. Full article

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14 pages, 2384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Herbicide Decomposition Efficiency by Means of Detonative Combustion

by Jolanta Biegańska and Krzysztof Barański

Energies 2022, 15(19), 6980; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15196980 - 23 Sep 2022

Viewed by 1233

Abstract

The decomposition of seven herbicides (atrazine, linuron, lenacil, chloridazon, dinoseb acetate, prometryn, and diuron) was carried out by detonative combustion. The investigated blasting material was produced on the basis of porous ammonium nitrate, which served as an oxidizer, while the pesticides played the [...] Read more.

The decomposition of seven herbicides (atrazine, linuron, lenacil, chloridazon, dinoseb acetate, prometryn, and diuron) was carried out by detonative combustion. The investigated blasting material was produced on the basis of porous ammonium nitrate, which served as an oxidizer, while the pesticides played the role of the fuel. Detonative decomposition of the mixtures was carried out in blast-holes in soil. The efficiency of the decomposition process was assessed using the techniques of gas chromatography, high-efficiency liquid chromatography, and additionally by biological tests according to the grading of the European Weed Research Council. The results demonstrate an efficient decomposition of the tested herbicides. In the tested soil samples taken after the detonation decomposition of the herbicide, no symptoms of phytotoxic effects on the plants were found. This was confirmed by the lack (or at most negligible amounts) of residual herbicides in the soil samples. Only for the samples of chloradizine and diuron were large amounts of residual biologically active substance found. Full article

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22 pages, 3248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Assessment of the Life Cycle of Electricity Generation from Biogas in Polish Conditions

by Izabela Samson-Bręk, Marlena Owczuk, Anna Matuszewska and Krzysztof Biernat

Energies 2022, 15(15), 5601; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15155601 - 2 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1996

Abstract

Life cycle analysis allows for the assessment of the qualitative and quantitative relationship between selected areas of human activity and the consequences for the environment. One of the important areas is the production of electricity and heat, for which the main raw material [...] Read more.

Life cycle analysis allows for the assessment of the qualitative and quantitative relationship between selected areas of human activity and the consequences for the environment. One of the important areas is the production of electricity and heat, for which the main raw material in Poland is hard coal. An alternative may be to use biogas as a fuel for energy purposes. This article presents the assessment of environmental hazards caused by the production of energy from biogas. The analysis took into account the change of the substrate from maize silage, commonly used in Polish biogas plants, to waste from the domestic agri-food industry. The evaluation covered the acquisition of substrates, their transport to a biogas plant, generation of electricity from biogas, and management of the generated by-products. The analysis was done in terms of both the impact and sensitivity categories. It was found that the emission of pollutants related to the acquisition of the substrate plays a key role and the use of waste for the production of biogas used for energy production brings environmental benefits. The analysis has shown that replacing coal with biogas, regardless of the raw materials used in its production, results in a positive environmental effect, especially in the areas of human health and resources categories. The positive environmental effect of the production of electricity from biogas can be enhanced by switching raw materials from purpose-grown crops to waste from the agri-food industry and agriculture. An important factor influencing the environmental impact is the degree of heat utilization (the greater the percentage of heat utilization, the greater the environmental benefits) and management of all by-products. Full article

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20 pages, 2136 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Life Cycle Assessment Model of a Catering Product: Comparing Environmental Impacts for Different End-of-Life Scenarios

by Judit Lovasné Avató and Viktoria Mannheim

Energies 2022, 15(15), 5423; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15155423 - 27 Jul 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4762

Abstract

This paper assesses the primary energy and environmental impacts of a restaurant main course product’s lifecycle, especially focusing on end-of-life (EoL) stage. In the first step, a cradle-to-grave complex life cycle assessment (LCA) model of the product has been set up from the [...] Read more.

This paper assesses the primary energy and environmental impacts of a restaurant main course product’s lifecycle, especially focusing on end-of-life (EoL) stage. In the first step, a cradle-to-grave complex life cycle assessment (LCA) model of the product has been set up from the extraction of the required raw materials through the preparation, cooking and use phase to the end-of-life. In the second step, three scenarios (landfilling, incineration, and composting) were compared for the generated food waste in the end-of-life stage given that one of the biggest challenges in waste management is the optimal management of food waste. We calculated eleven environmental impact categories for the examined food product with the help of GaBi 9.0 software. During our research work, the primary energy was examined in each phase. In the third step, a comparison between the traditional and “sous vide” cooking technologies has been created to optimise of the cooking/frying life cycle phase. This paper basically answers three main questions: (1) How can the main environmental impacts and primary energy throughout the whole life cycle of the examined product be characterised? (2) What methods can optimise the different life cycle stages while reducing and recycling energy and material streams? and (3) what is the most optimal waste management scenario at the end-of-life stage? Based on the analysis, the highest environmental impact comes from the preparation phase and the end-of-life scenario for the traditional incineration caused almost twice the environmental load as the landfilling of the food waste. Composting has the lowest environmental impact, and the value of the primary energy for composting is very low. The sous vide cooking technique is advantageous, and the continuously controlled conditions result in a more reliable process. These research results can be used to design sustainable cooking and catering with lower environmental impacts and energy resources in catering units. Full article

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19 pages, 1823 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Technological and Energetic Aspects of Multi-Component Co-Digestion of the Beverage Industry Wastes and Municipal Sewage Sludge

by Aleksandra Szaja, Agnieszka Montusiewicz, Sylwia Pasieczna-Patkowska and Magdalena Lebiocka

Energies 2022, 15(15), 5395; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15155395 - 26 Jul 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1468

Abstract

In the present study, the co-digestion effectiveness of the selected beverage wastes and municipal sewage sludge in two- and three-component mixtures was evaluated. Orange peels and orange pulp, as well as brewery spent grain were applied as co-substrates to sewage sludge at the [...] Read more.

In the present study, the co-digestion effectiveness of the selected beverage wastes and municipal sewage sludge in two- and three-component mixtures was evaluated. Orange peels and orange pulp, as well as brewery spent grain were applied as co-substrates to sewage sludge at the following doses: 1.5 and 3.0 g of orange peels, 2.5 and 5 g of orange pulp, and 1.5 g brewery spent grain. Mono-digestion of sewage sludge was used as a control. The experiments were performed under mesophilic conditions in batch reactors. As compared to the control, only in the presence of the highest dose of pulp, brewery spent grain and sewage sludge was the increased methane production of 395 mL CH₄ g⁻¹ VS accompanying an additional energy profit of 82% observed. Moreover, in this case, the enhanced volatile solids removal and lower accumulation of p-cymene were found. These results were despite the increased limonene and phenol content in the feedstock, confirming a synergistic effect at the highest dose of pulp, brewery spent grain and sewage sludge. Full article

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21 pages, 1094 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unfolding FDI, Renewable Energy Consumption, and Income Inequality Nexus: Heterogeneous Panel Analysis

by Sakib Bin Amin, Yaron Nezleen Amin, Mahatab Kabir Khandaker, Farhan Khan and Faria Manal Rahman

Energies 2022, 15(14), 5160; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15145160 - 16 Jul 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2539

Abstract

We aim to examine the nexus between Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Renewable Energy Consumption (REC), and income inequality across selected High-Income Countries (HIC), Upper Middle-Income Countries (UMIC), Lower Middle-Income Countries (LMIC), and Low-Income Countries (LIC). Given the cross-sectional dependency, slope homogeneity, and stationarity [...] Read more.

We aim to examine the nexus between Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Renewable Energy Consumption (REC), and income inequality across selected High-Income Countries (HIC), Upper Middle-Income Countries (UMIC), Lower Middle-Income Countries (LMIC), and Low-Income Countries (LIC). Given the cross-sectional dependency, slope homogeneity, and stationarity properties, we find that the aforementioned variables across all the regions are cointegrated in the long run (LR). For LR estimation, we use the Cross-Sectional-Autoregressive Distributed Lag (CS-ARDL) approach. For the HIC and the UMIC, an increase in FDI increases REC, which in turn causes income inequality to decrease. In the case of LMIC, an increase in REC causes an increase in FDI and decreases income inequality. However, we could not establish a significant relationship with the LIC. We also provide some useful recommendations, such as increased institutional efficiency and promotion of renewable energy investments through higher access to finance. Full article

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24 pages, 1675 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Assessing Lifestyle Transformations and Their Systemic Effects in Energy-System and Integrated Assessment Models: A Review of Current Methods and Data

by Andreas Andreou, Panagiotis Fragkos, Theofano Fotiou and Faidra Filippidou

Energies 2022, 15(14), 4948; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15144948 - 6 Jul 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3297

Abstract

Achieving the ambitious climate targets required to limit global warming to 1.5 °C requires a deep transformation of the supply-and-demand side of energy–environmental–economic systems. Recent articles have shown that environmentally sustainable consumer behaviors driven by lifestyle changes can significantly contribute to climate-change mitigation [...] Read more.

Achieving the ambitious climate targets required to limit global warming to 1.5 °C requires a deep transformation of the supply-and-demand side of energy–environmental–economic systems. Recent articles have shown that environmentally sustainable consumer behaviors driven by lifestyle changes can significantly contribute to climate-change mitigation and sustainable development goals. However, lifestyle changes are not adequately captured by scenarios developed with integrated assessment and energy-system models (IAMs/ESMs), which provide limited policy insights. This article conducts a systematic review of the IAM and ESM literature to identify the most important lifestyle changes in current mitigation pathways for the residential and transport sectors, review the employed state-of-the-art modeling approaches and scenario assumptions, and propose improvements to existing methodological frameworks. The review finds that mode shifts towards public transport and active transport modes, shared mobility, and eco-driving have the greatest impact in the transport sector, while actions that reduce space and water-heating requirements and the circular economy are the most effective practices in households. Common modeling approaches lack sophistication as they omit (1) the dynamics and costs of demand-side transitions, (2) the heterogenous responses of different consumer groups, and (3) the structural effects of lifestyles on the macro-economy. New approaches employing innovative methodologies combined with big data collected from users offer new avenues to overcome these challenges and improve the modeling of lifestyle changes in large-scale models. Full article

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17 pages, 5297 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Computation and Analysis of an Offshore Wind Power Forecast: Towards a Better Assessment of Offshore Wind Power Plant Aerodynamics

by Yongnian Zhao, Yu Xue, Shanhong Gao, Jundong Wang, Qingcai Cao, Tao Sun and Yan Liu

Energies 2022, 15(12), 4223; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15124223 - 8 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1977

Abstract

For the first time, the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model with the Wind Farm Parameterization (WFP) modeling method is utilized for a short-range wind power forecast simulation of 48 h of an offshore wind farm with 100 turbines located on the east [...] Read more.

For the first time, the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model with the Wind Farm Parameterization (WFP) modeling method is utilized for a short-range wind power forecast simulation of 48 h of an offshore wind farm with 100 turbines located on the east coast of the China Yellow Sea. The effects of the horizontal multi-grid downsize method were deployed and investigated on this simulation computation. The simulation was validated with the field data from the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system, and the results showed that the horizontal mesh downsize method improved the accuracy of wind speed and then wind power forecast. Meanwhile, the wind power plant aerodynamics with turbine wake and sea–land shore effects were investigated, where the wake effects from the wind farm prolonged several miles downstream, evaluated at two wind speeds of 7 m/s and 10 m/s instances captured from the 48 h of simulation. At the same time, it was interesting to find some sea–land atmospheric effects with wind speed oscillation, especially at the higher wind speed condition. Finally, the research results show that the WRF + WFP model for the wind power forecast for production operation may not be ready at this stage; however, they show that the methodology helps to evaluate the wind power plant aerodynamics with wake effects and micrometeorology of the sea–land interconnection region. This plant aerodynamics study set the stage for a wake turbine interaction study in the future, such as one utilizing the NREL FAST.FARM tool. Full article

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20 pages, 961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact and Potential of Sustainable Development Goals in Dimension of the Technological Revolution Industry 4.0 within the Analysis of Industrial Enterprises

by Patrik Richnák and Helena Fidlerová

Energies 2022, 15(10), 3697; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15103697 - 18 May 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3270

Abstract

Sustainable technologies, including clean energy in manufacturing and green and reverse logistics, generate conditions for industry development and future growth with the implementation of Industry 4.0 technologies and innovations in the context of sustainable development goals (SDGs). The objective of the article is [...] Read more.

Sustainable technologies, including clean energy in manufacturing and green and reverse logistics, generate conditions for industry development and future growth with the implementation of Industry 4.0 technologies and innovations in the context of sustainable development goals (SDGs). The objective of the article is to identify and analyse the potential of sustainable technologies in synergy with Industry 4.0 innovations and renewable energy initiatives in manufacturing and logistics in the context of SDGs. Qualitative analysis was performed on 105 enterprises of various business sizes, in several regions of Slovakia, within various industry sectors, and within geographical coverage. Based on the summarised results, we can state that more than 82% of surveyed enterprises implement the SDGs. Currently, more than 70% of enterprises prefer environmental aspects in business management. Based on the results, we find a significant relationship between the environmental management of the enterprise in the context of SDGs and sustainability in production and logistics. Statistical analysis confirmed the relationship between the use of renewable energy technology in the industrial sector. A significant relationship was also demonstrated between sustainability in logistics activities in the industrial sector in waste separation and recycling; environmental certification; environmental training of employees; the use of renewable energy sources and the continuous reduction of CO₂ in all logistics activities. The results of the study indicate a significant relationship between green manufacturing, green logistics, reverse logistics and selected Industry 4.0 technologies: autonomous robots, renewable energy, advanced materials, virtual technologies, and simulation. We conclude the significant influence of environmental management on business production and logistics. Full article

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24 pages, 3499 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrological and Environmental Conditions and Implications of the Operation of a Thermal Power Plant with an Open Cooling System—An Example from Poland

by Tomasz Walczykiewicz and Mateusz Żelazny

Energies 2022, 15(10), 3600; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15103600 - 14 May 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1909

Abstract

In Poland, coal-based thermal energy for cooling power plant installations uses a large amount of surface water. Historically, there have been cases of limitations in electricity supply due to low water levels and high temperature of water in rivers. Moreover, environmental requirements limit [...] Read more.

In Poland, coal-based thermal energy for cooling power plant installations uses a large amount of surface water. Historically, there have been cases of limitations in electricity supply due to low water levels and high temperature of water in rivers. Moreover, environmental requirements limit the possibility of using water resources for cooling purposes, pointing to the necessity to leave inviolable flows in rivers. This raises questions about the future of the operation of thermal power plants with open cooling systems and hence the research undertaken by the authors. The research consisted of a questionnaire survey, hydrological analyses, the impact assessment of climate change on the operation of power plants, and a discussion of technical solutions for water abstraction and power loss analysis in a particular power plant. The results indicate that there are power plants that are more sensitive to hydrological and environmental conditions and the temperature of the water required for cooling. In one case, keeping a power plant in operation requires the maintenance of periodic artificial damming of water. The conclusions from the research indicate that in Poland, regardless of the source of thermal energy, it is necessary to implement only closed cooling circuits. Full article

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22 pages, 2133 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Local Government in Implementing Renewable Energy Sources in Households (Podkarpacie Case Study)

by Ryszard Kata, Kazimierz Cyran, Sławomir Dybka, Małgorzata Lechwar and Rafał Pitera

Energies 2022, 15(9), 3163; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093163 - 26 Apr 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3079

Abstract

The implementation of renewable energy in households can contribute to achieving climate goals, improving air quality and improving energy security. At the local level, this goal may be supported by local authorities, but in Poland, as in many countries, the use of renewable [...] Read more.

