Materials

2024

Jump to: 2023, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019

16 pages, 7825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wettability and Mechanical Properties of Red Mud–Al₂O₃ Composites

by Yongliang Chen, Anmin Li and Shiwei Jiang

Materials 2024, 17(5), 1095; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17051095 - 28 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1421

Abstract

In 2023, the global production of new red mud is expected to reach nearly 200 million tons, but less than 10% of it is currently being utilized in an environmentally friendly manner. To reduce the sintering temperature of alumina ceramics, a sintering aid [...] Read more.

In 2023, the global production of new red mud is expected to reach nearly 200 million tons, but less than 10% of it is currently being utilized in an environmentally friendly manner. To reduce the sintering temperature of alumina ceramics, a sintering aid method is used, as high-purity alumina ceramics require a solid-phase sintering temperature of over 1700 °C. The metal oxides present in red mud are necessary components for high-performance composite alumina ceramics. Composites were obtained by mixing and sintering red mud and Al₂O₃. This study focused on the mechanical properties and wettability of these composites. The results indicated that the 10% red mud–Al₂O₃ composite exhibited the highest hardness (20.12 GPa) and flexural strength (346 MPa). This is attributed to the formation of a mineral phase dominated by CaAl₁₂O₁₉, generated by the red mud during the sintering process, which filled the pores and reduced porosity. The surface energy of the red mud–Al₂O₃ composite was the highest at room temperature and high temperature, reaching 49.60

m J \cdot m^{- 2}

and 1164.7

m J \cdot m^{- 2}

, respectively, indicating that it has better stability at both room and high temperatures. This study provides an important fundamental basis for the application of red mud–alumina composites to replace alumina-based composites in the field of construction materials, molten metal filters, ceramic cleavers, etc. Full article

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2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019

20 pages, 4310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Composite Resins Impregnated by Phosphorus Organic Extractants for Separation of Rare Earth Elements from Nitrate-Based Leachate of Permanent Magnets

by Olga V. Kovalenko, Vladimir E. Baulin, Yuri M. Shulga, Dmitriy V. Baulin, Gennady L. Gutsev and Aslan Yu. Tsivadze

Materials 2023, 16(19), 6614; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16196614 - 9 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1493

Abstract

Composite resins impregnated by different organophosphorus extractants were developed and used for the extraction chromatography recovery of rare earth elements from nitrate-based leachate of NdFeB permanent magnets. The influence of different factors on recovery of Nd(III) and Fe(III), as the most difficult to [...] Read more.

Composite resins impregnated by different organophosphorus extractants were developed and used for the extraction chromatography recovery of rare earth elements from nitrate-based leachate of NdFeB permanent magnets. The influence of different factors on recovery of Nd(III) and Fe(III), as the most difficult to separate elements, by developed resins was studied. The influence of extractant structure, the composition of feed solutions, and concentrations of HNO₃ and NH₄NO₃ on the recovery of Fe(III) and Nd(III) by prepared resins were considered. The best recovery of Nd(III) was shown by resin impregnated with N,N-dioctyl (diphenylphosphoryl) acetamide. For this material, sorption characteristics (values of the distribution coefficient, capacity, and the Nd(III)/Fe(III) separation factor) were obtained, and the reproducibility of the loading–stripping process was evaluated. This resin and its precursors were characterized by IR spectroscopy. It was found that the developed resin is more efficient for Nd(III) recovery than resin impregnated with TODGA. An effective approach to the Nd(III)/Fe(III) separation with developed resin in nitrate solution was proposed. This approach was used for recovery of Pr(III), Nd(III), and Dy(III) from the nitrate-based leachate of NdFeB magnets by the developed resin. The final product contained 99.6% of rare earths. Full article

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13 pages, 3544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical and Structural Properties of Composites Based on Poly(urethane) and TiO₂ Nanowires

by Malvina Stroe, Teodora Burlanescu, Mirela Paraschiv, Adam Lőrinczi, Elena Matei, Romeo Ciobanu and Mihaela Baibarac

Materials 2023, 16(4), 1742; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16041742 - 20 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1909

Abstract

This article’s objective is the synthesis of new composites based on thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and TiO₂ nanowires (NWs) as free-standing films, highlighting their structural and optical properties. The free-standing TPU–TiO₂ NW films were prepared by a wet chemical method accompanied by [...] Read more.

This article’s objective is the synthesis of new composites based on thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and TiO₂ nanowires (NWs) as free-standing films, highlighting their structural and optical properties. The free-standing TPU–TiO₂ NW films were prepared by a wet chemical method accompanied by a thermal treatment at 100 °C for 1 h, followed by air-drying for 2 h. X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies indicated that the starting commercial TiO₂ NW sample contains TiO₂ tetragonal anatase (A), cubic Ti_0.91O (C), and orthorhombic Ti₂O₃ (OR), as well as monoclinic H₂Ti₃O₇ (M). In the presence of TPU, an increase in the ratio between the intensities of the diffraction peaks at 43.4° and 48° belonging to the C and A phases of titanium dioxide, respectively, is reported. The increase in the intensity of the peak at 43.4° is explained to be a consequence of the interaction of TiO₂ NWs with PTU, which occurs when the formation of suboxides takes place. The variation in the ratio of the absorbance of the IR bands peaked at 765–771 cm⁻¹ and 3304–3315 cm⁻¹ from 4.68 to 4.21 and 3.83 for TPU and the TPU–TiO₂ NW composites, respectively, with TiO₂ NW concentration equal to 2 wt.% and 17 wt.%, indicated a decrease in the higher-order aggregates of TPU with a simultaneous increase in the hydrogen bonds established between the amide groups of TPU and the oxygen atoms of TiO₂ NWs. The decrease in the ratio of the intensity of the Raman lines peaked at 658 cm⁻¹ and 635 cm⁻¹, which were assigned to the vibrational modes E_g in TiO₂ A and E_g in H₂Ti₃O₇ (I_TiO2-A/I_H2Ti3O7), respectively, from 3.45 in TiO₂ NWs to 0.94–0.96 in the TPU–TiO₂ NW composites, which indicates that the adsorption of TPU onto TiO₂ NWs involves an exchange reaction of TPU in the presence of TiO₂ NWs, followed by the formation of new hydrogen bonds between the -NH- of the amide group and the oxygen atoms of Ti_xO_2x-mn, Ti₂O₃, and Ti_0.91O. Photoluminescence (PL) studies highlighted a gradual decrease in the intensity of the TPU emission band, which is situated in the spectral range 380–650 nm, in the presence of TiO₂ NW. After increasing the TiO₂ NW concentration in the TPU–TiO₂ NW composite mass from 0 wt.% to 2 wt.% and 17 wt.%, respectively, a change in the binding angle of the TPU onto the TiO₂ NW surface from 12.6° to 32° and 45.9°, respectively, took place. Full article

