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Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy
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Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy

A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Immunology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2021) | Viewed by 80861

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Dariusz Szukiewicz

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Biophysics, Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Warsaw, Chalubinskiego 5 (4th Floor), 02-004 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: inflammation; cytokine network; human placenta; stem cells in reproductive tissues; pathophysiology of diabetes
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Reproductive immunology refers to studies of the interrelationships between the immune and reproductive systems. The tremendous advances in reproductive immunology in the 21st century do not change the fact that the role of the immune system in reproduction remains unclear. In light of the latest research results, it appears that interaction rather than competition between the reproductive and immune systems enables the normal preservation of reproductive function. This interaction covers all stages: from the formation of female and male gametes through to fertilization, implantation, and placentation and from intrauterine development of the fetus to the delivery of a healthy newborn at term. Malfunctioning of the immune/reproductive interaction at any of these stages may result in predisposition to infertility or an abnormal pregnancy course.

It is notable that intensive study of the immunology of stem cells, which are abundantly present in the reproductive tissues (e.g., placenta, endometrium), has significantly increased knowledge in the field of reproductive immunology.

This Special Issue is dedicated to all aspects of reproductive immunology, including the immunology of pregnancy in health and disease. When considering your submission, please keep in mind that IJMS is a journal of molecular science. However, submissions of clinical studies that include biomolecular experiments or pathological research with case sample data are welcomed.

Prof. Dr. Dariusz Szukiewicz
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Molecular Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

  • gamete immunology
  • in vitro fertilization
  • infertility
  • immunocontraception
  • implantation
  • placentation
  • immunotolerance
  • reproductive immunology
  • inflammation
  • cytokine network
  • placenta-derived stem cells
  • endometriosis
  • immunopathology of pregnancy
  • sex hormones

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Related Special Issues

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 570 KiB  
Editorial
Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy
by Dariusz Szukiewicz
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(12), 6485; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23126485 - 10 Jun 2022
Viewed by 2198
Abstract
This Special Issue has been prepared to showcase the dynamic and comprehensive development of reproductive immunology, including the immunology of pregnancy [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