The implementation of renewable energy in households can contribute to achieving climate goals, improving air quality and improving energy security. At the local level, this goal may be supported by local authorities, but in Poland, as in many countries, the use of renewable energy is not a mandatory task of local government units. The aim of this study is to analyze the role of local government, i.e., municipalities, in the adaptation of RES installations in residents’ households. The source of empirical materials was a survey of households using renewable energy installations, carried out in 2021 in the Podkarpacie region in Southeastern Poland. It has been shown that the inhabitants benefit from the support of municipalities in financing the installations, as well as information and consulting support. Municipalities support renewable energy in the “civic” segment mainly through the implementation of the so-called umbrella projects. They have a positive effect on the adaptation of RES not only in the households of the project participants, but through the imitation effect, also in other households in the immediate vicinity. The municipality effectiveness in this type of activities depends on the efficiency of project implementation and the quality of information on the conditions of participation in the project and the benefits of renewable energy. Full article

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12 pages, 1492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emission and Performance Evaluation of a Diesel Engine Using Addition of Ethanol to Diesel/Biodiesel Fuel Blend

by Emmanuelle Soares de Carvalho Freitas, Lílian Lefol Nani Guarieiro, Marcus Vinícius Ivo da Silva, Keize Katiane dos Santos Amparo, Bruna Aparecida Souza Machado, Egidio Teixeira de Almeida Guerreiro, José Fernando Carneiro de Jesus and Ednildo Andrade Torres

Energies 2022, 15(9), 2988; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15092988 - 19 Apr 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3171

Abstract

Many countries have adopted the addition of biodiesel to diesel as a way of inserting renewable content into mineral fuel and making a contribution to the environment. The addition of ethanol to the diesel/biodiesel blend to increase the renewable content of the added [...] Read more.

Many countries have adopted the addition of biodiesel to diesel as a way of inserting renewable content into mineral fuel and making a contribution to the environment. The addition of ethanol to the diesel/biodiesel blend to increase the renewable content of the added fuel blend and reduce the percentage of biodiesel could be a strategysince the demand for biodiesel production is high, and this fuel has a high production cost when compared to ethanol. Thus, this study evaluated the performance and the content of NO_x, CO and CO₂ exhaust gases from a diesel engine fueled with blends of diesel/biodiesel/ethanol: pure B7, B7E3 (B7 with 3% ethanol) and B7E10 (B7 with 10% ethanol). Emissions of fuel blends were evaluated using the engine speed variation and tested at a speed of 1500 rpm under constant load (185 Nm). Assays were performed at engine speeds of 1000, 1100, 1250, 1500 and 1750 rpm and with loads of 10, 25, 50, 75 and 100% of the maximum torque. Through the performance curves, the specific consumption and thermal efficiency were evaluated. The increase in speed and ethanol content in the diesel/biodiesel mixture increased approximately 5 to 7 and 1.4 times, respectively, in terms of the emission of exhaust gases. There was a 6% decrease in the maximum torque and power available at each speed with increasing ethanol content in the blend. However, in a vehicular application, this decrease would be perceived only at some points of the part-load regime, causing considerable reductions in thermal efficiency. Full article

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12 pages, 1969 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Optimization in a Paper Mill Enabled by a Three-Site Energy Cooperation

by Alexander Hedlund, Olof Björkqvist, Anders Nilsson and Per Engstrand

Energies 2022, 15(8), 2715; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15082715 - 7 Apr 2022

Viewed by 2878

Abstract

Although there are opportunities to reduce electrical energy demand in unit processes of mechanical pulp-based paper and paperboard production, this may not be financially beneficial. This is generally because energy optimization opportunities connected to reduced refiner electricity demand in mechanical pulping systems also [...] Read more.

Although there are opportunities to reduce electrical energy demand in unit processes of mechanical pulp-based paper and paperboard production, this may not be financially beneficial. This is generally because energy optimization opportunities connected to reduced refiner electricity demand in mechanical pulping systems also results in less steam available for the drying of the paper. As modern high consistency refiner systems produce approximately one ton of steam for each MWh of electricity when producing one ton of pulp, a reduction in electric energy demand leads to increased fuel demand in steam boilers to compensate for the steam shortage. In this study, we investigated what the financial and environmental situation would look like if we were to expand the system border from a paper mill to a larger system consisting of a mechanical pulp-based paper or paperboard mill, a district heating system with an incineration boiler and a chemical pulp mill. Mechanical pulp production has a wood to product yield of >90%, a high electric energy demand to separate woodchips to pulp and is a net producer of heat and steam while chemical pulp-based production has a wood to product yield of 50%, a low electric energy demand and is a net heat and electricity producer due to the combustion of dissolved wood polymers. The aim of this research is to create useful and robust models of how to use excess heat from certain industry sites to cover the steam shortage in other industry sites by means of utilizing and optimizing the district heating systems connecting these sites. For this purpose, we used a simulation tool which dynamically allows us to evaluate different scenarios. Our results shows that there is great potential to reduce both carbon dioxide emissions and production costs for industry sites and society by means of these tools. Full article

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17 pages, 423 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Voluntary Simplicity and Green Buying Behavior: An Extended Framework

by Elena Druică, Călin Vâlsan and Andreea-Ionela Puiu

Energies 2022, 15(5), 1889; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15051889 - 4 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2547

Abstract

Green consumption is usually understood in the context of green consumption values and receptivity to green communication. Voluntary simplicity, a related yet distinct construct that relies on ecological responsibility, has not been included in the same framework. This paper bridges this gap and [...] Read more.

Green consumption is usually understood in the context of green consumption values and receptivity to green communication. Voluntary simplicity, a related yet distinct construct that relies on ecological responsibility, has not been included in the same framework. This paper bridges this gap and extends the original model to consider green consumption and voluntary simplicity in a unified structure. Based on a study conducted in Romania, it was found that 70% of the variation in buying behavior is explained by a combination of direct and mediated influences. The main takeaway is that any serious attempt to encourage responsible buying has to rely on a reduction in the absolute level of consumer demand. This result has far-reaching implications because the current paradigm of economic growth and prosperity is tributary to consumerism. The question is not how to avoid curtailing consumption and substitute green products for those harming the environment, but rather how to make voluntary frugality palatable. Full article

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16 pages, 7400 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Profile of a Sustainable Manager from the Perspective of Pro-Ecological and Pro-Social Management of Energy Company

by Arnold Pabian and Barbara Pabian

Energies 2022, 15(4), 1363; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15041363 - 14 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1819

Abstract

The objective of the paper is to present an original (own) concept of a model profile of a sustainable manager from the sustainability perspective and then confront this model profile with the opinions of managers employed in energy companies. This problem domain has [...] Read more.

The objective of the paper is to present an original (own) concept of a model profile of a sustainable manager from the sustainability perspective and then confront this model profile with the opinions of managers employed in energy companies. This problem domain has not been reflected in the scientific literature. Sustainable managers are the ones who are fully prepared to implement the principles of sustainability in energy companies, respecting the principles of sustainable management. Their activity can, to a considerable extent, accelerate sustainable development. According to the model profile, a sustainable manager should be sensitive to ecological and social problems; be knowledgeable about sustainability and demand the same from subordinates; comply with ethical standards; implement pro-environmental and pro-social innovations; and also plan, organize, motivate, and control the contribution, in this way, to sustainable development. Research was conducted aimed at discovering the views/opinions of energy companies’ managers pertaining to the above-specified model profile of a sustainable manager. As the research demonstrates, managers assign various significance to the analyzed traits and actions. The largest number of managers recognized the following to be the most important for them: compliance with ethical standards (86.1%), planning and organizing in accordance with the principles of sustainable development (52.8%), and being knowledgeable about sustainable development (38.9%). The paper contributes to the trait theory of leadership and the theory of sustainable management. It is also of practical value—it can prove useful in the processes of educating, recruiting, and evaluating sustainable managers. Full article

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14 pages, 4313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flashover Voltage Prediction Models under Agricultural and Biological Contaminant Conditions on Insulators

by Shabana Khatoon, Asfar Ali Khan, Mohd Tariq, Basem Alamri and Lucian Mihet-Popa

Energies 2022, 15(4), 1297; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15041297 - 11 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2676

Abstract

The flashover performance of contaminated insulators highly depends on the type of pollutant and its present concentration. In this paper, important agricultural salts (NaCl, K₂SO₄, NaHCO₃, CaSO₄, KHCO₃, MgSO₄, NH₄ [...] Read more.

The flashover performance of contaminated insulators highly depends on the type of pollutant and its present concentration. In this paper, important agricultural salts (NaCl, K₂SO₄, NaHCO₃, CaSO₄, KHCO₃, MgSO₄, NH₄), 2Fe(SO₄)₂, and 6H₂O (ferrous ammonium sulphate, dust, and urea) at different concentrations, and biological contaminants, such as algae and fungi, were taken as pollutants, and the AC flashover behavior of a porcelain-cap-and-pin-type insulator polluted with these two different pollutants was investigated. The experiment was carried out by a semi-natural method, wherein the insulator was first polluted artificially; thereafter, natural fog was applied to measure the wet flashover voltage. Test results indicated that the flashover voltages were affected by both soluble salts and non-soluble components deposited on the insulator surface. In the case of the thickly contaminated layers, non-soluble deposits greatly reduced the flashover voltage. Moreover, by using regression analysis, four empirical models based on different variables were developed. The empirical models developed in the present work represented a good degree of relation in predicting the flashover voltage of naturally contaminated insulators. Full article

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18 pages, 328 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Education Save Money, Energy, and the Climate?— Assessing the Potential Impacts of Climate Change Education on Energy Literacy and Energy Consumption in the Light of the EU Energy Efficiency Directive and the Austrian Energy Efficiency Act

by Lars Keller, Maximilian Riede, Steffen Link, Katharina Hüfner and Johann Stötter

Energies 2022, 15(3), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15031118 - 2 Feb 2022

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3959

Abstract

The Austrian Education Energy Initiative ETSIT has been established as a response to the EU Energy Efficiency Directive and the Austrian Energy Efficiency Act. This paper investigates the energy literacy of its young participants, i.e., 6000 primary and secondary school students altogether, on [...] Read more.

The Austrian Education Energy Initiative ETSIT has been established as a response to the EU Energy Efficiency Directive and the Austrian Energy Efficiency Act. This paper investigates the energy literacy of its young participants, i.e., 6000 primary and secondary school students altogether, on a cognitive, affective and behavioural level, and it compares the putative energy-saving effectiveness of the workshops to that of conventional energy audits.For the current analysis, data from, 640 students who validly answered an online survey shortly after participating in one of the energy education workshops, and 353 students who validly answered the online survey approximately one year after having participated (overall n = 993) were analysed. The results indicate that ETSIT raises students’ energy literacy on a cognitive, affective and behavioural level with about three-quarters of participants claiming they will positively change their energy consumption behaviour in the future as a result of workshop participation. This is true shortly after participation in the workshops, and also at the 1-year follow-up. In its second impact perspective, this paper delivers an innovative attempt to look at education from a cost-benefit analysis. A default formula for energy audits is adopted to quantify the kilowatt hours (and thus emissions and costs) saved through workshop participation. Despite limitations, the surprising results show that such workshops can compete with conventional energy audits, and that education can, in fact, help save money, resources, and, most important of all, the climate. Full article

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17 pages, 471 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polish Cittaslow Local Governments’ Support for Renewable Energy Deployment vs. Slow City Concept

by Iwona M. Batyk, Eliza Farelnik, Joanna Rakowska and Mariusz Maciejczak

Energies 2022, 15(1), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010201 - 29 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1814

Abstract

The slow city concept is associated with great care for the protection of the natural environment and the use of renewable energy sources. Thus, the study aimed to discuss the potential of the slow city model and the actual role of Cittaslow local [...] Read more.

The slow city concept is associated with great care for the protection of the natural environment and the use of renewable energy sources. Thus, the study aimed to discuss the potential of the slow city model and the actual role of Cittaslow local governments in deploying renewable energy, based on the case study of the Polish Cittaslow Network. To achieve this aim, we carried out qualitative and quantitative data analyses, based on literature review and data for all 35 Polish Cittaslow municipalities, retrieved from: (i) development strategies (ii) a survey (iii) the Local Data Bank of Statistics Poland, (iv) the Quality of Life Synthetic Index (QLI). To process the data, we applied descriptive statistics, the Shapiro-Wilk test, the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test, and the Spearman’s rank test. Findings showed that the support for renewable energy deployment was not at a high level and did not correlate with the goals set in the Cittaslow development strategies. This was the result of a cumulation of pressing social and economic problems, which the local authorities in Poland are legally obliged to solve, while the implementation of renewable energy is not obligatory. The QLI for these municipalities was low and renewable energy was not a significant element in improving the quality of life of citizens. Full article

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14 pages, 1170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Impact of Climate Change on Surface Water Quality in North-Eastern Poland

by Monika Puchlik, Janina Piekutin and Katarzyna Dyczewska

Energies 2022, 15(1), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010164 - 27 Dec 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3050

Abstract

This article presents the influence of climatic conditions on surface water quality. The research methodology, including physicochemical analysis from the Gołdapa and Bludzia rivers, is presented. The research lasted for two years. The results of the physicochemical studies of the Gołdapa and Bludzia [...] Read more.

This article presents the influence of climatic conditions on surface water quality. The research methodology, including physicochemical analysis from the Gołdapa and Bludzia rivers, is presented. The research lasted for two years. The results of the physicochemical studies of the Gołdapa and Bludzia rivers in early spring, spring, and autumn show that each of these seasons impacts the quality of surface waters. Moreover, it was proven that all the parameters are strongly correlated with the air temperature, the sum of daily precipitation, and water levels. For detailed analysis, the obtained results of own research were compared with meteorological and hydrological data from the last 15 years (2005–2021) for the region of north-eastern Poland. It was proven that temperature changes contribute to increased surface water pollution in the north-eastern part of Poland. Waters from areas that humans have not developed are of better quality than those that drain the urban area, which is reflected in the case of the superior quality of the Bludzia river compared to the Gołdapa river. The upward trend in temperature in the Gołdap region indicates that global warming will continue. Full article

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19 pages, 7354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calculation of Building Heat Losses through Slab-on-Ground Structures Based on Soil Temperature Measured In Situ

by Iwona Pokorska-Silva, Marta Kadela, Bożena Orlik-Kożdoń and Lidia Fedorowicz

Energies 2022, 15(1), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010114 - 24 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3954

Abstract

The article aims to assess the effects of soil temperature measured in situ on the heat loss analyses of a building. Numerical analyses and in situ measurements of soil temperature profiles for real conditions under a residential building (profile I) in Poland and [...] Read more.

The article aims to assess the effects of soil temperature measured in situ on the heat loss analyses of a building. Numerical analyses and in situ measurements of soil temperature profiles for real conditions under a residential building (profile I) in Poland and under the area outside the building (profile II) were performed. Based on the measurement results, a proprietary geometric model of the partition was proposed. The heat flux and heat flow results obtained for reliable models are 4.9% and 6.9% higher compared to a model based on a typical meteorological year for the wall–foundation system and 10.0% and 10.1% higher for the slab-on-ground structure for profile I. The adoption of temperatures from the area outside the building as the boundary condition (profile II) results in greater differences between the obtained results. The difference in heat flow obtained in the numerical analyses for profiles I and II is about 2 W/m², both for the wall–foundation system and for the slab-on-ground structure calculations. The adoption of temperatures for the ground outside the building led to overestimation in the heat flux calculations, this being due to lower temperatures in these particular layers of the ground. Full article

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15 pages, 1074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Revisiting Environmental Kuznets Curve in Relation to Economic Development and Energy Carbon Emission Efficiency: Evidence from Suzhou, China

by Ming Wen, Mingxing Li, Naila Erum, Abid Hussain, Haoyang Xie and Hira Salah ud din Khan

Energies 2022, 15(1), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010062 - 22 Dec 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3039

Abstract

This study empirically examines the effect of economic development on carbon emissions and revisits the environmental Kuznets curve in Suzhou, China. The study made use of the Gross Domestic Product Per Capita (GDPPC) of Suzhou, China as an indicator of economic development as [...] Read more.

This study empirically examines the effect of economic development on carbon emissions and revisits the environmental Kuznets curve in Suzhou, China. The study made use of the Gross Domestic Product Per Capita (GDPPC) of Suzhou, China as an indicator of economic development as it depicts the entire developmental ecosystem that indicates the level of production activities and total energy consumption. Bearing this in mind, the authors postulate that economic development directly increases carbon emissions through industrial and domestic consumptions. For this purpose, linear and non-linear approaches to cointegration are applied. The study finds the existence of an inverted U-shape relationship between economic development and carbon emission in the long run. Trade openness and industrial share are positively contributing to increasing carbon emissions. Energy use shows a positive sign but an insignificant association with carbon emissions. The study concludes that carbon emissions in Suzhou should be further decreased followed by policy recommendations. Full article

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16 pages, 4713 KiB

Open AccessArticle

(Not So) Stranded: The Case of Coal in Poland

by Waldemar Karpa and Antonio Grginović

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8476; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248476 - 15 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3084

Abstract

This paper provides an evaluation of the stranding risks of coal in Poland. Combining an industrial organization and financial analysis approach, we assess the current economic situation of companies operating within the coal industry and draft forecasts for the future. Based on the [...] Read more.