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2022

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2021, 2020, 2019

28 pages, 6494 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural and Charge Transport Properties of Composites of Phosphate-Silicate Protonic Glass with Uranyl Hydroxy-Phosphate and Hydroxy-Arsenate Obtained by Mechano-Chemical Synthesis Undergoing Hydration Changes

by Karolina Majewska, Maja Mroczkowska-Szerszeń, Rafał Letmanowski, Piotr Ryś, Wojciech Pudełko, Magdalena Dudek, Aldona Zalewska, Norbert Obarski, Lidia Dudek, Michał Piszcz, Grażyna Zofia Żukowska and Maciej Siekierski

Materials 2023, 16(1), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010267 - 27 Dec 2022

Viewed by 2016

Abstract

The introduction of the hydrogen economy, despite its obvious technological problems, creates a need for a significant number of niche-focused solutions, such as small-sized (10–100 W) fuel cells able to run on hydrogen of lesser purity than what is considered a standard in [...] Read more.

The introduction of the hydrogen economy, despite its obvious technological problems, creates a need for a significant number of niche-focused solutions, such as small-sized (10–100 W) fuel cells able to run on hydrogen of lesser purity than what is considered a standard in the case of PEMFCs. One of the solutions can be derived from the fact that an increase in the operational temperature of a cell significantly decreases its susceptibility to catalyst poisoning. Electrolytes suitable for the so-called medium temperature operational range of 120–400 °C, hence developed, are neither commercialized nor standardized. Among them, phosphate silicate protonically conductive glasses were found not only to reveal interestingly high levels of operational parameters, but also, to exhibit superior chemical and electrochemical stability over their polymeric counterparts. On the other hand, their mechanical properties, including cracking fragility, still need elaboration. Initial studies of the composite phosphate silicate glasses with uranyl-based protonic conductors, presented here, proved their value both in terms of application in fuel cell systems, and in terms of understanding the mechanism governing the charge transport mechanism in these and similar systems. It was found that whereas systems containing 10–20 wt% of the crystalline additive suffer from significant instability, materials containing 45–80 wt% (with an optimum at 60%) should be examined more thoughtfully. Moreover, the uranyl hydrogen phosphate was found to surpass its arsenate counterpart as an interesting self-healing behavior of the phase structure of the derived composite was proved. Full article

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19 pages, 3770 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Constituent Parameter Identification of Braided Composite Based on Sensitivity Analysis

by Dong Jiang, Shitao Xie, Furong Qin, Dahai Zhang and Rui Zhu

Materials 2022, 15(24), 8794; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248794 - 9 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1494

Abstract

Mechanical properties of the constituent material of fiber-reinforced braided composites will inevitably change after the manufacturing process. An approach to constituent parameters’ identification of braided composites was proposed to obtain the basic information of composites for structural analysis. Identification of the constituent parameters [...] Read more.

Mechanical properties of the constituent material of fiber-reinforced braided composites will inevitably change after the manufacturing process. An approach to constituent parameters’ identification of braided composites was proposed to obtain the basic information of composites for structural analysis. Identification of the constituent parameters was transformed as an optimization problem, which was solved by adopting the sensitivity analysis method, iteratively minimizing the discrepancies between the numerically calculated displacement field and the measured displacement field. The sensitivity matrix of displacements with respect to the constituent parameters was directly derived based on the constitutive material model for the first time. Considering that the large magnitude differences between parameters will lead to an ill-posed problem of the sensitivity matrix, the identification was susceptible to noise from the experimental data, the relative sensitivity was adopted, and a condition number-based response point selection was applied to improve the robustness of the parameter identification. A 2.5-dimensional braided composite was employed to illustrate the constituent parameter identification method by comparing with the finite difference method. In addition, the influence of selected measuring points and measuring errors on the proposed method were discussed. The results showed that the proposed method can be used to identify the constituent parameters efficiently and accurately. When the measured displacements are polluted by noise, the condition number of the sensitivity matrix is an effective indicator of preceding information to enhance the identification accuracy. Full article

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12 pages, 5026 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vibrational Characteristics of a Foam-Filled Short Basalt Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Resin Composite Beetle Elytron Plate

by Jinxiang Chen, Shengchen Du, Chaochao He and Nanxing Zhu

Materials 2022, 15(21), 7748; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217748 - 3 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1603

Abstract

The vibrational properties and mechanism of a foam-filling short basalt fiber reinforced epoxy resin composite beetle elytron plate (EBEP_fc) were studied by experiments and the finite element (FE) method in this paper. The experimental results showed that the natural frequencies of [...] Read more.

The vibrational properties and mechanism of a foam-filling short basalt fiber reinforced epoxy resin composite beetle elytron plate (EBEP_fc) were studied by experiments and the finite element (FE) method in this paper. The experimental results showed that the natural frequencies of the first two modes of the EBEP_fc were very close to those of a foam-filling short basalt fiber reinforced epoxy resin composite honeycomb plate (HP_fc), while the vibrational response of the EBEP_fc was weaker than that of the HP_fc, and the damping ratio was improved; the improvement of the second mode was significant. Therefore, the EBEP_fc had a better vibration reduction performance and could directly replace the HP_fc in engineering applications. The FE results showed that foam filling enhanced the shear stiffness of the whole core structure, and had a more obvious effect on the shear stiffness of the HP_fc. Meanwhile, it particularly reduced the shear force proportions and contributed to the protection of the skin and core skeleton. The mechanisms of the vibrational characteristics of these two types of sandwich plates were explored from the perspective of the equivalent cross-sectional area, shear stiffness, shear strain energy per unit volume and friction. These results provide a valuable reference for the promotion and application of EBEP_fc in the fields of vibration reduction and seismic resistance. Full article

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23 pages, 3350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation and Optimization of the Impact of Printing Orientation on Mechanical Properties of Resin Sample in the Low-Force Stereolithography Additive Manufacturing

by Enshuai Wang, Fei Yang, Xinmin Shen, Zhizhong Li, Xiaocui Yang, Xiangpo Zhang and Wenqiang Peng

Materials 2022, 15(19), 6743; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196743 - 28 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2052

Abstract

The mechanical properties of resin samples in low-force stereolithography additive manufacturing were affected by the printing orientation, and were investigated and optimized to achieve excellent single or comprehensive tensile strength, compressive strength, and flexural modulus. The resin samples were fabricated using a Form3 [...] Read more.