21 pages, 11810 KiB  
Article
Overexpression of miR-210-3p Impairs Extravillous Trophoblast Functions Associated with Uterine Spiral Artery Remodeling
by Heyam Hayder, Guodong Fu, Lubna Nadeem, Jacob A. O’Brien, Stephen J. Lye and Chun Peng
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(8), 3961; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22083961 - 12 Apr 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3168
Abstract
Hsa-miR-210-3p has been reported to be upregulated in preeclampsia (PE); however, the functions of miR-210-3p in placental development are not fully understood, and, consequently, miR-210-3p’s role in the pathogenesis of PE is still under investigation. In this study, we found that overexpression of [...] Read more.
Hsa-miR-210-3p has been reported to be upregulated in preeclampsia (PE); however, the functions of miR-210-3p in placental development are not fully understood, and, consequently, miR-210-3p’s role in the pathogenesis of PE is still under investigation. In this study, we found that overexpression of miR-210-3p reduced trophoblast migration and invasion, extravillous trophoblast (EVT) outgrowth in first trimester explants, expression of endovascular trophoblast (enEVT) markers and the ability of trophoblast to form endothelial-like networks. In addition, miR-210-3p overexpression significantly downregulated the mRNA levels of interleukin-1B and -8, as well as CXC motif ligand 1. These cytokines have been suggested to play a role in EVT invasion and the recruitment of immune cells to the spiral artery remodeling sites. We also showed that caudal-related homeobox transcription factor 2 (CDX2) is targeted by miR-210-3p and that CDX2 downregulation mimicked the observed effects of miR-210-3p upregulation in trophoblasts. These findings suggest that miR-210-3p may play a role in regulating events associated with enEVT functions and its overexpression could impair spiral artery remodeling, thereby contributing to PE. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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17 pages, 1577 KiB  
Article
Global Changes of 5-mC/5h-mC Ratio and Methylation of Adiponectin and Leptin Gene in Placenta Depending on Mode of Delivery
by Aneta Słabuszewska-Jóźwiak, Marcelina Malinowska, Anna Kloska, Joanna Jakóbkiewicz-Banecka, Mariusz Gujski, Iwona Bojar, Dorota Raczkiewicz and Grzegorz Jakiel
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(6), 3195; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22063195 - 21 Mar 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2685
Abstract
It was suggested that the epigenetic alterations of the placenta are associated with obesity, as well as the delivery mode. This study aimed to assess the effect of maternal outcome and delivery procedure on global placental DNA methylation status, as well as selected [...] Read more.
It was suggested that the epigenetic alterations of the placenta are associated with obesity, as well as the delivery mode. This study aimed to assess the effect of maternal outcome and delivery procedure on global placental DNA methylation status, as well as selected 5’-Cytosine-phosphate-Guanine-3’ (CpG) sites in ADIPOQ and LEP genes. Global DNA methylation profile in the placenta was assessed using the 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC) ratio evaluated with the ELISA, followed by target gene methylation patterns at selected gene regions which were determined using methylation-specific qPCR in 70 placentas from healthy, pregnant women with single pregnancy. We found no statistically significant differences in 5-mC/5-hmC ratio between intrapartum cesarean sections (CS) and vaginal deliveries (p = 0.214), as well as between elective cesarean sections and vaginal deliveries (p = 0.221). In intrapartum cesarean sections, the ADIPOQ demethylation index was significantly higher (the average: 1.75) compared to elective cesarean section (the average: 1.23, p = 0.010) and vaginal deliveries (the average: 1.23, p = 0.011). The LEP demethylation index did not significantly differ among elective CS, intrapartum CS, and vaginal delivery groups. The demethylation index of ADIPOQ correlated negatively with LEP in the placenta in the vaginal delivery group (r = −0.456, p = 0.017), but not with the global methylation. The methylation of a singular locus might be different depending on the mode of delivery and uterine contractions. Further studies should be conducted with locus-specific analysis of the whole genome to detect the methylation index of specific genes involved in metabolism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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23 pages, 2541 KiB  
Article
Association of Maternal Microbiota and Diet in Cord Blood Cytokine and Immunoglobulin Profiles