This paper provides an evaluation of the stranding risks of coal in Poland. Combining an industrial organization and financial analysis approach, we assess the current economic situation of companies operating within the coal industry and draft forecasts for the future. Based on the global economic outlook for coal, we claim that phasing-out coal will take at least two decades, due to the slow transformation of the energy sector and increasing energy demand. The financial evaluation of coal-dependent companies revealed sound financial conditions due to favorable trends in coal prices in international markets. Therefore, instead of prioritizing a rapid phasing-out of coal, we pledge to make more technological investments that would make burning coal less harmful for the planet and thus efficiently mitigate the negative effects of climate change. Full article

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15 pages, 1537 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Energy Return on Energy Invested (EROEI) in Complex Adaptive Systems

by Ilaria Perissi, Alessandro Lavacchi and Ugo Bardi

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8411; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248411 - 13 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5133

Abstract

The energy return on energy invested, EROI or EROEI, is the ratio of the energy produced by a system to the energy expended to build, maintain, and finally dismantle the system. It is an important parameter for evaluating the efficiency of energy-producing technologies. [...] Read more.

The energy return on energy invested, EROI or EROEI, is the ratio of the energy produced by a system to the energy expended to build, maintain, and finally dismantle the system. It is an important parameter for evaluating the efficiency of energy-producing technologies. In this paper, we examine the concept of EROEI from the general viewpoint of dynamic dissipative systems, providing insights on a wider range of applications. In general, natural resources can be assimilated to energy stocks characterized by a potential that can be exploited by creating intermediate stocks. This transformation is typical of dissipative systems and for the first time, we report that the Lotka–Volterra model, usually confined to the study of the biology of populations, can represent a powerful tool to estimate the EROEI of dissipative systems and, in particular, those systems subjected to depletion. This assessment is important to evaluate the ongoing energy transition since it provides us with a model for the decline of the EROEI in the exploitation of fossil fuels. Full article

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22 pages, 3607 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Key Factors Which Contribute to the Participation of Consumers in Demand Response Programs and Enable the Proliferation of Renewable Energy Sources

by Adrian Tantau, András Puskás-Tompos, Costel Stanciu, Laurentiu Fratila and Catalin Curmei

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8273; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248273 - 8 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3731

Abstract

Consumer behaviour in the energy field is playing a more important role in the new approach dominated by the proliferation of renewable energy sources. In this new context, the grid has to balance the intermittent and uncertain renewable energy generated, and find solutions, [...] Read more.

Consumer behaviour in the energy field is playing a more important role in the new approach dominated by the proliferation of renewable energy sources. In this new context, the grid has to balance the intermittent and uncertain renewable energy generated, and find solutions, also, on the consumer side for increasing the stability and reliability of the energy system. The main de-mand response solutions are price and incentive based, but there is a need to identify the main factors which can influence their efficiency due to the fact that there is a lack of knowledge about the preferences of consumers. The main goal of this article is to identify the main demand response solutions and the related key factors which influence the participation of consumers in demand response programs and may contribute to the spread of renewable energy sources. For this research, semi-structured interviews were organised with experts in energy from Romania, Hungary and Serbia, as well as workshops with experts in energy, and an online survey with customers for electricity. This article reduces the gap between the results of technical studies, related in demand response programs, and their practical implementations, where the consumer behaviour and its social dimensions are neglected even though, in reality, they are playing the main role. The results suggest that the consumer’s participation in demand response programs is highly influenced by different aspects related to the promotion of the renewable energy and the reduction of CO₂ emissions and the global warming impact. Full article

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19 pages, 1646 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Health Impact and External Cost of Electricity Production

by Janusz Zyśk, Artur Wyrwa, Marcin Pluta, Tadeusz Olkuski, Wojciech Suwała and Maciej Raczyński

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8263; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248263 - 8 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2739

Abstract

The use of fossil fuels, which still dominate global primary energy consumption, results not only in emissions of greenhouse gas but also in emissions of pollutants such as SO₂, NO_x, and PM. Damage caused by air pollution can be [...] Read more.

The use of fossil fuels, which still dominate global primary energy consumption, results not only in emissions of greenhouse gas but also in emissions of pollutants such as SO₂, NO_x, and PM. Damage caused by air pollution can be expressed in monetary terms in the form of external costs to society. The goal of this paper is to answer the following questions: How much will the energy sector’s emissions change as a result of decarbonization? What is the estimated level of external costs related to human health in future energy scenarios? How large are the estimated external costs compared to the planned investments in this sector? The study conducted for the period 2018–2050 used the impact pathway approach and covered the centralized power and heat generation sector in Poland. The reported values of the concentration–response functions that relate human exposure to air pollution with health impact were reviewed. The results show that external costs decrease from an estimated annual level in the range of EUR 782–1911 million in 2018 to EUR 36–876 million in 2050. The cumulative value of avoided external costs between 2018 and 2050 is significantly lower than the planned capital expenditures in the energy sector in Poland. Full article

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19 pages, 5134 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Future-Generation Perception: Equal or Not Equal? Long-Term Individual Discount Rates for Poland

by Monika Foltyn-Zarychta

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8218; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248218 - 7 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2496

Abstract

Energy-related investments gain increasing attention nowadays, particularly in Poland due to clean-energy investment needed to limit greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) and counteract climate change. However, economic appraisal is problematic: the longevity of impacts inextricably involves intergenerational ethical considerations. A crucial parameter is the [...] Read more.

Energy-related investments gain increasing attention nowadays, particularly in Poland due to clean-energy investment needed to limit greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) and counteract climate change. However, economic appraisal is problematic: the longevity of impacts inextricably involves intergenerational ethical considerations. A crucial parameter is the choice of a discount rate. The predominant approach to estimate the discount rate in EU countries is the Ramsey rule, based on macroeconomic data, but not referring directly to society’s preferences. Those are considered by studies using surveys to elicit individual discount rates (IDR), but rarely concentrating on intergenerational time frame. The paper aims at delivering an insight into the intergenerational intertemporal preferences for Poland (households, n = 471) focusing on whether respondents are willing to declare zero discount rate intergenerationally and whether their choices differ between the short- and long-term perspectives and between human lives and money. To elicit IDR, two hypothetical investment scenarios were designed: lifesaving programs and lottery gains with delays from 10 to 150 years accompanied by attitude and socioeconomic questions. The results indicate that IDR follows hyperbolic time-decline, and a considerable share of respondents (around 20%) are willing to treat future generations as equally important in the case of human lives, while this proportion for monetary gains is two times lower. The IDR drivers differ between lives and money in respect of socioeconomic profile and attitude characteristics as well as between intragenerational and intergenerational time frames. The findings support (a) the rationale for distinct treatment of intergenerational allocations, (b) the divergence of preferences between public and private impacts, and (c) the switch from single to declining discount rate regime in Poland. Full article

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25 pages, 2337 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Constraints on Global Social-Ecological Energy System

by Marco Casazza, Francesco Gonella, Gengyuan Liu, Antonio Proto and Renato Passaro

Energies 2021, 14(23), 8177; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14238177 - 6 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2750

Abstract

Energy is the main driver of human Social-Ecological System (SES) dynamics. Collective energy properties of human SES can be described applying the principles of statistical mechanics: (i) energy consumption repartition; (ii) efficiency; (iii) performance, as efficient power, in relation to the least-action principle. [...] Read more.

Energy is the main driver of human Social-Ecological System (SES) dynamics. Collective energy properties of human SES can be described applying the principles of statistical mechanics: (i) energy consumption repartition; (ii) efficiency; (iii) performance, as efficient power, in relation to the least-action principle. International Energy Agency data are analyzed through the lens of such principles. Declining physical efficiency and growth of power losses emerge from our analysis. Losses mainly depend on intermediate system outputs and non-energy final output. Energy performance at Country level also depends on efficient power consumption. Better and worse performing Countries are identified accordingly. Five policy-relevant areas are identified in relation to the physical principles introduced in this paper: Improve efficiency; Decouple economic growth from environmental degradation; Focus on high value added and labor-intensive sectors; Rationalize inefficient fossil fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption; Upgrade the technological capabilities. Coherently with our findings, policies should support the following actions: (1) redefine sectoral energy distribution shares; (2) Improve Country-level performance, if needed; (3) Reduce intermediate outputs and non-energy final output; (4) Reduce resources supply to improve eco-efficiency together with system performance. Full article

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22 pages, 881 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Challenges of Poland’s Energy Transition

by Sylwia Mrozowska, Jan A. Wendt and Krzysztof Tomaszewski

Energies 2021, 14(23), 8165; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14238165 - 6 Dec 2021

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5495

Abstract

The ongoing climate changes necessitate an effective climate policy. The energy transition is now an important topic and problem, especially in Poland. (1) The undertaken analysis of the problem of energy transition is important for political, social and technological reasons. Political, because it [...] Read more.

The ongoing climate changes necessitate an effective climate policy. The energy transition is now an important topic and problem, especially in Poland. (1) The undertaken analysis of the problem of energy transition is important for political, social and technological reasons. Political, because it shows the weakness of the implementation of Polish energy policy in regards to climate change. Social, because energy transition will bring about significant social changes in the largest industrial region of Poland. Technological, as the departure from fossil fuels requires the introduction of other sources of energy on a massive scale, for which Poland is not prepared. The aim of the study was to critically analyse the activities to date in the field of energy transition in Poland. The second goal of the analysis was an attempt to answer the question of whether the process of energy transition and achieving the goals set in the EU’s European Green Deal are possible at all until 2050. (2) To achieve the goals, the system method and the decision-making method were primarily used. These methods allowed for an examination of the main determinants of the Polish energy transformation. (3) The main results include the confirmation, contrary to the announcements of the Polish government, that despite the adoption in Poland of the strategy “Poland’s energy policy until 2040”, the effective implementation of the energy transition before 2050 is not only very difficult, but may even be impossible to implement in the assumed time. This is due to political, economic, social and technological conditions. Coal energy is outdated, expensive and ineffective. Due to natural conditions, wind energy is not able to meet the energy demand of the industry. The development of nuclear energy is only in the planning phase. (4) To sum up, in the next thirty years, Poland will not be able to achieve the assumed effects of the energy transition, which is in contradiction with the official declaration of the government. Full article

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20 pages, 6840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Study on Coupled Operation of Stratified Air Distribution System and Natural Ventilation under Multi-Variable Factors in Large Space Buildings

by Ziwen Dong, Liting Zhang, Yongwen Yang, Qifen Li and Hao Huang

Energies 2021, 14(23), 8130; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14238130 - 3 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1945

Abstract

Stratified air distribution systems are commonly used in large space buildings. The research on the airflow organization of stratified air conditioners is deficient in terms of the analysis of multivariable factors. Moreover, studies on the coupled operation of stratified air conditioners and natural [...] Read more.

Stratified air distribution systems are commonly used in large space buildings. The research on the airflow organization of stratified air conditioners is deficient in terms of the analysis of multivariable factors. Moreover, studies on the coupled operation of stratified air conditioners and natural ventilation are few. In this paper, taking a Shanghai Airport Terminal departure hall for the study, air distribution and thermal comfort of the cross-section at a height of 1.6 m are simulated and compared under different working conditions, and the effect of natural ventilation coupling operation is studied. The results show that the air distribution is the most uniform and the thermal comfort is the best (predicted mean vote is 0.428, predicted percentage of dissatisfaction is 15.2%) when the working conditions are 5.9% air supply speed, 11 °C cooling temperature difference and 0° air supply angle. With the coupled operation of natural ventilation, the thermal comfort can be improved from Grade II to Grade I. Full article

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20 pages, 3243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Fast and Accurate Wind Speed and Direction Nowcasting Model for Renewable Energy Management Systems

by Saira Al-Zadjali, Ahmed Al Maashri, Amer Al-Hinai, Rashid Al Abri, Swaroop Gajare, Sultan Al Yahyai and Mostafa Bakhtvar

Energies 2021, 14(23), 7878; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14237878 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1707

Abstract

To plan operations and avoid any grid disturbances, power utilities require accurate power generation estimates for renewable generation. The generation estimates for wind power stations require an accurate prediction of wind speed and direction. This paper proposes a new prediction model for nowcasting [...] Read more.

To plan operations and avoid any grid disturbances, power utilities require accurate power generation estimates for renewable generation. The generation estimates for wind power stations require an accurate prediction of wind speed and direction. This paper proposes a new prediction model for nowcasting the wind speed and direction, which can be used to predict the output of a wind power plant. The proposed model uses perturbed observations to train the ensemble networks. The trained model is then used to predict the wind speed and direction. The paper performs a comparative assessment of three artificial neural network models. It also studies the performance of introducing perturbed observations to the model using six different interpolation techniques. For each technique, the computational efficiency is measured and assessed. Furthermore, the paper presents an exhaustive investigation of the performance of neural network types and several techniques in training, data splitting, and interpolation. To check the efficacy of the proposed model, the power output from a real wind farm is predicted and compared with the actual recorded measurements. The results of the comprehensive analysis show that the proposed model outperforms contending models in terms of accuracy and execution time. Therefore, this model can be used by operators to reliably generate a dispatch plan. Full article

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20 pages, 26447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Photovoltaic Development on Decarbonization of Power Generation—Example of Poland

by Grzegorz Lew, Beata Sadowska, Katarzyna Chudy-Laskowska, Grzegorz Zimon and Magdalena Wójcik-Jurkiewicz

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7819; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227819 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3162

Abstract

Climate change is becoming a global problem. In many countries, actions are taken with the main aim of reducing CO₂ emissions. The main action, especially in developed countries, is decarbonization. The European Union has become one of the organizations that plays a [...] Read more.

Climate change is becoming a global problem. In many countries, actions are taken with the main aim of reducing CO₂ emissions. The main action, especially in developed countries, is decarbonization. The European Union has become one of the organizations that plays a leading role in decarbonization of the economy. For this reason, renewable energy sources are being intensively developed in the EU countries. Solar energy with the use of PV installations is developing the fastest. Poland is one of the European leaders in photovoltaic development, and according to estimates for 2021–2025, it will continue to be. The aim of this study was to find out the opinions of people toward actions related to the decarbonization policy in Poland. These opinions were obtained through the prism of respondents’ attitudes toward energy produced by means of PV micro-installations. A questionnaire survey was used in this research. The survey was conducted using the CAWI (Computer-Assisted Web Interview) technique. To analyze the results of the study, a Kruskal–Wallis ANOVA test and U–Mann Whitney test were used. Responses were obtained from 633 people. The results obtained from the survey allowed us to draw conclusions, which include the following: (1) a lack of general conviction of respondents about the effectiveness of Poland’s decarbonization policy on reducing global CO₂ emissions, especially among those who show a higher willingness to use PV installations, (2) the willingness to use PV installations is motivated by economic rather than environmental benefits, (3) the need for more widespread public campaigns aimed at promoting the benefits of decarbonization and renewable energy sources, and (4) the finding that the respondents’ region of residence (with a different degree of insolation) mattered for the willingness to use PV installations. Full article

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14 pages, 1078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Role of Natural Gas Consumption in the Reduction of CO₂ Emissions: Case of Azerbaijan

by Sarvar Gurbanov

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7695; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227695 - 17 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4600

Abstract

Azerbaijan signed the Paris Agreement in 2016 and committed to cut greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 35% in 2030. Meanwhile, natural gas has been vital component in the total energy mix of Azerbaijan economy and accounted for almost 65% of the total energy [...] Read more.