The mechanical properties of resin samples in low-force stereolithography additive manufacturing were affected by the printing orientation, and were investigated and optimized to achieve excellent single or comprehensive tensile strength, compressive strength, and flexural modulus. The resin samples were fabricated using a Form3 3D printer based on light curing technology according to the corresponding national standards, and they were detected using a universal testing machine to test their mechanical properties. The influence of the printing orientation was represented by the rotation angle of the resin samples relative to the x–axis, y–axis and z–axis, and the parameters was selected in the range 0°–90° with an interval of 30°. The multiple regression models for the mechanical properties of the prepared resin samples were obtained based on least square estimation, which offered a foundation from which to optimize the parameters of the printing orientation by cuckoo search algorithm. The optimal parameters for the tensile strength, compressive strength and flexural modulus were ‘α = 45°, β = 25°, γ = 90°’, ‘β = 0°, β = 51°, γ = 85°’ and ‘α = 26°, β = 0°, γ = 90°’, respectively, which obtained the improvements of 80.52%, 15.94%, and 48.85%, respectively, relative to the worst conditions. The mechanism was qualitatively discussed based on the force analysis. The achievements obtained in this study proved that optimization of the printing orientation could improve the mechanical properties of the fabricated sample, which provided a reference for all additive manufacturing methods. Full article

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14 pages, 4056 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gel Point Determination in Resin Transfer Molding Process with Fiber Bragg Grating Inscribed in Side-Hole Elliptical Core Optical Fiber

by Karol Wachtarczyk, Marcel Bender, Ewald Fauster, Ralf Schledjewski, Paweł Gąsior and Jerzy Kaleta

Materials 2022, 15(18), 6497; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186497 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2073

Abstract

Material as well as process variations in the composites industry are reasons to develop methods for in-line monitoring, which would increase reproducibility of the manufacturing process and the final composite products. Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) have shown to be useful for monitoring liquid-composite [...] Read more.

Material as well as process variations in the composites industry are reasons to develop methods for in-line monitoring, which would increase reproducibility of the manufacturing process and the final composite products. Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) have shown to be useful for monitoring liquid-composite molding processes, e.g., in terms of online gel point detection. Existing works however, focus on in-plane strain measurements while out-of-plane residual strain prevails. In order to measure out-of-plane strain, FBG inscribed in highly birefringent fiber (HB FBG) can be used. The purpose of this research is the cure stage detection with (a) FBG inscribed in single mode and (b) FBG inscribed in highly-birefringent side-hole fiber in comparison to the reference gel point detected with an in-mold DC sensor. Results reveal that the curing process is better traceable with HB FBG than with regular FBG. Thus, the use of HB FBG can be a good method for the gel point estimation in the RTM process. Full article

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12 pages, 3875 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calibration of Arrhenius Constitutive Equation for B₄C_p/6063Al Composites in High Temperatures

by Jian Sun, Yunhui Chen, Fuguang Liu, Erjuan Yang, Sijia Wang, Hanguang Fu, Zhixu Qi, Sheng Huang, Jian Yang, Hui Liu and Xiaole Cheng

Materials 2022, 15(18), 6438; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186438 - 16 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1609

Abstract

Isothermal-compression tests of B₄C_p/6063Al composites containing 20 vol.% B₄C were performed using a Gleeble-3500 device, at strain rates ranging from 0.001 s⁻¹ to 1 s⁻¹ and deformation temperatures ranging from 723 K to 823 K. [...] Read more.

Isothermal-compression tests of B₄C_p/6063Al composites containing 20 vol.% B₄C were performed using a Gleeble-3500 device, at strain rates ranging from 0.001 s⁻¹ to 1 s⁻¹ and deformation temperatures ranging from 723 K to 823 K. The results showed that the high-temperature flow stress of B₄C_p/6063Al composites increases with the decrease in deformation temperature or the increase in the strain rate. After friction correction, the friction corrected stress was less than the original experimental stress. At the initial stage of deformation, the difference between the rheological stress after friction correction and the measured rheological stress is small, but with the continuous increase in the strain, the difference between the rheological stress after friction correction and the measured rheological stress is grows. Under the same strain, the difference between the rheological stress before and after friction correction becomes more significant with the decrease in the deformation temperature and the increase in the strain rate. Next, the material constants (i.e., α, β, Q, A, n) of B₄C_p/6063Al composites were calibrated based on the experimental data, and a constitutive equation was established based on Arrhenius theory. The experimental values and predicted values of the stress–strain curves are in good agreement with the stress–strain curves of the finite element simulation, and the validity of the constitutive equation was verified. Full article

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20 pages, 7030 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Thermo-Reflective Coatings for Applications as a Layer of Heat Insulating Materials

by Elżbieta Malewska, Aleksander Prociak, Laima Vevere, Edgars Vanags, Marcin Zemła, Katarzyna Uram, Mikelis Kirpluks, Ugis Cabulis and Mirosław Bryk

Materials 2022, 15(16), 5642; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15165642 - 17 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3521

Abstract

This paper presents new thermo-reflective coatings with different properties. Basic, anti-corrosion and self-extinguishing coatings were analyzed. The coatings were obtained with a thickness varying from 1 to 3 mm. The coatings were subjected to detailed tests assessing their physical-mechanical properties, i.e., tensile strength, [...] Read more.