by Karla Rio-Aige, Ignasi Azagra-Boronat, Malén Massot-Cladera, Marta Selma-Royo, Anna Parra-Llorca, Sonia González, Izaskun García-Mantrana, Margarida Castell, María J. Rodríguez-Lagunas, María Carmen Collado and Francisco José Pérez Cano
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1778; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041778 - 10 Feb 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4433
Abstract
Mothers confer natural passive immunization to their infants through the transplacental pathway during the gestation period. The objective of the present study was to establish at birth the maternal and cord plasma concentration and relationship of immunoglobulins (Igs), cytokines (CKs), and adipokines. In [...] Read more.
Mothers confer natural passive immunization to their infants through the transplacental pathway during the gestation period. The objective of the present study was to establish at birth the maternal and cord plasma concentration and relationship of immunoglobulins (Igs), cytokines (CKs), and adipokines. In addition, the impact of the maternal microbiota and diet was explored. The plasma profile of these components was different between mothers and babies, with the levels of many CKs, IgM, IgG2a, IgE, IgA, and leptin significantly higher in mothers than in the cord sample. Moreover, the total Igs, all IgG subtypes, IgE, and the Th1/Th2 ratio positively correlated in the mother–infant pair. Maternal dietary components such as monounsaturated fatty acids-polyunsaturated fatty acids and fiber were positively associated with some immune factors such as IgA in cord samples. The microbiota composition clustering also influenced the plasma profile of some factors (i.e., many CKs, some Ig, and adiponectin). In conclusion, we have established the concentration of these immunomodulatory factors in the maternal–neonatal pair at birth, some positive associations, and the influence of maternal diet and the microbiota composition, suggesting that the immune status during pregnancy, in terms of CKs and Igs levels, can influence the immune status of the infant at birth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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17 pages, 2935 KiB  
Article
Sodium Hydrogen Exchanger Regulatory Factor-1 (NHERF1) Regulates Fetal Membrane Inflammation
by Ananth Kumar Kammala, Samantha Sheller-Miller, Enkhtuya Radnaa, Talar Kechichian, Hariharan Subramanian and Ramkumar Menon
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(20), 7747; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21207747 - 20 Oct 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3293
Abstract
The fetal inflammatory response, a key contributor of infection-associated preterm birth (PTB), is mediated by nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) activation. Na+/H+ exchanger regulatory factor-1 (NHERF1) is an adapter protein that can regulate intracellular signal transduction and thus influence NF-kB [...] Read more.
The fetal inflammatory response, a key contributor of infection-associated preterm birth (PTB), is mediated by nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) activation. Na+/H+ exchanger regulatory factor-1 (NHERF1) is an adapter protein that can regulate intracellular signal transduction and thus influence NF-kB activation. Accordingly, NHERF1 has been reported to enhance proinflammatory cytokine release and amplify inflammation in a NF-kB-dependent fashion in different cell types. The objective of this study was to examine the role of NHERF1 in regulating fetal membrane inflammation during PTB. We evaluated the levels of NHERF1 in human fetal membranes from term labor (TL), term not in labor (TNIL), and PTB and in a CD1 mouse model of PTB induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Additionally, primary cultures of fetal membrane cells were treated with LPS, and NHERF1 expression and cytokine production were evaluated. Gene silencing methods using small interfering RNA targeting NHERF1 were used to determine the functional relevance of NHERF1 in primary cultures. NHERF1 expression was significantly (p < 0.001) higher in TL and PTB membranes compared to TNIL membranes, and this coincided with enhanced (p < 0.01) interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 expression levels. LPS-treated animals delivering PTB had increased levels of NHERF1, IL-6, and IL-8 compared to phosphate-buffered saline (PBS; control) animals. Silencing of NHERF1 expression resulted in a significant reduction in NF-kB activation and IL-6 and IL-8 production as well as increased IL-10 production. In conclusion, downregulation of NHERF1 increased anti-inflammatory IL-10, and reducing NHERF1 expression could be a potential therapeutic strategy to reduce the risk of infection/inflammation associated with PTB. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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Review