Azerbaijan signed the Paris Agreement in 2016 and committed to cut greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 35% in 2030. Meanwhile, natural gas has been vital component in the total energy mix of Azerbaijan economy and accounted for almost 65% of the total energy consumption. In the overall electricity mix, natural gas-fired power plants generate 93% of the country’s electricity. Since global energy consumption is responsible for 73% of human-caused greenhouse-gas emissions, and CO₂ makes up more than 74% of the total, this study investigates possible mitigation effects of the natural gas consumption on CO₂ emissions for Azerbaijan. Author employed several cointegration methodologies, namely Bound testing Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) approach, Fully Modified Ordinary Least Squares (FMOLS), Dynamic Ordinary Least Squares (DOLS), and Structural Time Series model (STSM). Author of this paper found that when the share of natural gas increases 1 percent in the total energy mix, CO₂ emission per capita decreases approximately 0.14 percent as a result of the ARDL, FMOLS, and DOLS models. All three models provide cointegration between the share of natural gas in the total energy mix and reduction in CO₂ emissions. Full article

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14 pages, 2414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monetising Air Pollution Benefits of Clean Energy Requires Locally Specific Information

by Mandana Mazaheri, Yvonne Scorgie, Richard A. Broome, Geoffrey G. Morgan, Bin Jalaludin and Matthew L. Riley

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7622; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227622 - 15 Nov 2021

Viewed by 2732

Abstract

Meeting the Paris Agreement on climate change requires substantial investments in low-emissions energy and significant improvements in end-use energy efficiency. These measures can also deliver improved air quality and there is broad recognition of the health benefits of decarbonising energy. Monetising these health [...] Read more.

Meeting the Paris Agreement on climate change requires substantial investments in low-emissions energy and significant improvements in end-use energy efficiency. These measures can also deliver improved air quality and there is broad recognition of the health benefits of decarbonising energy. Monetising these health benefits is an important part of a robust assessment of the costs and benefits of renewable energy and energy efficiency programs (clean energy programs (CEP)) and a variety of methods have been used to estimate health benefits at national, regional, continental and global scales. Approaches, such as unit damage cost estimates and impact pathways, differ in complexity and spatial coverage and can deliver different estimates for air pollution costs/benefits. To date, the monetised health benefits of CEP in Australia have applied international and global estimates that can range from 2–229USD/tCO2 (USD 2016). Here, we calculate the current health damage costs of coal-fired power in New South Wales (NSW), Australia’s most populous state, and the health benefits of CEP. Focusing on PM2.5 pollution, we estimate the current health impacts of coal-fired power at 3.20USD/MWh, approximately 10% of the generation costs, and much lower than previous estimates. We demonstrate the need for locally specific assessment of the air pollution benefits of CEP and illustrate that without locally specific information, the relative costs/benefits of CEP may be significantly over- or understated. We estimate that, for NSW, the health benefits from CEP are 1.80USD/MWh and that the current air pollution health costs of coal-fired power in NSW represent a significant unpriced externality. Full article

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12 pages, 3230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Resiliency Analysis of Hybrid Energy Systems within Interconnected Infrastructures

by Hossam A. Gabbar

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7499; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227499 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1912

Abstract

There are world tendencies to implement interconnected infrastructures of energy-water-waste-transportation-food-health-social systems to enhance the overall performance in normal and emergency situations where there are multiple interactions among them with possible conversions and improved efficiencies. Hybrid energy systems are core elements within interconnected infrastructures [...] Read more.

There are world tendencies to implement interconnected infrastructures of energy-water-waste-transportation-food-health-social systems to enhance the overall performance in normal and emergency situations where there are multiple interactions among them with possible conversions and improved efficiencies. Hybrid energy systems are core elements within interconnected infrastructures with possible conversions among electricity, thermal, gas, hydrogen, waste, and transportation networks. This could be improved with storage systems and intelligent control systems. It is important to study resiliency of hybrid energy systems within interconnected infrastructures to ensure reduced risks and improved performance. This paper presents framework for the analysis of resiliency layers as related to protection layers. Case study of hybrid energy system as integrated with water, waste, and transportation infrastructures is presented where different resiliency and protection layers are assessed. Performance measures are modeled and evaluated for possible interconnection scenarios with internal and external factors that led to resiliency demands. Resiliency layers could trigger protection layers under certain conditions, which are evaluated to achieve high performance hybrid energy systems within interconnected infrastructures. The proposed approach will support urban, small, and remote communities to achieve high performance interconnected infrastructures for normal and emergency situations. Full article

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14 pages, 2208 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling the Interaction between Air Pollutant Emissions and Their Key Sources in Poland

by Alicja Kolasa-Więcek, Dariusz Suszanowicz, Agnieszka A. Pilarska and Krzysztof Pilarski

Energies 2021, 14(21), 6891; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14216891 - 20 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1957

Abstract

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships between key sources of air pollutant emissions (sources of energy production, factories which are particularly harmful to the environment, the fleets of cars, environmental protection expenditure) and the main environmental air pollution [...] Read more.

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships between key sources of air pollutant emissions (sources of energy production, factories which are particularly harmful to the environment, the fleets of cars, environmental protection expenditure) and the main environmental air pollution (SO₂, NO_x, CO and PM) in Poland. Models based on MLP neural networks were used as predictive models. Global sensitivity analysis was used to demonstrate the significant impact of individual network input variables on the output variable. To verify the effectiveness of the models created, the actual data were compared with the data obtained through modelling. Projected courses of changes in the variables under study correspond with the real data, which confirms that the proposed models generalize acquired knowledge well. The high MLP network quality parameters of 0.99–0.85 indicate that the network generalizes the acquired knowledge accurately. The sensitivity analysis for NO_x, CO and PM pollutants indicates the significance of all input variables. For SO₂, it showed significance for four of the six variables analysed. The predictions made by the neural models are not very different from the experimental values. Full article

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20 pages, 2364 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Green Growth in the OECD Countries: A Multivariate Analytical Approach

by Beata Gavurova, Silvia Megyesiova and Matej Hudak

Energies 2021, 14(20), 6719; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206719 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2880

Abstract

Green growth is about merging environmental and social protection with economic growth. The OECD countries follow the progress toward greening though a set of indicators. The aim of the study is to analyze the condition and development of the OECD countries using a [...] Read more.

Green growth is about merging environmental and social protection with economic growth. The OECD countries follow the progress toward greening though a set of indicators. The aim of the study is to analyze the condition and development of the OECD countries using a set of green growth indicators. The univariate and multivariate statistical approach was used to identify the main features of green growth development in two time spans. The achieved success of the OECD countries toward the green growth was measured from period 1 (years 2000–2009) to period 2 (years 2010–2019). For stimulant indicators, an increase was achieved, while for the destimulant variables, a decrease was reached between the analyzed periods. CO₂ productivity increased by more than 31%, material productivity by 25%, and the energy productivity by nearly 21%. From the ecological point of view, a positive sign was achieved by an intensive increase of the percentage of municipal waste treatment by recycling or composting. The real GDP increased between periods in each of the OECD countries, except in Greece. The destimulant indicators decreased over time. The mortality declined by about 20% from exposure to ambient PM_2.5 and thus the welfare costs of premature death from exposure to PM_2.5 also declined. The decline of the mean population exposure to PM_2.5 by 12.5% on average for the OECD countries is a positive signal for environmental protection and public health of the OECD population. Some uncertainty exists as the municipal waste generated per capita decreased only slightly by 2%. Full article

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22 pages, 15402 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Social Responsibility of Economic Units and the Well-Being of Society in the Tourism Sector: Example of Accommodation Facility

by Julia Wojciechowska-Solis, Agata Kobyłka and Adam Gawryluk

Energies 2021, 14(19), 6270; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196270 - 1 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2401

Abstract

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) assumes that companies should justify their existence with services for various stakeholders and not with profit alone. There is a strong emphasis on the implications of CSR for managing human resources in hotels and other accommodation services, supporting local [...] Read more.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) assumes that companies should justify their existence with services for various stakeholders and not with profit alone. There is a strong emphasis on the implications of CSR for managing human resources in hotels and other accommodation services, supporting local communities, and promoting environmental sustainability. This article aims to present the adjustment of business entities providing accommodation services in Poland to the CSR principles. Two aspects were examined: the environmental aspect, i.e., waste segregation and the use of economic energy receivers, while the social aspect included engaging employees, as well as investing in improving their qualifications towards pro-ecological awareness. The study was conducted on a sample of 207 owners and managers of economic entities in the accommodation sector in Poland. The Statistica software was used to analyze the obtained results, including Chi² statistics and correspondence analysis. Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that the employees of accommodation centers usually deal with the final segregation of waste because they believe that tourists do not follow the rules of proper segregation. Most hotels are equipped with bins for all fractions of waste. The affiliation of a center to a specific macroregion in Poland was not statistically significant in terms of waste segregation practices. Only in the southern macroregion of Poland, ordinary light bulbs are used in accommodation establishments, which account for 0.97% of the surveyed population. In other regions, ¾ establishments use energy-saving receivers in all rooms. Only 1/3 of the facilities invested in developing their staff by organizing training courses toward sustainable development. The most popular subjects were topics related to waste segregation, energy and water saving, and environmental protection. Full article

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24 pages, 8136 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Living in the “Age of Humans”. Envisioning CAD Architecture for the Challenges of the Anthropocene—Energy, Environment, and Well-Being

by Krystyna Januszkiewicz, Natalia Paszkowska-Kaczmarek, Fekadu Aduna Duguma and Karol G. Kowalski

Energies 2021, 14(19), 6093; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196093 - 24 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2819

Abstract

The Anthropocene thesis poses new challenges to human activity on the planet. These challenges also apply to the built environment. Climate change will increase existing threats, and create new ones, for both human and natural systems. Above all, the built environment is expected [...] Read more.

The Anthropocene thesis poses new challenges to human activity on the planet. These challenges also apply to the built environment. Climate change will increase existing threats, and create new ones, for both human and natural systems. Above all, the built environment is expected to provide structural stability, access to water necessary for life, and safe production of clean energy. This research-by-design was focused on designing an adaptive built environment for Anthropocene societies and the maintenance of their well-being, and on envisioning and conceptualizing new architectural solutions based on multidisciplinary knowledge and CAD parametric design methods and tools. The conceptual designs are the result of these studies. These visions show how wind loads can be reduced, water can be stored, diverse energy sources can be integrated into one work of architecture, and thermal comfort can be provided to support local communities and the life of the environment in the belief that the coexistence of species on the planet will happen. They also illustrate how humanity will be able to use the Earth and its atmosphere as an energy producer and conductor and create a global, wireless, non-commercial energy network, accessible to all. Full article

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19 pages, 937 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Increasing Energy Prices as a Stimulus for Entrepreneurship in Renewable Energies: Ownership Structure, Company Size and Energy Policy in Companies in Poland

by Piotr Żuk and Paweł Żuk

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5885; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185885 - 17 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2458

Abstract

Can rising electricity prices be a driving force for energy transition in countries where the energy sector is d pendent on coal? The goals of the article are to determine the readiness of entrepreneurs to invest in renewable energy and indicate the variables [...] Read more.

Can rising electricity prices be a driving force for energy transition in countries where the energy sector is d pendent on coal? The goals of the article are to determine the readiness of entrepreneurs to invest in renewable energy and indicate the variables (company size, the length of time it has operated in the market, the form of ownership and the sector of the economy represented) that influence companies’ greater interest in making savings in energy costs. The research sample in the survey carried out using the computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) method included representatives of entrepreneurs from all regions of Poland. The result for all respondents was checked with the z-test (proportion test). The results obtained on a sample of 400 Polish entrepreneurs responsible for development policies in their companies explain which variables have the greatest impact on the decisions of companies in the context of investments in renewable energy: in Poland, greater interest in renewable energy can be observed in the public sector and in larger companies. The conclusion that can be drawn from this research is that the ownership structure of a company plays an important role in looking for savings by investing in renewable energy. Full article

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25 pages, 9631 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Data-Driven Modeling of Pressure Loss in Multi-Batch Refined Oil Pipelines with Drag Reducer Using Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) Network

by Shengshi Wang, Lianyong Zuo, Miao Li, Qiao Wang, Xizhen Xue, Qicong Liu, Shuai Jiang, Jian Wang and Xitong Duan

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5871; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185871 - 16 Sep 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1816

Abstract

Due to the addition of the drag reducer in refined oil pipelines for increasing the pipeline throughput as well as reducing energy consumption, the classical method based on the Darcy-Weisbach Formula for precise pressure loss calculation presents a large error. Additionally, the way [...] Read more.

Due to the addition of the drag reducer in refined oil pipelines for increasing the pipeline throughput as well as reducing energy consumption, the classical method based on the Darcy-Weisbach Formula for precise pressure loss calculation presents a large error. Additionally, the way to accurately calculate the pressure loss of the refined oil pipeline with the drag reducer is in urgent need. The accurate pressure loss value can be used as the input parameter of pump scheduling or batch scheduling models of refined oil pipelines, which can ensure the safe operation of the pipeline system, achieving the goal of energy-saving and cost reduction. This paper proposes the data-driven modeling of pressure loss for multi-batch refined oil pipelines with the drag reducer in high accuracy. The multi-batch sequential transportation process and the differences in the physical properties between different kinds of refined oil in the pipelines are taken into account. By analyzing the changes of the drag reduction rate over time and the autocorrelation of the pressure loss sequence data, the sequential time effect of the drag reducer on calculating pressure loss is considered and therefore, the long short-term memory (LSTM) network is utilized. The neural network structure with two LSTM layers is designed. Moreover, the input features of the proposed model are naturally inherited from the Darcy-Weisbach Formula and on adaptation to the multi-batch sequential transportation process in refined oil pipelines, using the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm for network hyperparameter tuning. Case studies show that the proposed data-driven model based on the LSTM network is valid and capable of considering the multi-batch sequential transportation process. Furthermore, the proposed model outperforms the models based on the Darcy-Weisbach Formula and multilayer perceptron (MLP) from previous studies in accuracy. The MAPEs of the proposed model of pipelines with the drag reducer are all less than 4.7% and the best performance on the testing data is 1.3627%, which can provide the calculation results of pressure loss in high accuracy. The results also indicate that the model’s capturing sequential effect of the drag reducer from the input data set contributed to improving the calculation accuracy and generalization ability. Full article

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31 pages, 6926 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Assessment and Regulatory Aspects of Cold Ironing Planning for a Maritime Route in the Adriatic Sea

by Tobia Piccoli, Matteo Fermeglia, Daniele Bosich, Paolo Bevilacqua and Giorgio Sulligoi

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5836; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185836 - 15 Sep 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3989

Abstract

The technology of cold ironing (or shore-to-ship power) can meaningfully reduce greenhouse gases and air pollutant emissions from ships at the berth by powering the vessels from the electrical shore grid. While cold ironing constitutes an effective and affordable solution in northern Europe [...] Read more.

The technology of cold ironing (or shore-to-ship power) can meaningfully reduce greenhouse gases and air pollutant emissions from ships at the berth by powering the vessels from the electrical shore grid. While cold ironing constitutes an effective and affordable solution in northern Europe and America, economic, legal, and environmental factors still render this technology less attractive in southern Europe. This paper aims to unpack and analyze the economic, regulatory, and environmental factors that can foster cold ironing as a standard installation in the Mediterranean Sea. Based on a model design for the port of Trieste (Italy) as applied to a cluster of target ports in the Adriatic Sea (in Italy, Croatia, and Greece), this article evaluates the cold ironing payback period by comparing costs of shore side-plants with environmental externalities and O&M costs. Moreover, the paper addresses key regulatory bottlenecks arising in different European jurisdictions with regard to the setting-up and development of cold ironing, while appraising the legal and economic consequences of deploying cold ironing in light of the future inclusion of the maritime sector in the EU Emission Trading System. Full article

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14 pages, 643 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Public Acceptance and Support of Renewable Energy in the North-East Development Region of Romania

by Dumitru-Tudor Jijie, Alexandru Maxim, Teodora Roman and Mihail Roșcovan

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5834; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185834 - 15 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2145

Abstract

Concern about energy in the European Union (EU) has been a recurrent issue from the very beginning. Though initially addressed at the state level, energy is now a shared competency as stressed by article 194 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the [...] Read more.