This paper presents new thermo-reflective coatings with different properties. Basic, anti-corrosion and self-extinguishing coatings were analyzed. The coatings were obtained with a thickness varying from 1 to 3 mm. The coatings were subjected to detailed tests assessing their physical-mechanical properties, i.e., tensile strength, abrasion, pull-off test, water absorption, vapor permeability and thermal properties, i.e., the thermal performance of the reflective coatings, thermal transmittance, thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, as well as thermomechanical analysis and thermal conductivity. In addition, the possibility of using such coatings in a wide range of temperatures and during application to various materials used as a substrate, i.e., concrete, metal and rigid polyurethane foam, was tested. The thermal analysis of coatings revealed that materials are stable to temperatures above 200 °C, there are no thermal transitions in the negative temperature region and shrinking in low temperatures is minimal (less than 0.5%). From the data obtained within the framework of this study, it can be concluded that anticorrosive, basic and self-extinguishing coatings are eligible for thermo-insulation applications in temperatures up to 200 °C. Full article

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18 pages, 3326 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Mechanical and Tribological Behaviors of Aluminum Based Hybrid Metal Matrix Composite and Multi-Objective Optimization

by Biranu Kumsa Gonfa, Devendra Sinha, Umesh Kumar Vates, Irfan Anjum Badruddin, Mohamed Hussien, Sarfaraz Kamangar, Gyanendra Kumar Singh, Gulam Mohammed Sayeed Ahmed, Nand Jee Kanu and Nazia Hossain

Materials 2022, 15(16), 5607; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15165607 - 16 Aug 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2502

Abstract

Aluminum metal matrix composites are potential materials for aerospace and automobile industrial applications due to their enhanced mechanical and tribological properties. Aluminum reinforced with silicon carbide particles has been developed with enhanced mechanical and tribological behavior, but it lacks wettability between matrix and [...] Read more.

Aluminum metal matrix composites are potential materials for aerospace and automobile industrial applications due to their enhanced mechanical and tribological properties. Aluminum reinforced with silicon carbide particles has been developed with enhanced mechanical and tribological behavior, but it lacks wettability between matrix and reinforcement causing weak bonding, which reduces the degree of enhancement. The objectives of this study were to fabricate aluminum-based metal matrix composites with enhanced wettability at varying stirring speeds (350, 450, 550 rpm), stirring time (5, 10, 15 min), weight percentage of SiC (0, 5, 10 wt.%), and weight percentage of MoS₂ (0, 2, 4 wt.%). Nine samples were fabricated using stir casting based on Taguchi L9 orthogonal array. Hardness, tensile strength, and wear rate of the developed composite were investigated and analyzed as a single response characteristic using Taguchi’s signal-to-noise ratio and as a multi-response characteristic using hybrid Taguchi–grey relational analysis (HTGRA). The results revealed that the addition of SiC in the composite produced better hardness, tensile strength, and wear rate. The addition of MoS₂ in the composite showed better hardness and tensile strength only up to 2 wt.% of MoS₂, and in the case of wear rate, the addition of MoS₂ in the composite up to 4% showed better wear resistance. Al–SiC–MoS₂ hybrid composite shows better enhancement in hardness, tensile strength, and wear resistance than the Al–SiC composite. Full article

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17 pages, 3877 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Aluminum Syntactic Foam: Synthesis and Mechanical Characterization

by A. M. Sánchez de la Muela, L. E. García Cambronero, L. F. Malheiros and J. M. Ruiz-Román

Materials 2022, 15(15), 5320; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155320 - 2 Aug 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2627

Abstract

Metal matrix syntactic foams (MMSF) are advanced cellular materials constituted by a system of a minimum of two phases, in which a dispersion of hollow particles is embedded by a continuous metal matrix. The incorporation of porous fillers favors the development of low-density [...] Read more.

Metal matrix syntactic foams (MMSF) are advanced cellular materials constituted by a system of a minimum of two phases, in which a dispersion of hollow particles is embedded by a continuous metal matrix. The incorporation of porous fillers favors the development of low-density materials with exceptional behavior for damping vibrations, impacts, and blast effects, shielding acoustic, thermal, and electromagnetic energies. There are three main techniques to produce them: infiltration casting technique (ICT), stir casting technique (SCT), and powder metallurgy technique (P/M). The first two techniques are used for embedding filler into lower melting point metallic matrices than fillers, in contrast to P/M. The present study demonstrates the feasibility of producing MMSF with components of similar melting points by ICT. The fillers were synthesized in-situ with aluminum and a natural foaming agent from wastes of Spanish white marble quarries. These novel aluminum syntactic foams (ASF) were mechanically characterized following the ISO-13314 and exhibited a porosity, plateau stress, and energy absorption capacity of 41%, 37.65 MPa, 8.62 MJ/m³ (at 35% of densification), respectively. These properties are slightly superior to equal porosity LECA ASF, making these novel ASF suitable for the same applications as LECA-ASF. Full article

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26 pages, 38310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the In-Plane Shear-after-Impact Properties of CFRP Composite Laminates

by Longquan Liu and Wenjun Xu

Materials 2022, 15(14), 5029; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15145029 - 20 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2076

Abstract

Impact loading on carbon fiber reinforced polymer matrix (CFRP) composite laminates can result in a significant reduction in their residual properties, and the (ShAI) properties of the composite material are essential to obtain the material allowable values of the shear dominated composite structures. [...] Read more.

Impact loading on carbon fiber reinforced polymer matrix (CFRP) composite laminates can result in a significant reduction in their residual properties, and the (ShAI) properties of the composite material are essential to obtain the material allowable values of the shear dominated composite structures. In order to obtain the ShAI properties of the composite material in pure shear stress at a coupon level, this study presents theoretical, experimental, and numerical methods and analysis work on the in-plane shear and ShAI properties of the composite laminates. Theoretically, a method of sizing the composite specimen loading in shear is developed through comparing the load values due to buckling and the material failure. Following this, both impact tests using the drop-weight method and ShAI tests using the picture frame test method are conducted, and the influences of the impact energies on the impact damage and the residual ShAI values are evaluated. Moreover, a progressive failure finite element model based on the Hashin’s failure criterion and the cohesive zone model is developed, and a two-step dynamic analysis method is performed to simulate the failure process of the composite laminates under impact loading and ShAI loading. It is found that the impact damage with the cut-off energy, 50 J, causes a 26.8% reduction in the residual strength and the residual effective shear failure strain is about 0.0132. The primary reason of the shear failure is the propagation of both the matrix tensile failure and interlaminar delamination. It can be concluded that the proposed theoretical, experimental, and numerical methods are promising factors to study the ShAI properties of the composite materials. Full article

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14 pages, 3297 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Bamboo Fibrous Tensile Strength Using Modified Weibull Distribution

by Yalew Dessalegn, Balkeshwar Singh, Aart W. van Vuure, Irfan Anjum Badruddin, Habtamu Beri, Mohamed Hussien, Gulam Mohammed Sayeed Ahmed and Nazia Hossain

Materials 2022, 15(14), 5016; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15145016 - 19 Jul 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2127

Abstract

Ethiopia has a large coverage of bamboo plants that are used for furniture making and house building. So far, researchers have not studied the strength of Ethiopian bamboo fibers, which are utilized for composite applications. The current study measured the strength of bamboo [...] Read more.