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11 pages, 636 KiB  
Review
Varicocele, Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: From Mechanisms of Action in Animal Models to Therapeutic Application
by Herbert Ryan Marini, Antonio Micali, Domenico Puzzolo, Letteria Minutoli and Pietro Antonuccio
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(24), 16118; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232416118 - 17 Dec 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5131
Abstract
Varicocele is one of the main causes of infertility in men, thus representing an important clinical problem worldwide. Inflammation contributes mainly to its pathogenesis, even if the exact pathophysiological mechanisms that correlate varicocele and infertility are still unknown. In addition, oxidative stress, apoptosis, [...] Read more.
Varicocele is one of the main causes of infertility in men, thus representing an important clinical problem worldwide. Inflammation contributes mainly to its pathogenesis, even if the exact pathophysiological mechanisms that correlate varicocele and infertility are still unknown. In addition, oxidative stress, apoptosis, hypoxia, and scrotal hyperthermia seem to play important roles. So far, the treatment of varicocele and the care of the fertility-associated problems still represent an area of interest for researchers, although many advances have occurred over the past few years. Recent experimental animal studies, as well as the current epidemiological evidence in humans, demonstrated that many functional foods of natural origin and nutraceuticals that are particularly abundant in the Mediterranean diet showed anti-inflammatory effects in varicocele. The aim of the present narrative review is to mainly evaluate recent experimental animal studies regarding the molecular mechanisms of varicocele and the state of the art about possible therapeutic approaches. As the current literature demonstrates convincing associations between diet, food components and fertility, the rational intake of nutraceuticals, which are particularly abundant in foods typical of plant-based eating patterns, may be a reliable therapeutic supportive care against varicocele and, consequently, could be very useful in the cure of fertility-associated problems in patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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22 pages, 695 KiB  
Review
An Overview of Neonatal Lupus with Anti-Ro Characteristics
by Malgorzata Gryka-Marton, Dariusz Szukiewicz, Justyna Teliga-Czajkowska and Marzena Olesinska
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(17), 9281; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22179281 - 27 Aug 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6014
Abstract
Neonatal lupus erythematosus (NLE) is a syndrome of clinical symptoms observed in neonates born to mothers with antibodies to soluble antigens of the cell nucleus. The main factors contributing to the pathogenesis of this disease are anti-Sjögren Syndrome A (anti-SS-A) antibodies, known as [...] Read more.
Neonatal lupus erythematosus (NLE) is a syndrome of clinical symptoms observed in neonates born to mothers with antibodies to soluble antigens of the cell nucleus. The main factors contributing to the pathogenesis of this disease are anti-Sjögren Syndrome A (anti-SS-A) antibodies, known as anti-Ro, and anti-Sjögren Syndrome B (anti-SS-B) antibodies, known as anti-La. Recent publications have also shown the significant role of anti-ribonucleoprotein antibodies (anti-RNP). Seropositive mothers may have a diagnosed rheumatic disease or they can be asymptomatic without diagnosis at the time of childbirth. These antibodies, after crossing the placenta, may trigger a cascade of inflammatory reactions. The symptoms of NLE can be divided into reversible symptoms, which concern skin, hematological, and hepatological changes, but 2% of children develop irreversible symptoms, which include disturbances of the cardiac stimulatory and conduction system. Preconceptive care and pharmacological prophylaxis of NLE in the case of mothers from the risk group are important, as well as the monitoring of the clinical condition of the mother and fetus throughout pregnancy and the neonatal period. The aim of this manuscript is to summarize the previous literature and current state of knowledge about neonatal lupus and to discuss the role of anti-Ro in the inflammatory process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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18 pages, 392 KiB  
Review
Molecular Changes on Maternal–Fetal Interface in Placental Abruption—A Systematic Review
by Monika Bączkowska, Magdalena Zgliczyńska, Jan Faryna, Ewa Przytuła, Błażej Nowakowski and Michał Ciebiera
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(12), 6612; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22126612 - 21 Jun 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4186
Abstract
Placental abruption is the separation of the placenta from the lining of the uterus before childbirth. It is an infrequent perinatal complication with serious after-effects and a marked risk of maternal and fetal mortality. Despite the fact that numerous placental abruption risk factors [...] Read more.
Placental abruption is the separation of the placenta from the lining of the uterus before childbirth. It is an infrequent perinatal complication with serious after-effects and a marked risk of maternal and fetal mortality. Despite the fact that numerous placental abruption risk factors are known, the pathophysiology of this issue is multifactorial and not entirely clear. The aim of this review was to examine the current state of knowledge concerning the molecular changes on the maternal–fetal interface occurring in placental abruption. Only original research articles describing studies published in English until the 15 March 2021 were considered eligible. Reviews, book chapters, case studies, conference papers and opinions were excluded. The systematic literature search of PubMed/MEDLINE and Scopus databases identified 708 articles, 22 of which were analyzed. The available evidence indicates that the disruption of the immunological processes on the maternal–fetal interface plays a crucial role in the pathophysiology of placental abruption. The features of chronic non-infectious inflammation and augmented immunological cytotoxic response were found to be present in placental abruption samples in the reviewed studies. Various molecules participate in this process, with only a few being examined. More advanced research is needed to fully explain this complicated process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
26 pages, 3508 KiB  
Review
The Immunological Role of the Placenta in SARS-CoV-2 Infection—Viral Transmission, Immune Regulation, and Lactoferrin Activity
by Iwona Bukowska-Ośko, Marta Popiel and Paweł Kowalczyk
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(11), 5799; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22115799 - 28 May 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7909
Abstract
A pandemic of acute respiratory infections, due to a new type of coronavirus, can cause Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and has created the need for a better understanding of the clinical, epidemiological, and pathological features of COVID-19, especially in high-risk groups, [...] Read more.
A pandemic of acute respiratory infections, due to a new type of coronavirus, can cause Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and has created the need for a better understanding of the clinical, epidemiological, and pathological features of COVID-19, especially in high-risk groups, such as pregnant women. Viral infections in pregnant women may have a much more severe course, and result in an increase in the rate of complications, including spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, and premature birth—which may cause long-term consequences in the offspring. In this review, we focus on the mother-fetal-placenta interface and its role in the potential transmission of SARS-CoV-2, including expression of viral receptors and proteases, placental pathology, and the presence of the virus in neonatal tissues and fluids. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the anti-viral activity of lactoferrin during viral infection in pregnant women, analyzes its role in the pathogenicity of pandemic virus particles, and describes the potential evidence for placental blocking/limiting of the transmission of the virus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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18 pages, 1298 KiB  