Concern about energy in the European Union (EU) has been a recurrent issue from the very beginning. Though initially addressed at the state level, energy is now a shared competency as stressed by article 194 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. New challenges, added from time to time, need public support in order to be properly addressed. Such is the case of substituting traditional energy production with renewable energy sources. Our paper seeks to determine whether the Romanian public opinion favors such an evolution, which is traditionally associated with significant investment efforts. The study is focused on the north-east development region, which has the highest population and registered the fastest economic growth in 2019. The topic was explored through a survey applied to a sample of 649 household respondents. The results suggest strong support for introducing renewable energy sources, serious concerns about climate change, and a preoccupation for energy saving. Concerns regarding climate change or various economic factors, behaviors oriented towards reducing energy waste, as well as perceived knowledge on the matter are the factors with the biggest impact on supporting electricity production based on renewable energy sources. However, TV and online exposure have a negative impact on support. Demographics, along with social and political values remain mostly not significant. Full article

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16 pages, 2788 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Escaping Energy Poverty: A Comparative Analysis of 17 European Countries

by Lilia Karpinska and Sławomir Śmiech

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5761; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185761 - 13 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2877

Abstract

A comparative analysis of energy poverty transitions and persistence can provide valuable suggestions for long-term policy actions. This study examines the dynamics of energy poverty in 17 European countries based on the longitudinal household data from the EU Survey on Income and Living [...] Read more.

A comparative analysis of energy poverty transitions and persistence can provide valuable suggestions for long-term policy actions. This study examines the dynamics of energy poverty in 17 European countries based on the longitudinal household data from the EU Survey on Income and Living Conditions, waves 2015–2018. The study pursues two goals. First, we explore households’ chances of transitioning in and out of energy poverty in each country following the discrete-time Markov process. On average, the probability to stay in energy poverty is 51.5%, and there is a lot of heterogeneity across countries. Households in Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, and Lithuania are quite close to the energy poverty trap. Second, we identify factors that help energy-poor households leave energy poverty. Demographic, technical, and socio-economic factors are the drivers in escaping energy poverty, which suggests common EU policy. Full article

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19 pages, 789 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Renewable Energy Plants and Business Models: A New Rural Development Perspective

by María-José Prados, Marta Pallarès-Blanch, Ramón García-Marín and Carolina del Valle

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5438; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175438 - 1 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3437

Abstract

The paper evaluates the rural development (RD) contribution of local economic activities (LEAs), whether generated or affected by the proximity of renewable energy plants (REPs). The study also informs about LEAs’ role as co-players in the fight against climate change. Semi-structured research interviews [...] Read more.

The paper evaluates the rural development (RD) contribution of local economic activities (LEAs), whether generated or affected by the proximity of renewable energy plants (REPs). The study also informs about LEAs’ role as co-players in the fight against climate change. Semi-structured research interviews have been applied to identify LEAs’ BM (business model) in Andalusia, Murcia, and Catalonia, autonomous communities of Spain. Most LEAs present a BM based on the RE plant, and others do not, but they still contribute to RD, rural communities’ well-being and global sustainability. Results show, first, that certain LEAs, due to their inter-connection with large REPs, can innovate and create a significant number of stable jobs. Second, land leasing to REPs allows for temporary farms’ diversification, which is conditioned to its bargaining power. Third, advice on integration RE projects in RD strategies should be provided. Conclusions suggest the need for new governance to favor energy transition coherent with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Full article

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17 pages, 6898 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stochastic Generation of District Heat Load

by Andrea Menapace, Simone Santopietro, Rudy Gargano and Maurizio Righetti

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5344; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175344 - 27 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1910

Abstract

Modelling heat load is a crucial challenge for the proper management of heat production and distribution. Several studies have tackled this issue at building and urban levels, however, the current scale of interest is shifting to the district level due to the new [...] Read more.

Modelling heat load is a crucial challenge for the proper management of heat production and distribution. Several studies have tackled this issue at building and urban levels, however, the current scale of interest is shifting to the district level due to the new paradigm of the smart system. This study presents a stochastic procedure to model district heat load with a different number of buildings aggregation. The proposed method is based on a superimposition approach by analysing the seasonal component using a linear regression model on the outdoor temperature and the intra-daily component through a bi-parametric distribution of different times of the day. Moreover, an empirical relationship, that estimates the demand variation given the average demand together with a user aggregation coefficient, is proposed. To assess the effectiveness of the proposed methodology, the study of a group of residential users connected to the district heating system of Bozen-Bolzano is carried out. In addition, an application on a three-day prevision shows the suitability of this approach. The final purpose is to provide a flexible tool for district heat load characterisation and prevision based on a sample of time series data and summary information about the buildings belonging to the analysed district. Full article

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60 pages, 4818 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Biomass for Biofuels Production with a Special Focus on the Effect of Process Parameters, Co-Solvents, and Extraction Solvents

by Ankit Mathanker, Snehlata Das, Deepak Pudasainee, Monir Khan, Amit Kumar and Rajender Gupta

Energies 2021, 14(16), 4916; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14164916 - 11 Aug 2021

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 9942

Abstract

Hydrothermal liquefaction is one of the common thermochemical conversion methods adapted to convert high-water content biomass feedstocks to biofuels and many other valuable industrial chemicals. The hydrothermal process is broadly classified into carbonization, liquefaction, and gasification with hydrothermal liquefaction conducted in the intermediate [...] Read more.

Hydrothermal liquefaction is one of the common thermochemical conversion methods adapted to convert high-water content biomass feedstocks to biofuels and many other valuable industrial chemicals. The hydrothermal process is broadly classified into carbonization, liquefaction, and gasification with hydrothermal liquefaction conducted in the intermediate temperature range of 250–374 °C and pressure of 4–25 MPa. Due to the ease of adaptability, there has been considerable research into the process on using various types of biomass feedstocks. Over the years, various solvents and co-solvents have been used as mediums of conversion, to promote easy decomposition of the lignocellulosic components in biomass. The product separation process, to obtain the final products, typically involves multiple extraction and evaporation steps, which greatly depend on the type of extractive solvents and process parameters. In general, the main aim of the hydrothermal process is to produce a primary product, such as bio-oil, biochar, gases, or industrial chemicals, such as adhesives, benzene, toluene, and xylene. All of the secondary products become part of the side streams. The optimum process parameters are obtained to improve the yield and quality of the primary products. A great deal of the process depends on understanding the underlined reaction chemistry during the process. Therefore, this article reviews the major works conducted in the field of hydrothermal liquefaction in order to understand the mechanism of lignocellulosic conversion, describing the concept of a batch and a continuous process with the most recent state-of-art technologies in the field. Further, the article provides detailed insight into the effects of various process parameters, co-solvents, and extraction solvents, and their effects on the products’ yield and quality. It also provides information about possible applications of products obtained through liquefaction. Lastly, it addresses gaps in research and provides suggestions for future studies. Full article

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21 pages, 3921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synergies between Direct Air Capture Technologies and Solar Thermochemical Cycles in the Production of Methanol

by Enric Prats-Salvado, Nathalie Monnerie and Christian Sattler

Energies 2021, 14(16), 4818; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14164818 - 7 Aug 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4018

Abstract

Methanol is an example of a valuable chemical that can be produced from water and carbon dioxide through a chemical process that is fully powered by concentrated solar thermal energy and involves three steps: direct air capture (DAC), thermochemical splitting and methanol synthesis. [...] Read more.

Methanol is an example of a valuable chemical that can be produced from water and carbon dioxide through a chemical process that is fully powered by concentrated solar thermal energy and involves three steps: direct air capture (DAC), thermochemical splitting and methanol synthesis. In the present work, we consider the whole value chain from the harvesting of raw materials to the final product. We also identify synergies between the aforementioned steps and collect them in five possible scenarios aimed to reduce the specific energy consumption. To assess the scenarios, we combined data from low and high temperature DAC with an Aspen Plus^® model of a plant that includes water and carbon dioxide splitting units via thermochemical cycles (TCC), CO/CO₂ separation, storage and methanol synthesis. We paid special attention to the energy required for the generation of low oxygen partial pressures in the reduction step of the TCC, as well as the overall water consumption. Results show that suggested synergies, in particular, co-generation, are effective and can lead to solar-to-fuel efficiencies up to 10.2% (compared to the 8.8% baseline). In addition, we appoint vacuum as the most adequate strategy for obtaining low oxygen partial pressures. Full article

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23 pages, 1826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Single-Valued Neutrosophic Combined Compromise Solution Methodology for Renewable Energy Resource Selection Problem

by Pratibha Rani, Jabir Ali, Raghunathan Krishankumar, Arunodaya Raj Mishra, Fausto Cavallaro and Kattur S. Ravichandran

Energies 2021, 14(15), 4594; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154594 - 29 Jul 2021

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 2545

Abstract

Optimal renewable energy source (RES) selection needs a strategic decision for reducing environmental pollutions, use of conventional resources, and improving economic development. In the process of RESs evaluation, several aspects like environmental, economic, social, and technical requirements play an important role. In addition, [...] Read more.

Optimal renewable energy source (RES) selection needs a strategic decision for reducing environmental pollutions, use of conventional resources, and improving economic development. In the process of RESs evaluation, several aspects like environmental, economic, social, and technical requirements play an important role. In addition, diverse factors affect the appropriate RES selection problem which adheres to uncertain and imprecise data. Thus, this selection process can be considered as a complex uncertain multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) problem. This study aims to introduce a novel integrated methodology based on Step-wise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA) and Combined Compromise Solution (CoCoSo) methods within single-valued neutrosophic sets (SVNSs) context, wherein the decision-makers and criteria weights are completely unknown. In the proposed approach, the criteria weights are determined by the SWARA method, and the most suitable RES alternative is determined by an improved CoCoSo method under the SVN context. Further, an illustrative case study of RES selection is considered to demonstrate the thorough execution process of the proposed method. Moreover, a comparison with existing methods is discussed to analyze the validity of the obtained result. This study performs sensitivity analysis with a various set of criteria weights to reveal the robustness of the developed approach. The strength of the proposed method is its practical applicability and ability to provide solutions under uncertain, imperfect, indeterminate, and inconsistent information. Full article

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24 pages, 2403 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Urban Green and Blue Infrastructure from the Perspective of Food-Energy-Water Nexus

by Aamir Mehmood Shah, Gengyuan Liu, Fanxin Meng, Qing Yang, Jingyan Xue, Stefano Dumontet, Renato Passaro and Marco Casazza

Energies 2021, 14(15), 4583; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154583 - 29 Jul 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4670

Abstract

Small scale urban green-blue infrastructure (indicated as GBI hereafter) comprises huge underexploited areas for urban development and planning. This review article aims to highlight the relevance and knowledge gaps regarding GBI from the perspective of the food–energy–water (FEW) nexus, these being key resources [...] Read more.

Small scale urban green-blue infrastructure (indicated as GBI hereafter) comprises huge underexploited areas for urban development and planning. This review article aims to highlight the relevance and knowledge gaps regarding GBI from the perspective of the food–energy–water (FEW) nexus, these being key resources for the survival of human communities. In particular, this review was focused on publications on urban ecosystem services (positive effects) and dis-services (negative effects) associated with different GBI typologies. The review proved that GBI can contribute environmentally, socially, and economically to FEW security and urban sustainability. Yet, such positive effects must be considered against ecosystem dis-services tradeoffs, including urban food production, commonly connected with heavy water and energy consumption, specifically under dry climate conditions, and sometimes related to an excessive use of manure, pesticides, or fertilizers. These conditions could pose either a risk to water quality and local insect survival or serve enhanced mosquito breeding because of irrigation. Up to now, the review evidenced that few nexus modeling techniques have been discussed in terms of their benefits, drawbacks, and applications. Guidance is provided on the choice of an adequate modeling approach. Water, energy, and food are intrinsically associated physically. However, depending on their management, their tradeoffs are often increased. There is a need to minimize these tradeoffs and to build up synergies between food, energy, and water using a holistic approach. This is why the FEW nexus approach offers good insights to address the relation between three important individual resource components of sustainability. Full article

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16 pages, 1580 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Avoided Environmental Impacts as Well as Energy and Resource Recovery from Microbial Desalination Cell Treatment of Brine

by Rosa Anna Nastro, Enrica Leccisi, Maria Toscanesi, Gengyuan Liu, Marco Trifuoggi and Sergio Ulgiati

Energies 2021, 14(15), 4453; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154453 - 23 Jul 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2015

Abstract

Seawater represents a potential resource to ensure sustainable availability of water for population and irrigation purposes, especially in some areas of the world. Desalination processes allow the production of fresh water, but they generate also brine as waste product. Sustainable brine management should [...] Read more.

Seawater represents a potential resource to ensure sustainable availability of water for population and irrigation purposes, especially in some areas of the world. Desalination processes allow the production of fresh water, but they generate also brine as waste product. Sustainable brine management should be identified to ensure proper disposal and potentially resource recovery. This experimental study showed that emerging technologies such as Microbial Desalination Cells (MDCs) may provide a valuable contribution to the sustainability of the seawater desalination sector. In this paper, we report results on lab-scale desalination brine treatments applying MDCs, which allow energy savings, resource recovery, environmental impact minimization, and reduction of the organic load in municipal wastewater. Our results showed that MDCs’ treatment allows the removal of approximately 33 g of salts (62% of the total)—including chlorides, bromides, and sulphates—from 20 mL of brine within 96 h. The MDCs, according to the source of energy and the presence of mature biofilm at the anode, spent 7.2 J, 7.9 J, and 9.6 J in the desalination process, with the higher amount of energy required by the abiotic system and the lesser by the MDCs fed with just wastewater. Our approach also showed environmental and energy reductions because of potential metal recovery instead of returning them into marine environment. We quantified the avoided life cycle of human and marine eco-toxicity impacts as well as the reduction of cumulative energy demand of recovered metals. The main benefit in terms of avoided toxicity would arise from the mercury and copper recovery, while potential economic advantages would derive from the recovered cobalt that represents a strategic resource for many products such as battery storage systems. Full article

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16 pages, 341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Marshallian and Jacobian Knowledge Spillovers on Jobs in the Solar, Wind and Energy Efficiency Sector

by Luigi Aldieri, Jonas Grafström and Concetto Paolo Vinci

Energies 2021, 14(14), 4269; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144269 - 14 Jul 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2750

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to establish if Marshallian and Jacobian knowledge spillovers affect job creation in the green energy sector. Whether these two effects exist is important for the number of jobs created in related fields and jobs pushed away in [...] Read more.

The purpose of this paper is to establish if Marshallian and Jacobian knowledge spillovers affect job creation in the green energy sector. Whether these two effects exist is important for the number of jobs created in related fields and jobs pushed away in other sectors. In the analysis, the production efficiency, in terms of jobs and job spillovers, from inventions in solar, wind and energy efficiency, is explored through data envelopment analysis (DEA), based on the Malmquist productivity index, and tobit regression. A panel dataset of American and European firms over the period of 2002–2017 is used. The contribution to the literature is to show the role of the spillovers from the same technology sector (Marshallian externalities), and of the spillovers from more diversified activity (Jacobian externalities). Since previous empirical evidence concerning the innovation effects on the production efficiency is yet weak, the paper attempts to bridge this gap. The empirical findings suggest negative Marshallian externalities, while Jacobian externalities have no statistical impact on the job creation process. The findings are of strategic importance for governments who are developing industrial strategies for renewable energy. Full article

39 pages, 15613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Economic and Environmental Assessment on Implementing Solar Renewable Energy Systems in Spanish Residential Homes

by Alberto Cerezo-Narváez, María-José Bastante-Ceca and José-María Piñero-Vilela

Energies 2021, 14(14), 4183; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144183 - 11 Jul 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2774

Abstract

In Europe, buildings are responsible for more than one third of the total final energy demands and greenhouse gas emissions. In the last twenty years, the European Union has published a succession of energy performance of building directives to define and ensure the [...] Read more.