Ethiopia has a large coverage of bamboo plants that are used for furniture making and house building. So far, researchers have not studied the strength of Ethiopian bamboo fibers, which are utilized for composite applications. The current study measured the strength of bamboo fibers based on various testing lengths and calculated the predictive tensile strength using a modified Weibull distribution. Moreover, the quality of the extraction machine is evaluated based on shape and sensitivity parameters. This research paper incorporates the coefficient of variation of the fiber diameters, considering the defects distribution through the length for measuring the predictive strength of the fibers. The fiber diameters were calculated using the area weight methods, which had its density measured using a Pycnometer. It has been examined that as the testing gauge length and coefficient variation of fiber diameter simultaneously increased, the tensile strength of the bamboo fibers decreased. The shape parameter, sensitivity parameter, and characteristic strength of Injibara bamboo (Y. alpina) are 6.02–7.83, 0.63, and 459–642 MPa, whereas Kombolcha bamboo (B. oldhamii) are 5.87–10.21, 0.33, and 408–638 MPa, as well as Mekaneselam bamboo (Y. alpina) are 5.86–9.63, 0.33 and 488–597 MPa, respectively. Full article

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15 pages, 7927 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonconventional 1,8-Diazafluoren-9-One Aggregates for Green Light Enhancement in Hybrid Biocompatible Media

by Aneta Lewkowicz, Mattia Pierpaoli, Katarzyna Walczewska-Szewc, Martyna Czarnomska, Piotr Bojarski, Robert Bogdanowicz, Stanisław Pogorzelski, Leszek Kułak and Jakub Karczewski

Materials 2022, 15(14), 5012; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15145012 - 19 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2042

Abstract

Organic aggregates currently play a prominent role, mainly for their unique optoelectronic properties in the aggregated state. Such properties can be related to the aggregates’ structure and the molecular packing mode. In the literature, we have well-established models of H and J aggregates [...] Read more.

Organic aggregates currently play a prominent role, mainly for their unique optoelectronic properties in the aggregated state. Such properties can be related to the aggregates’ structure and the molecular packing mode. In the literature, we have well-established models of H and J aggregates defined based on the molecular exciton model. However, unconventional aggregates, the most unrecognized forms, have been generating interest among researchers recently. Within unconventional aggregation, aggregation-induced emission systems (AIE) are considered. In the present work, we discuss the effect of the forming of unconventional aggregation together with the change in dye concentration on the surface energy characteristics of the materials. All materials were prepared as hybrid biocompatible thin films where the matrix is TiO₂ or TiO₂/carbon nanowalls (CNWs) with the incorporated dye in the form of 1,8-diazafluoren-9-one (DFO). Using the time-resolved emission spectra and the determination of surface parameters from contact angle measurements, we indicated the correlation between the changes in such parameters and the concentration of DFO dye in two types of TiO₂ and TiO₂/CNW structures. To examine the propensity of DFO for aggregation, the internal energy of the dye was assessed in several aggregate structures using Quantum chemistry calculations. The results emphasize that DFO is an attractive structure in the design of new fluorophores due to its low molecular weight, the presence of a nitrogen atom that provides good coordination properties, and the ability to form hydrogen bonds. Our studies show that when using suitable matrices, i.e., rigid media, it forms the preferred forms of aggregates in the excited state, characterized by high emission efficiency in the band maximum of around 550 nm. Full article

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28 pages, 11272 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Synthetic Fibers for Polymer Matrix Composites: Performance, Failure Modes and Applications

by Dipen Kumar Rajak, Pratiksha H. Wagh and Emanoil Linul

Materials 2022, 15(14), 4790; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15144790 - 8 Jul 2022

Cited by 78 | Viewed by 10790

Abstract

In the last decade, synthetic fiber, as a reinforcing specialist, has been mainly used in polymer matrix composites (PMC’s) to provide lightweight materials with improved stiffness, modulus, and strength. The significant feature of PMC’s is their reinforcement. The main role of the reinforcement [...] Read more.

In the last decade, synthetic fiber, as a reinforcing specialist, has been mainly used in polymer matrix composites (PMC’s) to provide lightweight materials with improved stiffness, modulus, and strength. The significant feature of PMC’s is their reinforcement. The main role of the reinforcement is to withstand the load applied to the composite. However, in order to fulfill its purpose, the reinforcements must meet some basic criteria such as: being compatible with the matrix, making chemical or adhesion bonds with the matrix, having properties superior to the matrix, presenting the optimal orientation in composite and, also, having a suitable shape. The current review reveals a detailed study of the current progress of synthetic fibers in a variety of reinforced composites. The main properties, failure modes, and applications of composites based on synthetic fibers are detailed both according to the mentioned criteria and according to their types (organic or inorganic fibers). In addition, the choice of classifications, applications, and properties of synthetic fibers is largely based on their physical and mechanical characteristics, as well as on the synthesis process. Finally, some future research directions and challenges are highlighted. Full article

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25 pages, 8248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A VAM-Based Equivalent Model for Triangular Honeycomb Sandwich Panels: Comparison with Numerical and Experimental Data

by Zhen Wang, Xinlong Yang, Wengen Lai, Yifeng Zhong and Rong Liu

Materials 2022, 15(14), 4766; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15144766 - 7 Jul 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2108

Abstract

Due to their complex microstructures, the research on the static and dynamic behaviors of triangular honeycomb sandwich panels (triangular HSPs) is limited. In this study, the effective plate properties of triangular HSP was obtained by the homogenizing of the unit cell, and then [...] Read more.