Review
The Role of B Cells in PE Pathophysiology: A Potential Target for Perinatal Cell-Based Therapy?
by Marta Magatti, Alice Masserdotti, Anna Cargnoni, Andrea Papait, Francesca Romana Stefani, Antonietta Rosa Silini and Ornella Parolini
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(7), 3405; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073405 - 26 Mar 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4776
Abstract
The pathophysiology of preeclampsia (PE) is poorly understood; however, there is a large body of evidence that suggests a role of immune cells in the development of PE. Amongst these, B cells are a dominant element in the pathogenesis of PE, and they [...] Read more.
The pathophysiology of preeclampsia (PE) is poorly understood; however, there is a large body of evidence that suggests a role of immune cells in the development of PE. Amongst these, B cells are a dominant element in the pathogenesis of PE, and they have been shown to play an important role in various immune-mediated diseases, both as pro-inflammatory and regulatory cells. Perinatal cells are defined as cells from birth-associated tissues isolated from term placentas and fetal annexes and more specifically from the amniotic membrane, chorionic membrane, chorionic villi, umbilical cord (including Wharton’s jelly), the basal plate, and the amniotic fluid. They have drawn particular attention in recent years due to their ability to modulate several aspects of immunity, making them promising candidates for the prevention and treatment of various immune-mediated diseases. In this review we describe main findings regarding the multifaceted in vitro and in vivo immunomodulatory properties of perinatal cells, with a focus on B lymphocytes. Indeed, we discuss evidence on the ability of perinatal cells to inhibit B cell proliferation, impair B cell differentiation, and promote regulatory B cell formation. Therefore, the findings discussed herein unveil the possibility to modulate B cell activation and function by exploiting perinatal immunomodulatory properties, thus possibly representing a novel therapeutic strategy in PE. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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22 pages, 1479 KiB  
Review
The Role of TNF-α and Anti-TNF-α Agents during Preconception, Pregnancy, and Breastfeeding
by Katarzyna Romanowska-Próchnicka, Anna Felis-Giemza, Marzena Olesińska, Piotr Wojdasiewicz, Agnieszka Paradowska-Gorycka and Dariusz Szukiewicz
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(6), 2922; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22062922 - 13 Mar 2021
Cited by 69 | Viewed by 11796
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a multifunctional Th1 cytokine and one of the most important inflammatory cytokines. In pregnancy, TNF-α influences hormone synthesis, placental architecture, and embryonic development. It was also shown that increased levels of TNF-α are associated with pregnancy loss and [...] Read more.
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a multifunctional Th1 cytokine and one of the most important inflammatory cytokines. In pregnancy, TNF-α influences hormone synthesis, placental architecture, and embryonic development. It was also shown that increased levels of TNF-α are associated with pregnancy loss and preeclampsia. Increased TNF-α levels in complicated pregnancy draw attention to trophoblast biology, especially migratory activity, syncytialisation, and endocrine function. Additionally, elevated TNF-α levels may affect the maternal-fetal relationship by altering the secretory profile of placental immunomodulatory factors, which in turn affects maternal immune cells. There is growing evidence that metabolic/pro-inflammatory cytokines can program early placental functions and growth in the first trimester of pregnancy. Furthermore, early pregnancy placenta has a direct impact on fetal development and maternal immune system diseases that release inflammatory (e.g., TNF-α) and immunomodulatory factors, such as chronic inflammatory rheumatic, gastroenterological, or dermatological diseases, and may result in an abnormal release of cytokines and chemokines in syncytiotrophoblasts. Pregnancy poses a challenge in the treatment of chronic disease in patients who plan to have children. The activity of the disease, the impact of pregnancy on the course of the disease, and the safety of pharmacotherapy, including anti-rheumatic agents, in pregnancy should be considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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21 pages, 2560 KiB  
Review
Placental Immune Responses to Viruses: Molecular and Histo-Pathologic Perspectives
by Kavita Narang, Elizabeth H. Cheek, Elizabeth Ann L. Enninga and Regan N. Theiler
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(6), 2921; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22062921 - 13 Mar 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 8567
Abstract
As most recently demonstrated by the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, congenital and perinatal infections are of significant concern to the pregnant population as compared to the general population. These outcomes can range from no apparent impact all the way to spontaneous abortion or fetal infection [...] Read more.
As most recently demonstrated by the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, congenital and perinatal infections are of significant concern to the pregnant population as compared to the general population. These outcomes can range from no apparent impact all the way to spontaneous abortion or fetal infection with long term developmental consequences. While some pathogens have developed mechanisms to cross the placenta and directly infect the fetus, other pathogens lead to an upregulation in maternal or placental inflammation that can indirectly cause harm. The placenta is a temporary, yet critical organ that serves multiple important functions during gestation including facilitation of fetal nutrition, oxygenation, and prevention of fetal infection in utero. Here, we review trophoblast cell immunology and the molecular mechanisms utilized to protect the fetus from infection. Lastly, we discuss consequences in the placenta when these protections fail and the histopathologic result following infection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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17 pages, 883 KiB  
Review
The Impact of Selected Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Diseases on Pregnancy and Female Fertility
by Katarzyna Smolarczyk, Beata Mlynarczyk-Bonikowska, Ewa Rudnicka, Dariusz Szukiewicz, Blazej Meczekalski, Roman Smolarczyk and Wojciech Pieta
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 2170; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22042170 - 22 Feb 2021
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 13907
Abstract
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis and Mycoplasma genitalium are a common cause of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) which can lead to tubal factor infertility (TFI). TFI is one of the most common causes of infertility, accounting for [...] Read more.
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis and Mycoplasma genitalium are a common cause of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) which can lead to tubal factor infertility (TFI). TFI is one of the most common causes of infertility, accounting for 30% of female fertility problems. STIs can also have an impact on pregnancy, leading to adverse pregnancy outcomes. Escalating antibiotic resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Mycoplasma genitalium represents a significant problem and can be therapeutically challenging. We present a comprehensive review of the current treatment options, as well as the molecular approach to this subject. We have given special attention to molecular epidemiology, molecular diagnostics, current and new treatments, and drug resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive Immunology and Pregnancy)
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