In Europe, buildings are responsible for more than one third of the total final energy demands and greenhouse gas emissions. In the last twenty years, the European Union has published a succession of energy performance of building directives to define and ensure the fulfilment of a series of objectives regarding greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, energy efficiency and energy generation from renewable sources in buildings. For its part, Spain is adapting its legal framework, transposing these directives with the aim of achieving greater energy efficiency and sustainability for buildings. Under this context, an energy, economic and environmental assessment is performed to analyze the impact of these regulatory changes on a single-family home including a photovoltaic installation for self-consumption with surpluses and/or a solar thermal installation for domestic hot water supply, located in each one of the eight thousand one hundred thirty-one municipalities that make up Spain. The energy behavior of the original house is compared with that obtained after it is updated with these new facilities. The transient system simulation tool is used for the energy study. The results show that the European objectives are far exceeded. The energy savings achieved range from 67% to 126%, carbon dioxide emissions decrease by 42% to 100% and energy bills are reduced in cost by 32% to 81%. The findings of this work can be used by policymakers as guidelines for the development of national strategic plans and financial incentives for the promotion of small-scale residential photovoltaic and solar thermal applications, as well as by designers, supervisors, managers and developers to include them in their projects. Full article

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16 pages, 2047 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emergy-Based Evaluation on the Systemic Sustainability of Rural Ecosystem under China Poverty Alleviation and Rural Revitalization: A Case of the Village in North China

by Yinan Xu, Yingxing Zhao, Peng Sui, Wangsheng Gao, Zhijun Li and Yuanquan Chen

Energies 2021, 14(13), 3994; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133994 - 2 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2863

Abstract

A number of new rural management models have emerged to solve the problems of economic backwardness, insufficient resource utilization, and technical shortages in rural areas in the context of poverty alleviation to the rural revitalization strategy in China. However, the influence of new [...] Read more.

A number of new rural management models have emerged to solve the problems of economic backwardness, insufficient resource utilization, and technical shortages in rural areas in the context of poverty alleviation to the rural revitalization strategy in China. However, the influence of new rural management model under all countermeasures for rural sustainable development with a comprehensive perspective is lacking. Therefore, exploring whether the new rural management model meets the requirements of sustainable development is an urgent issue. From the theory of system metabolism and emergy accounting method, this study classified the government funds for poverty alleviation measures as import resources, and analyzed the metabolic structure, efficiency, and the rural development factors of Chehe Village before and after poverty alleviation measures are carried out (the year of 2012 and 2019) to verify whether the new model was sustainable. According to the results of this study, the new management model of Chehe Village declined the rural system sustainability with the emergy sustainability index decreasing from 1.96 in 2012 to 0.32 in 2019. With the development of economy, the system metabolic efficiency of Chehe Village promoted and the metabolic structure became more reasonable manifesting in the decline of emergy use per unit GDP and the increase of emergy exchange rate. Moreover, production and livelihood had been highly valued in Chehe Village. In conclusion, it is feasible to add countermeasures of poverty alleviation and rural revitalization into the village system metabolism. The new management model of Chehe Village needs to change exogenous force into endogenous force to meet the requirements of rural sustainable development. Full article

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17 pages, 278 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Fiscal Pressure as a Trigger of Financial Performance for the Energy Industry: An Empirical Investigation across a 16-Year Period

by Larissa Batrancea, Mircea Iosif Rus, Ema Speranta Masca and Ioan Dan Morar

Energies 2021, 14(13), 3769; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133769 - 23 Jun 2021

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 3061

Abstract

Taxation exerts pressure on the economic activities of all companies, including economic entities that operate in the energy industry. This study examined the degree to which fiscal pressure influenced the financial performance of 88 publicly listed companies from the energy industry during a [...] Read more.

Taxation exerts pressure on the economic activities of all companies, including economic entities that operate in the energy industry. This study examined the degree to which fiscal pressure influenced the financial performance of 88 publicly listed companies from the energy industry during a time frame of 16 years (2005Q1–2020Q3). By modelling financial data from the oil, gas and electricity sectors with panel data techniques, our results showed that fiscal pressure had a significant effect on the evolution of company financial performance measured by return on assets, return on equity and return on investment. The study revealed that fiscal pressure had a more positive impact on the financial performance of energy companies than a negative impact. This conclusion is important for overall taxation in the energy industry since corporate taxes, excise duties and mandatory labor contributions are basic resources for state budgets. Our empirical results imply important research directions on the prospect of analyzing company performance. Full article

21 pages, 6393 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Life Cycle Assessment as a Major Support Tool within Multi-Criteria Design Process of Single Dwellings Located in Poland

by Michał Pierzchalski, Elżbieta Dagny Ryńska and Arkadiusz Węglarz

Energies 2021, 14(13), 3748; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133748 - 22 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2087

Abstract

Life cycle assessment is an environmental method which estimates either a process or a building material within the cradle-to-grave cycle. Presently, it is one of a few tools that include all factors which may influence the environment. The authors used this tool to [...] Read more.

Life cycle assessment is an environmental method which estimates either a process or a building material within the cradle-to-grave cycle. Presently, it is one of a few tools that include all factors which may influence the environment. The authors used this tool to prove effects connected with potential efficient energy levels and a reduction in CO₂ emissions within a building’s life cycle. For the purpose of our analyses, several types of single-family building were chosen and they were subjected to analysis in the fixed location of Warsaw. The research scope included a numerical analysis of the buildings concerning the level of embodied energies and the emission of greenhouse gases. The performed analysis proved that, within a 50-year cycle, the difference between the embodied energy from the best and worst building choices can amount to 14.87%, whereas a reduction in embodied carbon emissions can reach 20.65%. Each change in the building’s form and the type of building materials used, regardless of the usable area, influence the environmental impact. Therefore, this paper concludes that LCA, as a management tool, should be used cyclically as part of each phase of the design process. A multi-criteria method for selecting architectural solutions was proposed which considered minimum cumulative primary energy, minimum cumulative carbon emission and minimum cost of constructing a building. Full article

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15 pages, 5839 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Flow Pattern and Resistance Characteristics of Gas–Liquid Two-Phase Flow with Foam under Low Gas–Liquid Flow Rate

by Bin Wang, Jianguo Hu, Weixiong Chen, Zhongzhao Cheng and Fei Gao

Energies 2021, 14(13), 3722; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133722 - 22 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2001

Abstract

To reduce the cost of arranging air foam flooding equipment at each wellhead, a method of establishing centralized air foam flooding injection stations is proposed. The flow pattern and resistance characteristics of air foam flooding mixtures in different initial conditions are studied. Experimental [...] Read more.

To reduce the cost of arranging air foam flooding equipment at each wellhead, a method of establishing centralized air foam flooding injection stations is proposed. The flow pattern and resistance characteristics of air foam flooding mixtures in different initial conditions are studied. Experimental results indicate that the probability density function of stratified flow is obtained by comparing stainless steel and transparent pipes. If the gas–liquid ratio is kept constant, then the shape of the probability density function remains unchanged in both stainless steel and transparent tubes. Meanwhile, the flow pattern under the gas–liquid ratio is determined by comparing the image recognition results with the probability density function, and a formula for calculating the resistance and pressure drop of the gas and liquid two-phase flow in the horizontal and upward pipes is established. Compared with the experiments, the error results of the calculation are small. Thus, the proposed equations can be used to predict the flow resistance of real air foam flooding. Full article

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13 pages, 297 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Agriculture in Climate Change Mitigation—A Polish Example

by Lucjan Pawłowski, Małgorzata Pawłowska, Cezary A. Kwiatkowski and Elżbieta Harasim

Energies 2021, 14(12), 3657; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123657 - 19 Jun 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2799

Abstract

Biomass, a basic product of agriculture, is one of the main sinks of carbon in global cycle. Additionally, it can be used as a renewable source of energy, leading to depletion in CO₂ emissions. The paper presents the results of estimations on [...] Read more.

Biomass, a basic product of agriculture, is one of the main sinks of carbon in global cycle. Additionally, it can be used as a renewable source of energy, leading to depletion in CO₂ emissions. The paper presents the results of estimations on the current and potential share of catch crop cultivation in climate change mitigation, in Poland, where the agricultural sector plays a significant economic role. The estimation of CO₂ assimilation in biomass was performed on the basis of our own data on yields of commonly used catch crops, obtained in randomly selected 80 farms in Poland, and the content of carbon in the biomass. Calculation of energy potential of the biomass was conducted, assuming its conversion into biogas, on the basis of our own data on catch crop yields and the literature data on their biomethane potentials. The results have shown that catch crops in Poland, which are cultivated to an area of 1.177 mln ha sequestrate 6.85 mln t CO₂ yr⁻¹. However, considering the total area of fields used for spring crop cultivation, it is possible to increase the sequestration to 18.25 mln t CO₂ yr⁻¹, which constitutes about 6% of the annual emission of CO₂ in Poland. Biomethane yields per hectare of particular crops ranged from 965 to 1762 m³ CH₄ ha⁻¹, and were significantly lower compared to maize, which is commonly in use in biogas plants. However, due to high biomethane potential and favorable chemical composition, catch crops can be a valuable co-substrate for the feedstocks with a high C:N ratio. The potential recovery of energy produced from aboveground biomass of catch crops harvested in Poland during the year is 6327 GWh of electricity and 7230 GWh of thermal energy. Thus, it is advisable to promote catch crops on a wide scale due to substantial environmental benefits of their cultivation. Full article

26 pages, 1428 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Innovative Approach to Energy Consumer Segmentation—A Behavioural Perspective. The Case of the Eco-Bot Project

by Sylwia Słupik, Joanna Kos-Łabędowicz and Joanna Trzęsiok

Energies 2021, 14(12), 3556; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123556 - 15 Jun 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3990

Abstract

Energy consumption impacts the environment, humans’ well-being, comfort and quality of life. The article aimed to develop the original model of energy consumer segmentation, based on behavioural variables, which influence consumer decisions and motivations regardless of demographic, geographic and socio-cultural differences. The innovative [...] Read more.

Energy consumption impacts the environment, humans’ well-being, comfort and quality of life. The article aimed to develop the original model of energy consumer segmentation, based on behavioural variables, which influence consumer decisions and motivations regardless of demographic, geographic and socio-cultural differences. The innovative contribution is the segmentation procedure, which fills the existing research gap and can be treated as a universal tool serving various groups of stakeholders for creating and implementing sustainable development policies. The methodology used for the segmentation is based on the original algorithm and involves classifying a consumer into the most appropriate group based on the measurement of the distance between the ideal class representative and a particular respondent. Several distance measures (e.g., Sokal–Michener, Goodall, Lin) were used, while the similarity of those classifications was verified using the adjusted Rand index. The segmentation involved adopting—a priori—five basic classes of consumers, varying in terms of motivation to save energy. The validation performed on a sample of 1606 respondents, carried out as part of the eco-bot project, verified both the classification approach adopted in the study and the accuracy of the assumptions. The application of the distance measures chosen for the study allowed for the assignment of 96.1% of the respondents to the appropriate classes, which yielded the following distribution: EI (33.9% of the respondents); DS (33.1%), AE (17.2%), O (7%) and I (4.9%). Full article

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24 pages, 5342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics of Electricity Production against the Backdrop of Climate Change: A Case Study of Hydropower Plants in Poland

by Katarzyna Kubiak-Wójcicka and Leszek Szczęch

Energies 2021, 14(12), 3427; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123427 - 10 Jun 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2729

Abstract

Renewable energy sources (RES) play an important role in the European Union’s energy sector as a result of the energy policy framework adopted. Its share in the final energy consumption varies depending on the country and the adopted energy policy. The article presents [...] Read more.

Renewable energy sources (RES) play an important role in the European Union’s energy sector as a result of the energy policy framework adopted. Its share in the final energy consumption varies depending on the country and the adopted energy policy. The article presents the structure of electricity production from renewable energy sources in Poland in the years 2002–2019. It was found that the share of energy production from hydroelectric power plants in Poland in relation to the amount of energy produced from renewable energy sources in the analyzed years has strongly decreased. The reason for this state was an increase in the production of energy coming from wind and biomass energy combined with an increase in subsidies for these energy producers. Additionally, unstable hydrological conditions, mainly low river flows, may be the reason for the low share of energy produced in power plants. As a case study, data for five small hydropower plants (SHP) located on the Gwda river (north-western Poland) were analyzed. Electricity production volumes were analyzed depending on the size of the Gwda river flow. It was found that the lower amount of electricity produced at SHPs on the Gwda river is mainly due to lower flows in the river. In the future, unstable electricity production from renewable energy sources may have a significant impact on achieving Poland’s energy targets in 2030. Full article

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19 pages, 2990 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Assessment of the Environmental Impact of Using Methane Fuels to Supply Internal Combustion Engines

by Krzysztof Biernat, Izabela Samson-Bręk, Zdzisław Chłopek, Marlena Owczuk and Anna Matuszewska

Energies 2021, 14(11), 3356; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113356 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3743

Abstract

This research paper studied the environmental impact of using methane fuels for supplying internal combustion engines. Methane fuel types and the methods of their use in internal combustion engines were systematized. The knowledge regarding the environmental impact of using methane fuels for supplying [...] Read more.

This research paper studied the environmental impact of using methane fuels for supplying internal combustion engines. Methane fuel types and the methods of their use in internal combustion engines were systematized. The knowledge regarding the environmental impact of using methane fuels for supplying internal combustion engines was analyzed. The authors studied the properties of various internal combustion engines used for different applications (specialized engines of power generators—Liebherr G9512 and MAN E3262 LE212, powered by biogas, engine for road and off-road vehicles—Cummins 6C8.3, in self-ignition, original version powered by diesel fuel, and its modified version—a spark-ignition engine powered by methane fuel) under various operating conditions in approval tests. The sensitivity of the engine properties, especially pollutant emissions, to its operating states were studied. In the case of a Cummins 6C8.3 modified engine, a significant reduction in the pollutant emission owing to the use of methane fuel, relative to the original self-ignition engine, was found. The emission of carbon oxide decreased by approximately 30%, hydrocarbons by approximately 70% and nitrogen oxide by approximately 50%, as well as a particulate matter emission was also eliminated. Specific brake emission of carbon oxide is the most sensitive to the operating states of the engine: 0.324 for a self-ignition engine and 0.264 for a spark-ignition engine, with the least sensitive being specific brake emission of nitrogen oxide: 0.121 for a self-ignition engine and 0.097 for a spark-ignition engine. The specific brake emission of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons for stationary engines was higher in comparison with both versions of Cummins 6C8.3 engine. However, the emission of nitrogen oxide for stationary engines was lower than for Cummins engines. Full article

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21 pages, 9889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Energy Use Based on an Implementation of IoT, Cloud Systems, and Artificial Intelligence

by Ciprian Mihai Coman, Adriana Florescu and Constantin Daniel Oancea

Energies 2021, 14(11), 3202; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113202 - 30 May 2021

Viewed by 2737

Abstract

Nowadays products are developed at a rapid pace, with shorter and shorter times between concept and go to market. With the advancement in technology, product designers and manufacturers can use new approaches to obtain information about their products and transform it into knowledge [...] Read more.

Nowadays products are developed at a rapid pace, with shorter and shorter times between concept and go to market. With the advancement in technology, product designers and manufacturers can use new approaches to obtain information about their products and transform it into knowledge that they can use to improve the product. We developed the Poket Framework platform to facilitate the generation of product knowledge. In order to increase the reliability and safety in operation of electrical equipment, an evaluation is proposed, through tests and studies, using the original Poket Framework platform. Thus, several tests and studies were performed, which included testing and analyzing the correct integration in several use cases and remote data acquisition, and testing and analysis of the Poket Framework using literature established data sets of household appliances and electrical systems. Possible evolutions and Poket platform extensions are also considered. Full article

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17 pages, 1622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Pollutant Emissions on City Arteries—Aspects of Transport Management

by Anna Brzozowska, Jerzy Korczak, Antonina Kalinichenko, Dagmara Bubel, Katarzyna Sukiennik, Daniel Sikora and Jan Stebila

Energies 2021, 14(11), 3007; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113007 - 22 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1946

Abstract

The aim of the study is to present a methodology for analyzing pollution emissions in a medium-sized city using modern traffic simulations in the aspect of minimizing exhaust emissions. The scope of the research and the methods of analysis used differ from those [...] Read more.

The aim of the study is to present a methodology for analyzing pollution emissions in a medium-sized city using modern traffic simulations in the aspect of minimizing exhaust emissions. The scope of the research and the methods of analysis used differ from those applied in big cities projects that can be found in the literature, Therefore the progressive elaboration model has been applied methodically to formulate and carry out the feasibility study. To perform microscopic traffic simulations, the software Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO—German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany) was applied. Thanks to the simulations, changes in traffic organization were accurately identified in the context of pollution emissions before they were implemented. The proposed approach allows a smooth flow of vehicles and a reduction of exhaust emissions. The experiments, supported by visual modelling of traffic with respect to pollution emissions, were performed on one of the main arteries of the city of Czestochowa (Poland). The results were used to explain the benefits of planned roadworks and convince the city government of the necessity to modernize the communication network. Full article

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18 pages, 1287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Procedure for Automating Energy Analyses in the BIM Context Exploiting Artificial Neural Networks and Transfer Learning Technique

by Mikhail Demianenko and Carlo Iapige De Gaetani

Energies 2021, 14(10), 2956; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102956 - 20 May 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3168

Abstract

One of the main benefits of Building Information Modelling is the capability of improving the decision-making process thanks performing what-if tests on digital twins of the building to be realized. Pairing BIM models to Building Energy Models allows designers to determine in advance [...] Read more.