Due to their complex microstructures, the research on the static and dynamic behaviors of triangular honeycomb sandwich panels (triangular HSPs) is limited. In this study, the effective plate properties of triangular HSP was obtained by the homogenizing of the unit cell, and then the input to a VAM-based two-dimensional equivalent plate model (2D-EPM) to perform static and dynamic analyses. The accuracy of the proposed model for predicting the equivalent stiffness of the triangular HSP was verified by three-point bending experiments of 3D-printed specimens. Then, the static displacement, global buckling, and free vibrations predicted by 2D-EPM were verified with the results from three-dimensional finite element model simulations under various boundary conditions. The influences of structural parameters (including angle, core wall thickness, and cell side length of the unit cell) on the static and dynamic characteristics of triangular HSPs were also investigated, which can provide a useful tool for the modeling and evaluation of triangular HSPs under different conditions. Full article

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16 pages, 4639 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Numerical Modeling Accuracy for Fiber Orientation and Mechanical Properties of Injection Molded Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics

by Riccardo Ivan, Marco Sorgato, Filippo Zanini and Giovanni Lucchetta

Materials 2022, 15(13), 4720; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134720 - 5 Jul 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2035

Abstract

Local fiber alignment in fiber-reinforced thermoplastics is governed by complex flows during the molding process. As fiber-induced material anisotropy leads to non-homogeneous effective mechanical properties, accurate prediction of the final orientation state is critical for integrated structural simulations of these composites. In this [...] Read more.

Local fiber alignment in fiber-reinforced thermoplastics is governed by complex flows during the molding process. As fiber-induced material anisotropy leads to non-homogeneous effective mechanical properties, accurate prediction of the final orientation state is critical for integrated structural simulations of these composites. In this work, a data-driven inverse modeling approach is proposed to improve the physics-based structural simulation of short glass fiber reinforced thermoplastics. The approach is divided into two steps: (1) optimization of the fiber orientation distribution (FOD) predicted by the Reduce Strain Closure (RSC) model, and (2) identification of the composite’s mechanical properties used in the Ramberg–Osgood (RO) multiscale structural model. In both steps, the identification of the model’s parameters was carried out using a Genetic Algorithm. Artificial Neural Networks were used as a machine learning-based surrogate model to approximate the simulation results locally and reduce the computational time. X-ray micro-computed tomography and tensile tests were used to acquire the FOD and mechanical data, respectively. The optimized parameters were then used to simulate a tensile test for a specimen injection molded in a dumbbell-shaped cavity selected as a case study for validation. The FOD prediction error was reduced by 51% using the RSC optimized coefficients if compared with the default coefficients of the RSC model. The proposed data-driven approach, which calculates both the RSC coefficients and the RO parameters by inverse modeling from experimental data, allowed improvement in the prediction accuracy by 43% for the elastic modulus and 59% for the tensile strength, compared with the non-optimized analysis. Full article

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15 pages, 2566 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tensile Modulus of Polymer Halloysite Nanotube Systems Containing Filler–Interphase Networks for Biomedical Requests

by Yasser Zare, Kyong Yop Rhee and Soo-Jin Park

Materials 2022, 15(13), 4715; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134715 - 5 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1914

Abstract

To date, there have been a limited number of studies modeling the tensile modulus in the polymer halloysite nanotube (HNT) systems before or after percolation onset. In this paper, an equation for a composite’s modulus post-percolation onset was developed for HNT-filled samples including [...] Read more.

To date, there have been a limited number of studies modeling the tensile modulus in the polymer halloysite nanotube (HNT) systems before or after percolation onset. In this paper, an equation for a composite’s modulus post-percolation onset was developed for HNT-filled samples including the interphase and HNT network. The dispersed nanoparticles and adjoining interphase part were neglected, because they caused ineffective influences on the stiffness of the system after percolation onset. The developed model reflects the impacts of HNTs’ size, interphase depth, percolation onset and the volume shares and moduli of the HNT network and its adjacent interphase on the modulus of HNT-based systems. The impacts of issues on the nanocomposite modulus are defendable, confirming the effectiveness of the developed model. HNT length, interphase depth, HNT concentration, net modulus and net portion directly influenced the stiffness, while the HNT radius and percolation onset had inverse effects. Results show that there was a 142% improvement in the modulus of samples at an interphase depth of 40 nm. Moreover, the stiffness improved by 60% at a net modulus of 200 GPa, but it later exhibited a 180% enhancement at a net modulus of 1000 GPa. In addition, the experimental data for the modulus of numerous composites display fine agreement to the predictions, confirming the validity of the developed model. Full article

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18 pages, 3209 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis and Characterization of Functionalized Chitosan Nanoparticles with Pyrimidine Derivative for Enhancing Ion Sorption and Application for Removal of Contaminants

by Mohammed F. Hamza, Yuezhou Wei, Khalid Althumayri, Amr Fouda and Nora A. Hamad

Materials 2022, 15(13), 4676; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134676 - 3 Jul 2022

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 2986

Abstract

Modified chitosan has been widely used for heavy metals removal during the last few decades. In this research, the study was focused on the effect of modified chitosan particles after grafting with heterocyclic constituent for enhancing the sorption of Cr(VI) ions. Chitosan was [...] Read more.

Modified chitosan has been widely used for heavy metals removal during the last few decades. In this research, the study was focused on the effect of modified chitosan particles after grafting with heterocyclic constituent for enhancing the sorption of Cr(VI) ions. Chitosan was functionalized by 2-thioxodihydropyrimidine-4,6(1H,5H)-dione, in which the synthesized composite considered as a nanoscale size with average 5–7 nm. This explains the fast kinetics of sorption with large surface area. The prepared sorbent was characterized by Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), elemental analysis (EA), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET surface area) theory, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), mass spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) analyses. The experimental part of this work involved the application of the synthesized sorbent for the removal of Cr(VI) ions from highly contaminated tannery effluents that are characterized by a high concentration toward chromate ions with other associated toxic elements, i.e., Pb(II) and Cd (II) ions, which underscore the importance of this treatment. Under the selected conditions (K₂Cr₂O₇ salt, C_o: 100 mg L⁻¹ and pH: 4), the sorption diagram shows high Cr(VI) sorption and fast uptake kinetics. The sorption was enhanced by functionalization to 5.7 mmol Cr g⁻¹ as well as fast uptake kinetics; 30 min is sufficient for total sorption compared with 1.97 mmol Cr g⁻¹ and 60 min for the non-grafted sorbent. The Langmuir and Sips equations were fitted for the sorption isotherms, while the pseudo-first order rate equation (PFORE) was fitted for the uptake kinetics. Full article

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12 pages, 3963 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Al-Mg-MoS₂ Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites: Machinability Characteristics

by Rajesh Shanmugavel, Narmada Chinthakndi, Mayakannan Selvam, Naganandhan Madasamy, Senthil Kumar Shanmugakani, Anish Nair, Chander Prakash, Dharam Buddhi and Saurav Dixit

Materials 2022, 15(13), 4548; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134548 - 28 Jun 2022

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 2007

Abstract

Several components are made from Al-Mg-based composites. MoS₂ is used to increase the composite’s machinability. Different weight percent (3, 4, and 5) of MoS₂ are added as reinforcement to explore the machinability properties of Al-Mg-reinforced composites. The wire cut electrical discharge [...] Read more.

Several components are made from Al-Mg-based composites. MoS₂ is used to increase the composite’s machinability. Different weight percent (3, 4, and 5) of MoS₂ are added as reinforcement to explore the machinability properties of Al-Mg-reinforced composites. The wire cut electrical discharge machining (WEDM) process is used to study the machinability characteristics of the fabricated Al-Mg-MoS₂ composite. The machined surface’s roughness and overcut under different process conditions are discussed. The evaluation-based distance from average solution (EDAS) method is used to identify the optimal setting to get the desired surface roughness and overcut. The following WEDM process parameters are taken to determine the impact of peak current, pulse on time, and gap voltage on surface roughness, and overcut. The WEDM tests were carried out on three different reinforced samples to determine the impact of reinforcement on surface roughness and overcut. The surface roughness and overcut increase as the reinforcement level increases, but the optimal parameters for all three composites are the same. According to EDAS analysis, I₃, Ton₂, and V₁ are the best conditions. Furthermore, peak current and pulse on-time significantly influence surface roughness and overcut. Full article

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16 pages, 3504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Age and Harvesting Season on The Tensile Strength of Bamboo-Fibre-Reinforced Epoxy Composites

by Yalew Dessalegn, Balkeshwar Singh, Aart W. van Vuure, Ali A. Rajhi, Gulam Mohammed Sayeed Ahmed and Nazia Hossain

Materials 2022, 15(12), 4144; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124144 - 10 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1889

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to measure the strength of various bamboo fibres and their epoxy composites based on the bamboo ages and harvesting seasons. Three representative samples of 1–3-year-old bamboo plants were collected in November and February. Bamboo fibres and their [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to measure the strength of various bamboo fibres and their epoxy composites based on the bamboo ages and harvesting seasons. Three representative samples of 1–3-year-old bamboo plants were collected in November and February. Bamboo fibres and their epoxy composites had the highest tensile strength and Young’s modulus at 2 years old and in November. The back-calculated tensile strengths using the “rule of mixture” of Injibara, Kombolcha, and Mekaneselam bamboo-fibre-reinforced epoxy composites were 548 ± 40–422 ± 33 MPa, 496 ± 16–339 ± 30 MPa, and 541 ± 21–399 ± 55 MPa, whereas the back-calculated Young’s moduli using the “rule of mixture” were 48 ± 5–37 ± 3 GPa, 36 ± 4–25 ± 3 GPa, and 44 ± 2–40 ± 2 GPa, respectively. The tensile strengths of the Injibara, Kombolcha, and Mekaneselam bamboo-fibre-reinforced epoxy composites were 227 ± 14–171 ± 22 MPa, 255 ± 18–129 ± 15 MPa, and 206 ± 19–151 ± 11 MPa, whereas Young’s moduli were 21 ± 2.9–16 ± 4.24 GPa, 18 ± 0.8–11 ± 0.51 GPa, and 18 ± 0.85–16 ± 0.82 GPa respectively. The highest to the lowest tensile strengths and Young’s moduli of bamboo fibres and their epoxy composites were Injibara, Mekaneselam, and Kombolcha, which were the local regional area names from these fibres were extracted. The intended functional application of the current research study is the automobile industries of headliners, which substitute the conventional materials of glass fibres. Full article

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22 pages, 3290 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Static Stability of Composite Annular Plates with Auxetic Properties

by Dorota Pawlus

Materials 2022, 15(10), 3579; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103579 - 17 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1891

Abstract

This paper presents an evaluation of the static stability of complex, composite annular plates with layers having auxetic properties. The main objective of the numerical investigations is the development of a plate model, which uses an approximate solution based on orthogonalization and finite [...] Read more.

This paper presents an evaluation of the static stability of complex, composite annular plates with layers having auxetic properties. The main objective of the numerical investigations is the development of a plate model, which uses an approximate solution based on orthogonalization and finite difference methods. The three-layered plate is composed of auxetic facings and a soft, foam core. The material properties of the facings are characterized by Poisson’s ratio, the values of which are variously positive and negative. The results obtained for an auxetic plate were compared on the basis of the results for a plate with traditional facings and a plate model built of finite elements. Additionally, in order to verify the calculation results, an analysis of the homogeneous plate was performed. Two plate models built of finite differences and finite elements were compared. The wide image of buckling responses of the examined plates was created on the basis of the calculation results of both compressed and radially stretched plates. An increase in the values of the critical static loads with increasing absolute value of Poisson’s ratio of auxetic facings is one of the observations. Full article

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15 pages, 79315 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Design of S-Duct Structures and Air Intake for Small Aircraft Applied to High Strength Carbon–Epoxy Composite Materials

by Semyeong Lim, Won Choi and Hyunbum Park

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3001; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093001 - 20 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3210

Abstract

Recently, many structural parts using composite materials are being applied to small aircraft and UAV in the world. The aim of this work is to design the engine intake structure of a small aircraft. For structural safety evaluation, a finite element analysis method [...] Read more.