One of the main benefits of Building Information Modelling is the capability of improving the decision-making process thanks performing what-if tests on digital twins of the building to be realized. Pairing BIM models to Building Energy Models allows designers to determine in advance the energy consumption of the building, improving sustainability of the construction. The challenge is to consider as many elements involved in the energy balance as possible and shuffling their parameters within a certain range. In this work, the automatic creation of a relevant set of design options to be analyzed for searching the optimum has been carried out. Firstly, the usual workflow that would be applied manually has been automatically followed by running scripts and codes, depending just on the initial setup given by the user. Although the procedure is very resource consuming, the main advancement relies in the reduction of the manual intervention and the possibility of creating large datasets of design options, avoiding gross errors. Secondly, Artificial Neural Networks and Transfer Learning techniques are applied to speed up the process of dataset creation. With such approach, the same dataset has been created, with about 30% of initial data and without significant loss of accuracy. Full article

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24 pages, 2009 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Ecological and Economic Context of Managing Enterprises That Are Particularly Harmful to the Environment and the Well-Being of Society

by Aneta Włodarczyk and Agata Mesjasz-Lech

Energies 2021, 14(10), 2884; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102884 - 17 May 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1802

Abstract

The ecological and economic context determine the management goals of a modern enterprise, which are in line with the growing concern about the well-being of society caused by the effects of enterprises’ activities that are particularly harmful to the environment. This increases the [...] Read more.

The ecological and economic context determine the management goals of a modern enterprise, which are in line with the growing concern about the well-being of society caused by the effects of enterprises’ activities that are particularly harmful to the environment. This increases the need to search for new tools that will have the capacity to generate information supporting the decision-making process in the area of enterprise management in terms of ecological, economic, and social goals. For these reasons, synthetic measures of development were constructed on the basis of the set of diagnostic variables describing various aspects of sustainable development in the case. Based on the environmental synthetic indicators, it has been possible to point out the Polish voivodeships, in which enterprises that are particularly harmful to the environment were able to reduce the emissions of dust and gaseous pollutants in the 2005–2019 period. These changes were often accompanied by an increase in the production of energy from renewable sources and increasing the supply of plants with devices to contain gaseous and dust pollutants. Moreover, the comparison of positioning the voivodeships in the rankings according to social, economic, and environmental synthetic measures shows that the reduction of the negative impact of energy-intensive enterprises on the environment has been associated with higher the position of the voivodeship in the ranking connected with the health of its inhabitants. It has been also seen that the largest pool of funds was allocated to the voivodeships that need them the most, as these voivodeships were low in the ranking with respect to the degree of the reduction of dust and gaseous emissions by enterprises that are particularly harmful to the environment. The results for regression analysis indicated at the existence of the inter-temporal relationships between the well-being of society and the environmental–economic effects of enterprises’ activities. It was noticed that increasing the possibilities of financing investments in low-emission development of the region, including the modernization of enterprises in terms of decreasing dust and gaseous pollutant emissions and reducing their energy consumption, has a significant impact on the improvement of well-being of society with a one-year lag. In contrast to other studies that mainly refer to the environmental and economic effects of managing enterprises that are particularly harmful to the environment, this paper focuses on the social aspect of the change in the health of the population connected with the emissions of pollutants. A novel approach based on the set of three multi-criteria synthetic measures is proposed to assess the environmental, economic, and social activities of enterprises in individual voivodeships in Poland in the long 2005–2019 period. Full article

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18 pages, 1953 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of Climate/Energy Targets of the Europe 2020 Strategy by the EU Member States

by Barbara Kryk and Małgorzata Klaudia Guzowska

Energies 2021, 14(9), 2711; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092711 - 9 May 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3604

Abstract

The most important goals on the Europe 2020 Strategy contained were the climate/energy goals, which determine the achievement of other targets of the strategy. The aim of the article is to evaluate the implementation of the climate/energy targets of the Europe 2020 Strategy [...] Read more.

The most important goals on the Europe 2020 Strategy contained were the climate/energy goals, which determine the achievement of other targets of the strategy. The aim of the article is to evaluate the implementation of the climate/energy targets of the Europe 2020 Strategy by the EU Member States in 2010 and 2019 and to compare the results achieved by them. To measure them, a basic set of indicators was used for this purpose, which the authors supplemented with additional indicators. The evaluation was done using the taxonomic and zero-unitarization method. They made it possible to integrate all indicators. Moreover, the added value in relation to other studies is: the use of individual indicators, instead of general ones obtaining additional information about the internal structure and nature of the implementation of multidimensional groups of targets and focusing solely on the achievement of climate/energy targets. The achieved results not only reflect the progress of the Member States in achieving the climate/energy targets and the differences in the level of achieving objectives between countries, but they are also discussion on future strategic objectives, their indicators and necessary directions for a further community climate/energy policy. Full article

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21 pages, 8385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Historical Development of Thermal Protection of Prefab Residential Housing and Its Future, an Example of the Czech Republic

by Darja Kubečková and Magdaléna Vrbová

Energies 2021, 14(9), 2623; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092623 - 3 May 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2548

Abstract

The paper focuses on the development of a thermal protection and energy requirements in relation to the issue of prefab residential housing buildings and prefab housing estates while emphasizing the need for a conceptual approach and environmental considerations. The development is recapitulated with [...] Read more.

The paper focuses on the development of a thermal protection and energy requirements in relation to the issue of prefab residential housing buildings and prefab housing estates while emphasizing the need for a conceptual approach and environmental considerations. The development is recapitulated with examples of compositional sets of prefab residential housing on selected sites in the Czech Republic. Based on the comparison of archival documents and results of a long-term observation of the prefab residential housing resources, it outlines the direction of further expected development of prefab housing estates within a social context. The comparison also takes into account the impact of the European Union energy strategy and the implementation of directives into the legal rules and standards of the member states. The aim of the paper is to show the negatives and positives of current political and social strategies in relation to the thermal protection of buildings, the energy management and healthy indoor environment, and that the renovation of prefab residential housing and prefab housing estates is effective with regard to the invested funds. Full article

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19 pages, 841 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Management of Environmental Resources in the Construction Sector: An Empirical Model

by Ionel-Sorinel Vasilca, Madlena Nen, Oana Chivu, Valentin Radu, Cezar-Petre Simion and Nicolae Marinescu

Energies 2021, 14(9), 2489; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092489 - 27 Apr 2021

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4706

Abstract

This research emphasizes the analysis and assessment of the environmental impact in the construction sector. It aims to propose a model for analyzing the management of environmental resources in the building process. This specific sector presents a significant potential risk of negatively affecting [...] Read more.

This research emphasizes the analysis and assessment of the environmental impact in the construction sector. It aims to propose a model for analyzing the management of environmental resources in the building process. This specific sector presents a significant potential risk of negatively affecting the environment, through pollution, energy consumption, and waste generation. Environmental responsibility involves analyzing the environmental impact and implementing effective solutions for an adequate governance of the environmental resources. Various life cycle assessment methods are employed to design a new model of management of environmental resources, starting from the factors impacting the environment. The resulting model takes these factors into account and carries several advantages from an organizational point of view. One novel result is that the model can be applied at a microeconomic level as well as at a macroeconomic level. By implementing this model, the preconditions for reconfiguring operational conditions and processes with significant impact on resource consumption within construction projects can be created at a company level. As such, the objective for the construction sector is to manage the use of resources efficiently and, at the same time, to restore the areas possibly affected by the specific operations. Full article

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15 pages, 4940 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Tractor Fuel Consumption

by Bronisław Andrzej Kolator

Energies 2021, 14(8), 2300; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082300 - 19 Apr 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2923

Abstract

In this paper, the energy diagnostic of tractor performance consists in evaluating the energy (fuel consumption per hectare—dm³ ha⁻¹) for a given agricultural operation and in combining it with working capacity, also called productivity (area productivity—ha h⁻¹). One [...] Read more.

In this paper, the energy diagnostic of tractor performance consists in evaluating the energy (fuel consumption per hectare—dm³ ha⁻¹) for a given agricultural operation and in combining it with working capacity, also called productivity (area productivity—ha h⁻¹). One of the methods of solving this problem is the identification of the functioning process of the machine unit. A model of the process of the machine unit performance was developed, considering the operation of the rear linkage system of the implement with the force control adjustment system. In order to analyze the system, a mathematical model of the system function was built: tractor-implement-soil, defining the physical connections and interdependencies between the individual subsystems of the system. Based on this model, a simulation model was developed and implemented in the Matlab/Simulink environment. The Simulink package was used to test the performance of the machine set. The efficiency indicators according to the adopted criteria were calculated in the evaluation block. To evaluate the process, the technical and operational parameters of the tractor, the type and parameters of the tool, and soil properties were taken into account. The results of simulation studies obtained on a validated model are consistent with experimental data from appropriate soil conditions. Full article

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16 pages, 329 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Profitability Using Second-Generation Bioethanol in Gasoline Produced in Mexico

by Adrián Bautista-Herrera, Francisco Ortiz-Arango and José Álvarez-García

Energies 2021, 14(8), 2294; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082294 - 19 Apr 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2858

Abstract

Gasoline produced in Mexico by the productive company of the state Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) mainly uses oil-derived ethers as oxygenators to reach the Mexican Regulatory ‘Framework’s octane number. An alternative to complying with these regulations could be to use bioethanol as an oxygenate. [...] Read more.

Gasoline produced in Mexico by the productive company of the state Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) mainly uses oil-derived ethers as oxygenators to reach the Mexican Regulatory ‘Framework’s octane number. An alternative to complying with these regulations could be to use bioethanol as an oxygenate. However, as a gasoline component, this could affect ‘Mexico’s food markets since sugar cane, and grains are the primary inputs for local production. The main objective of this study is to evaluate whether the use of bioethanol, produced from corn stubble, as an additive in gasoline produced by Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) is profitable in Mexico, from the perspective of the evaluation of the supply chain and the finances. The purpose of this work is to contribute to the definition of the advantages and limitations for the existence of a second-generation bioethanol market produced from Lignocellulosic corn biomass and integrated into the gasoline market of national production in Mexico. The work starts with theoretical research to define the use of corn stubble as raw material, set up on its availability and feasibility determined based on a geographic information system (GIS), through the use of the agricultural production forecast approach, as well as the integration of costs and financial analysis. The results show that corn stubble bioethanol production is technically viable, but the production cost is not competitive yet. Although its price is not yet competitive compared to the imported price, using a fiscal incentive scheme and considering the decrease in energy dependence, it would be feasible to produce it in Mexico. Full article

19 pages, 4093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Well-Being of Children in Nurseries Does Not Have to Be Expensive: The Real Costs of Maintaining Low Carbon Dioxide Concentrations in Nurseries

by Katarzyna Ratajczak and Małgorzata Basińska

Energies 2021, 14(8), 2035; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082035 - 7 Apr 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2337

Abstract

There are different standards and regulations outlining the requirements regarding building air quality as well as in nurseries. These requirements specify air stream supplies and carbon dioxide concentration levels, both of which ensure proper indoor air quality. Mechanical ventilation should be used to [...] Read more.

There are different standards and regulations outlining the requirements regarding building air quality as well as in nurseries. These requirements specify air stream supplies and carbon dioxide concentration levels, both of which ensure proper indoor air quality. Mechanical ventilation should be used to maintain acceptable carbon dioxide levels. This article analyses the use of ventilation equipped with decentralized units, which helps secure the well-being of children. This paper proposes and evaluates economically affordable ventilation units. An algorithm for selecting the size of the devices is described by the supplied air stream depending on the number of children present at the nursery. A method of transferring the investment costs related to the assembly of the given units to the parents is proposed. Air quality in terms of CO₂ concentrations was based on the following levels: 750 ppm, 1000 ppm, 1500 ppm. This assessment also includes the investment costs resulting from device usage and the costs of electricity consumed by the fans. These results showed the additional costs that assure the air quality improvement do not have to be high (45 PLN/month, ~10 EUR/month) per child attending the nursery. A 3% tuition increase returns the investment costs on mechanical ventilation within four years. Full article

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20 pages, 1194 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Understanding Interactions between Sustainable Development Goals: The Role of Climate-Well-Being Linkages. Experiences of EU Countries

by Agnieszka Sompolska-Rzechuła and Agnieszka Kurdyś-Kujawska

Energies 2021, 14(7), 2025; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14072025 - 6 Apr 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3457

Abstract

The 2030 Agenda with 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is a challenge for all countries in the world. Their implementation may turn out to be a compromise or the creation of effective interactions that dynamize sustainable development. To achieve the SDGs, it is [...] Read more.

The 2030 Agenda with 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is a challenge for all countries in the world. Their implementation may turn out to be a compromise or the creation of effective interactions that dynamize sustainable development. To achieve the SDGs, it is essential to understand how they interact with each other. It seems that in the times of the climate and health crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, caring for the environment and ensuring a healthy life and promoting well-being at all ages is the basis for environmental, economic and social sustainable development. The aim of the study is to compare the degree of implementation of the goals of sustainable development in the scope of goal 13 “Climate action” and goal 3 “Good health and well-being” in the EU countries. In addition, we analyze how trade-offs and synergies between these goals have developed. Data from the Eurostat database were used to achieve the goal. The study used the method of multivariate comparative analysis—linear ordering of objects. The technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution (TOPSIS) method was used to measure the studied phenomenon. The results indicate a different degree of implementation of the sustainable development goals related to climate change and the improvement of health and social well-being. Only a few countries have synergy in achieving these goals, most of them compromise, manifesting themselves in improving one goal over another. In the group of analyzed EU countries, a simultaneous deterioration in the effectiveness of achieving both objectives were also noted. Our research also shows that energy policy is an important attribute in improving the achievement of these goals. The conducted analysis fills the gap in the research on the implementation of selected sustainable development goals and their interactions. It contributes to the discussion on increasing the links between them, in particular with regard to emerging compromises. This research can provide a basis for re-prioritizing and intensifying the actions where individual EU countries are lagging most behind. Full article

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16 pages, 619 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Environmental Concern on Intention to Reduce Consumption of Single-Use Bottled Water

by Barbara Borusiak, Andrzej Szymkowiak, Bartłomiej Pierański and Katarzyna Szalonka

Energies 2021, 14(7), 1985; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14071985 - 2 Apr 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6167

Abstract

The plastic bottles that are used for packaging water are harmful to the environment. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of consumers’ environmental concern on both their intention to reduce consumption of water sold in single-use plastic bottles and [...] Read more.

The plastic bottles that are used for packaging water are harmful to the environment. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of consumers’ environmental concern on both their intention to reduce consumption of water sold in single-use plastic bottles and their actual behaviour. An extended version of the theory of planned behaviour is used as the main theoretical framework. Structural equation modelling is employed based on data gathered in 2020 from 1011 Polish respondents to test the study’s hypotheses. The results support the model, as all tested relations are statistically significant. More specifically, we confirm the indirect impact of environmental concern on both intention and behaviour concerning bottled water consumption (BWC): environmental concern is positively related to attitudes towards reducing BWC, subjective norms regarding reduction in BWC, perceived behavioural control over BWC, and perceived moral obligation to protect natural resources, all of which, in turn, are positively related to intention to reduce BWC. We also prove that intention to reduce BWC is positively related to consumption of non-bottled water. The results may serve to guide decision makers seeking to promote ecologically friendly behaviour. Full article

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14 pages, 1667 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Wave Energy Location by Using an Integrated MCDM Approach

by Chia-Nan Wang, Yih-Tzoo Chen and Chun-Chun Tung

Energies 2021, 14(7), 1840; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14071840 - 25 Mar 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2631

Abstract

In recent years, sudden global energy demand has led to the gradual exhaustion of fossil fuel, the world’s main energy resource. With the negative impact of fossil fuel on the environment, governments and organizations have increased R&D funding on renewable energy resources such [...] Read more.

In recent years, sudden global energy demand has led to the gradual exhaustion of fossil fuel, the world’s main energy resource. With the negative impact of fossil fuel on the environment, governments and organizations have increased R&D funding on renewable energy resources such as solar and wave energy. Vietnam has a great potential for developing wave energy projects owing to the presence of a long coastline and vast ocean. Choosing an optimal location for wave-based power plant projects is a multicriteria decision that requires understanding the quantitative and qualitative elements for assessing the balance of factors when trying to reach the most accurate result. This study proposes a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) model, fuzzy-analytic hierarchical process (FAHP), and weighted aggregated sum product assessment (WASPAS) in evaluating potential wave energy stations at the Vietnamese coastline. The authors identify all criteria and sub-criteria affecting the wave power plant location selection process through literature review and expert interview. Selection criteria include wave height, the distance between two waves, number of waves, wind speed, wind duration, ocean depth, turbulence, water quality, coastal erosion, shipping density, protection laws, labor resources, safety conditions, and other related factors. FAHP was used to determining the weights of the identified criteria in the first stage of this study. Finally, the WASPAS model was employed to rank all the alternatives involved in making an effective decision. This study aimed to develop a tool to enhance decision-making when solving fuzzy multi-criteria problems. We propose a real-world model for the effectiveness of the proposed model. Full article

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18 pages, 3668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Risk of Lightning Losses in a Structure Equipped with RTC Devices According to the Standard EN 62305-2.2008

by Zofia Wróbel and Adam St. Jagiełło

Energies 2021, 14(6), 1704; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061704 - 18 Mar 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2229

Abstract

Incorrect adjustment of railway traffic control devices (rtc) to the specificity of the area in terms of lightning density may result in their damage by lightning-caused electromagnetic pulses. An associated risk assessment, as the standard in the analyses of the strength of rtc [...] Read more.

Incorrect adjustment of railway traffic control devices (rtc) to the specificity of the area in terms of lightning density may result in their damage by lightning-caused electromagnetic pulses. An associated risk assessment, as the standard in the analyses of the strength of rtc devices, should be made. However, manufacturers of rtc devices typically do not perform tests with respect to such high overvoltage conditions. Particularly in the case of the EN 62305-2 standard, the manufacturers of new rail traffic control devices usually do not carry out such analyses. In this paper, an analysis of the damage vulnerability of rtc devices caused by lightning discharges for a selected structure, including a signal box equipped with digital rtc devices is presented. The necessity of conducting a lightning damage vulnerability analysis for rtc devices is demonstrated. A part of the railway track where lightning discharges occur was analyzed. The results of the risk analysis obtained with the use of the DEHN Risk Tool software and based on the standard EN 62305-2 (2008, Lightning protection. Part 2. Risk management) are presented. Due to the fact that railway devices are not included in the current standard, three documents were adopted for the analysis: two editions of EN/IEC 62305-2 (from 2008 and 2012) and the recommendations of the ITU-International Telecommunication Union ITU-T K.39 (10/1996). The presented analysis is performed according to the 2008 standard version and to the chosen device. Full article

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11 pages, 1817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Oil Price Shocks on National Income: Evidence from Azerbaijan

by Shahriyar Mukhtarov, Sugra Humbatova, Mubariz Mammadli and Natig Gadim‒Oglu Hajiyev

Energies 2021, 14(6), 1695; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061695 - 18 Mar 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4986

Abstract

This study investigates the influence of oil price shocks on GDP per capita, exchange rate, and total trade turnover in Azerbaijan using the Structural Vector Autoregressive (SVAR) method to data collected from 1992 to 2019. The estimation results of the SVAR method conclude [...] Read more.

This study investigates the influence of oil price shocks on GDP per capita, exchange rate, and total trade turnover in Azerbaijan using the Structural Vector Autoregressive (SVAR) method to data collected from 1992 to 2019. The estimation results of the SVAR method conclude that oil price shocks (rise in oil prices) affect GDP per capita and total trade turnover positively, whereas its influence on the exchange rate is negative in the case of Azerbaijan. According to results of this study, Azerbaijan and similar oil-exporting countries should reduce the dependence of GDP per capita, the exchange rate, and total trade turnover from oil resources and its prices in the global market. Therefore, these countries should attempt to the diversification of GDP per capita, the exchange rate, and other sources of total trade turnover. Full article

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25 pages, 5160 KiB

Open AccessArticle

iGREEN: An Integrated Emission Model for Mixed Bus Fleets

by Maria Vittoria Corazza, Paulo Cantillano Lizana, Marco Pascucci, Enrico Petracci and Daniela Vasari

Energies 2021, 14(6), 1521; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061521 - 10 Mar 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2980

Abstract

The environmental concern has become central for many bus companies, but estimating pollutant emissions can be difficult for many reasons (little knowledge or underestimation of the problem; scarce know-how; reluctance to acknowledge the pollutant potential of bus fleets because either of small size [...] Read more.

The environmental concern has become central for many bus companies, but estimating pollutant emissions can be difficult for many reasons (little knowledge or underestimation of the problem; scarce know-how; reluctance to acknowledge the pollutant potential of bus fleets because either of small size or composed by too many old-generation vehicles). To facilitate this task, an integrated, user-friendly model, iGREEN, is presented. The paper describes the methodology for the development of this tool, which is specifically designed to help transit operators in assessing the pollutants emitted by fleets where the amount of old buses is not negligible. This is not a minor issue, given the large number of obsolete vehicles still circulating and the unsuitability of some models when calculating emissions in case of buses with protracted mileage. Results from two case studies are reported and commented, with the final aim to advance knowledge farther afield. This gives rise to a discussion on the relevance of such environmental concerns also in light of the contemporary pandemic which seem to have generated different priorities in the public transport management. Full article

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17 pages, 2297 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of CO Accumulation in the Headspace of the Bioreactor during Organic Waste Composting

by Karolina Sobieraj, Sylwia Stegenta-Dąbrowska, Jacek A. Koziel and Andrzej Białowiec

Energies 2021, 14(5), 1367; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14051367 - 3 Mar 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2826

Abstract

Advanced technologies call for composting indoors for minimized impact on the surrounding environment. However, enclosing compost piles inside halls may cause the accumulation of toxic pollutants, including carbon monoxide (CO). Thus, there is a need to assess the occupational risk to workers that [...] Read more.

Advanced technologies call for composting indoors for minimized impact on the surrounding environment. However, enclosing compost piles inside halls may cause the accumulation of toxic pollutants, including carbon monoxide (CO). Thus, there is a need to assess the occupational risk to workers that can be exposed to CO concentrations > 300 ppm at the initial stage of the process. The objectives were to (1) develop a model of CO accumulation in the headspace of the bioreactor during organic waste composting and (2) assess the impact of headspace ventilation of enclosed compost. The maximum allowable CO level inside the bioreactor headspace for potential short-term occupational exposure up to 10 min was 100 ppm. The composting was modeled in the horizontal static reactor over 14 days in seven scenarios, differing in the ratio of headspace-to-waste volumes (H:W) (4:1, 3:1, 2:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4). Headspace CO concentration exceeded 100 ppm in each variant with the maximum value of 36.1% without ventilation and 3.2% with the daily release of accumulated CO. The airflow necessary to maintain CO < 100 ppmv should be at least 7.15 m³·(h·Mg w.m.)⁻¹. The H:W > 4:1 and the height of compost pile < 1 m were less susceptible to CO accumulation. Full article

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25 pages, 34486 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid and Ensemble Methods of Two Days Ahead Forecasts of Electric Energy Production in a Small Wind Turbine

by Paweł Piotrowski, Marcin Kopyt, Dariusz Baczyński, Sylwester Robak and Tomasz Gulczyński

Energies 2021, 14(5), 1225; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14051225 - 24 Feb 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2313

Abstract

The ability to forecast electricity generation for a small wind turbine is important both on a larger scale where there are many such turbines (because it creates problems for networks managed by distribution system operators) and for prosumers to allow current energy consumption [...] Read more.

The ability to forecast electricity generation for a small wind turbine is important both on a larger scale where there are many such turbines (because it creates problems for networks managed by distribution system operators) and for prosumers to allow current energy consumption planning. It is also important for owners of small energy systems in order to optimize the use of various energy sources and facilitate energy storage. The research presented here addresses an original, rarely predicted 48 h forecasting horizon for small wind turbines. This topic has been rather underrepresented in research, especially in comparison with forecasts for large wind farms. Wind speed forecasts with a 48 h horizon are also rarely used as input data. We have analyzed the available data to identify potentially useful explanatory variables for forecasting models. Eight sets with increasing data amounts were created to analyze the influence of the types and amounts of data on forecast quality. Hybrid, ensemble and single methods are used for predictions, including machine learning (ML) solutions like long short-term memory (LSTM), multi-layer perceptron (MLP), support vector regression (SVR) and K-nearest neighbours regression (KNNR). Original hybrid methods, developed for research of specific implementations and ensemble methods based on hybrid methods’ decreased errors of energy generation forecasts for small wind turbines in comparison with single methods. The “artificial neural network (ANN) type MLP as an integrator of ensemble based on hybrid methods” ensemble forecasting method incorporates an original combination of predictors. Predictions by this method have the lowest mean absolute error (MAE). In addition, this paper presents an original ensemble forecasting method, called “averaging ensemble based on hybrid methods without extreme forecasts”. Predictions by this method have the lowest root mean square error (RMSE) error among all tested methods. LSTM, a deep neural network, is the best single method, MLP is the second best one, while SVR, KNNR and, especially, linear regression (LR) perform less well. We prove that lagged values of forecasted time series slightly increase the accuracy of predictions. The same applies to seasonal and daily variability markers. Our studies have also demonstrated that using the full set of available input data and the best proposed hybrid and ensemble methods yield the lowest error. The proposed hybrid and ensemble methods are also applicable to other short-time generation forecasting in renewable energy sources (RES), e.g., in photovoltaic (PV) systems or hydropower. Full article

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32 pages, 3505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Sustainable Energy Development Index—An Application for European Union Member States

by Magdalena Ligus and Piotr Peternek

Energies 2021, 14(4), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041117 - 20 Feb 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3466

Abstract

The development of a complete system of indicators and a composite sustainable energy index could prove useful to evaluate both the state of the art and the progress of national energy towards sustainable development. However, in the case of energy sustainability, a knowledge [...] Read more.

The development of a complete system of indicators and a composite sustainable energy index could prove useful to evaluate both the state of the art and the progress of national energy towards sustainable development. However, in the case of energy sustainability, a knowledge gap arises due to incomplete coverage and lack of systematic focus on sustainability components. The objective of our research is to obtain Sustainable Energy Development Aggregated Index to rank the EU Member States on the path to sustainable energy. We propose a set of indicators related to sustainable development in energy policy in the EU-28, grouped in three dimensions: social, economic and environmental and apply the standardized sums method in order to obtain the dimensional and aggregated indexes. The countries on the podium are Denmark, The Netherlands and Austria. The worst-performing countries (with index values below the first quartile) are Estonia, Malta, Slovakia, Poland, Greece, Cyprus and Bulgaria. A comparative analysis of the outcome with a few existing indexes for the EU Member States shows how large an impact on the index values and the ranking obtained does the selection of indicators and the methodology used have. The refinement of the set of energy indicators is necessary for the context where they will be applied to ensure their policy relevance and usefulness. It is also necessary to conduct a sensitivity analysis each time in the study. Full article

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2020

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18 pages, 4622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Possibility Analysis of Adapting a Public Building to the Standard of a Building with a Zero Energy Balance

by Karolina Dec, Elżbieta Broniewicz and Mirosław Broniewicz

Energies 2020, 13(23), 6389; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13236389 - 3 Dec 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2059

Abstract

The paper aims to examine the possibility of adapting an existing school building to the standard of a zero energy building. The school building is a specific case of a building in which the energy consumption is periodic, except for the months with [...] Read more.

The paper aims to examine the possibility of adapting an existing school building to the standard of a zero energy building. The school building is a specific case of a building in which the energy consumption is periodic, except for the months with the most sunshine. Therefore, it is necessary to look for a solution that will allow storing the energy obtained, for example, from solar collectors. Based on the analysis of the literature, it was concluded that the use of borehole thermal energy storage might be the right solution to the problem. The article presents the energy balance of the building with and without the use of renewable energy sources and the benefits of using an energy storage system. Full article

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25 pages, 20640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emergy Based Decoupling Analysis of Ecosystem Services on Urbanization: A Case of Shanghai, China

by Hengyu Pan, Yong Geng, Ji Han, Cheng Huang, Wenyi Han and Zhuang Miao

Energies 2020, 13(22), 6139; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13226139 - 23 Nov 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2633

Abstract

In order to respond to rapid urbanization, understanding the relationships between urbanization and ecosystem services (ESs) is of practical importance to move toward sustainable urban development. In this study, an emergy-GIS based method is proposed to evaluate ESs. Spatiotemporal emergy values of water [...] Read more.

In order to respond to rapid urbanization, understanding the relationships between urbanization and ecosystem services (ESs) is of practical importance to move toward sustainable urban development. In this study, an emergy-GIS based method is proposed to evaluate ESs. Spatiotemporal emergy values of water retention (WR), air purification (AP), carbon sequestration (CS), soil conservation (SC), and biodiversity conservation (BC) were quantified and relationships among these ESs were analyzed by taking China’s largest city, Shanghai, as a case. The decoupling analysis was conducted to study the relationship between urbanization and ESs. Results show that the total value of regulating ESs had declined by 8.24% from 2005 to 2010. Chongming had the largest value of ESs, followed by Pudong. There is a synergetic relationship among AP, CS, and SC, while a tradeoff appears between WR and other services. Irregular “U” shape relationships between the decrease of ESs and urbanization indicators were observed. Results from decoupling analysis show that ESs experienced weak decoupling from urbanization in most districts. Finally, policy implications were raised based on the study results. Full article

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27 pages, 5603 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of the Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) Model for the Assessment of a Retrofitted Historical Masonry Building

by Michał Piasecki, Elżbieta Radziszewska-Zielina, Piotr Czerski, Małgorzata Fedorczak-Cisak, Michał Zielina, Paweł Krzyściak, Patrycja Kwaśniewska-Sip and Wojciech Grześkowiak

Energies 2020, 13(22), 6051; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13226051 - 19 Nov 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3664

Abstract

Achieving a satisfactory level for indoor environments of historical buildings is an ongoing problem that needs to be solved due to a large demand for deep retrofits in the whole of Europe. The implementation of the indoor environmental quality index (IEQ) to predict [...] Read more.

Achieving a satisfactory level for indoor environments of historical buildings is an ongoing problem that needs to be solved due to a large demand for deep retrofits in the whole of Europe. The implementation of the indoor environmental quality index (IEQ) to predict an occupant’s satisfaction in thermo-modernized historical buildings is a new concept which is a response to existing needs. In this article, a relevant study is provided with the intention to evaluate the indoor environmental performance of retrofitting effects in historical buildings dating back to the years 1873–1878. Considering the historical character of the buildings, some of the cellar spaces were fitted out with an innovative internal insulation system of mineral sheets based on calcium silicate to prevent water vapor condensation and effectively limit mold growth. The IEQ methodology was applied for retrofitted and non-retrofitted spaces as a comparison. Four essential components of indoor quality are investigated: thermal comfort, indoor air quality, acoustic comfort, and visual quality. The results of sub-component indexes are calculated based on the measured indoor parameters and the specific sensory functions. This paper discusses the results of an indoor environmental analysis including a mycological air quality assessment with the newly developed IAQ_index (fungal air contamination index), total volatile organic compound concentration (TVOC), CO₂, and formaldehyde (HCHO) assessment, the evaluation energy-related thermal comfort, acoustic, and visual quality, of modernized spaces. A questionnaire survey study was additionally carried out among a building’s users intentioned to compare the accounts of satisfaction before and after the retrofitting process and also to compare “subjective” results with the one’s based on in situ tests. The retrofitting approach was proven to be effective in limiting the presence of molds and a significant difference in indoor environmental quality between thermally insulated and uninsulated spaces was observed and discussed. Full article

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