Recently, many structural parts using composite materials are being applied to small aircraft and UAV in the world. The aim of this work is to design the engine intake structure of a small aircraft. For structural safety evaluation, a finite element analysis method was applied. In this work, structural design and numerical analysis of air intake and s-duct structures for small aircraft were performed. The target structure is composed of an s-duct and a cylindrical intake structure. Firstly, an investigation of the mechanical properties of carbon/epoxy material was conducted. The distributed pressure load and acceleration condition was applied to the structural design. The structural design load was investigated considering safety factors. The structural analysis was performed to analyze the validity of the design results. Through the structural analysis using the finite element analysis method, it was confirmed that the designed air intake structure is safe. The manufacturing of the prototype structure will be carried out based on the designed result. Full article

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26 pages, 5962 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Many-Scale Investigations of Deformation Behavior of Polycrystalline Composites: II—Micro-Macro Simultaneous FE and Discrete Dislocation Dynamics Simulation

by Yanling Schneider, Dennis-Michael Rapp, Yifang Yang, Werner Wasserbäch and Siegfried Schmauder

Materials 2022, 15(8), 2852; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082852 - 13 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2122

Abstract

The current work numerically investigates commercial polycrystalline Ag/17vol.%SnO

_{2}

composite tensile deformation behavior with available experimental data. Such composites are useful for electric contacts and have a highly textured initial material status after hot extrusion. Experimentally, the initial sharp fiber texture and the [...] Read more.

The current work numerically investigates commercial polycrystalline Ag/17vol.%SnO

_{2}

composite tensile deformation behavior with available experimental data. Such composites are useful for electric contacts and have a highly textured initial material status after hot extrusion. Experimentally, the initial sharp fiber texture and the number of

Σ

3-twins were reduced due to tensile loading. The local inhomogeneous distribution of hardness and Young’s modulus gradually decreased from nanoindentation tests, approaching global homogeneity. Many-scale simulations, including micro-macro simultaneous finite element (FE) and discrete dislocation dynamics (DDD) simulations, were performed. Deformation mechanisms on the microscale are fundamental since they link those on the macro- and nanoscale. This work emphasizes micromechanical deformation behavior. Such FE calculations applied with crystal plasticity can predict local feature evolutions in detail, such as texture, morphology, and stress flow in individual grains. To avoid the negative influence of boundary conditions (BCs) on the result accuracy, BCs are given on the macrostructure, i.e., the microstructure is free of BCs. The particular type of 3D simulation, axisymmetry, is preferred, in which a 2D real microstructural cutout with 513 Ag grains is applied. From FE results,

Σ

3-twins strongly rotated to the loading direction (twins disappear), which, possibly, caused other grains to rotate away from the loading direction. The DDD simulation treats the dislocations as discrete lines and can predict the resolved shear stress (RSS) inside one grain with dependence on various features as dislocation density and lattice orientation. The RSS can act as the link between the FE and DDD predictions. Full article

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20 pages, 8241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Many-Scale Investigations of the Deformation Behavior of Polycrystalline Composites: I—Machine Learning Applied for Image Segmentation

by Yanling Schneider, Vighnesh Prabhu, Kai Höss, Werner Wasserbäch, Siegfried Schmauder and Zhangjian Zhou

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2486; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072486 - 28 Mar 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2368

Abstract

Our work investigates the polycrystalline composite deformation behavior through multiscale simulations with experimental data at hand. Since deformation mechanisms on the micro-level link the ones on the macro-level and the nanoscale, it is preferable to perform micromechanical finite element simulations based on real [...] Read more.

Our work investigates the polycrystalline composite deformation behavior through multiscale simulations with experimental data at hand. Since deformation mechanisms on the micro-level link the ones on the macro-level and the nanoscale, it is preferable to perform micromechanical finite element simulations based on real microstructures. The image segmentation is a necessary step for the meshing. Our 2D EBSD images contain at least a few hundred grains. Machine learning (ML) was adopted to automatically identify subregions, i.e., individual grains, to improve local feature extraction efficiency and accuracy. Denoising in preprocessing and postprocessing before and after ML, respectively, is beneficial in high quality feature identification. The ML algorithms used were self-developed with the usage of inherent code packages (Python). The performances of the three supervised ML models—decision tree, random forest, and support vector machine—are compared herein; the latter two achieved accuracies of up to 99.8%. Calculations took about 0.5 h from the original input dataset (EBSD image) to the final output (segmented image) running on a personal computer (CPU: 3.6 GHz). For a realizable manual pixel sortation, the original image was firstly scaled from the initial resolution 1080

^{2}

pixels down to 300

^{2}

. After ML, some manual work was necessary due to the remaining noises to achieve the final image status ready for meshing. The ML process, including this manual work time, improved efficiency by a factor of about 24 compared to a purely manual process. Simultaneously, ML minimized the geometrical deviation between the identified and original features, since it used the original resolution. For serial work, the time efficiency would be enhanced multiplicatively. Full article

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21 pages, 13080 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Properties and Structure of Rotationally Moulded Linear Low-Density Polyethylene Filled with Quartz Flour

by Karolina Głogowska, Przemysław Pączkowski and Bronisław Samujło

Materials 2022, 15(6), 2154; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15062154 - 15 Mar 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2523

Abstract

The objective of this study is to determine selected properties of thin-walled rotationally moulded composite parts. Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) filled with quartz flour (QF, 5–35 wt.%) was tested. High-density polyethylene functionalized with maleic anhydride (HDPE-g-MA) was used as a compatibility agent. Polymer [...] Read more.

The objective of this study is to determine selected properties of thin-walled rotationally moulded composite parts. Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) filled with quartz flour (QF, 5–35 wt.%) was tested. High-density polyethylene functionalized with maleic anhydride (HDPE-g-MA) was used as a compatibility agent. Polymer samples were prepared with and without the compatibility agent (2 wt.% in relation to the QF content). The study investigated the effect of QF content and HDPE-g-MA on the properties of rotationally moulded parts, including their melt flow rate (MFR), thermal properties (DSC and TGA), thermomechanical properties (VST), mechanical and physical properties, microstructure, and geometry. Results showed that the properties of LLDPE/QF with HDPE-g-MA were significantly higher than those of LLDPE/QF without HDPE-g-MA. It was also found that the compatibility agent improved the composite material’s thermal stability. This improvement was attributed to interactions occurring between the composite material components due to the use of the compatibility agent. In addition to that, microscopic examination demonstrated that the use of HDPE-g-MA improved miscibility of the composite material components. The composite samples containing HDPE-g-MA had better surface geometry. Full article

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2021

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2022, 2020, 2019

9 pages, 2822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Prestressing and Temperature on Tensile Strength of Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Plywood

by Rynno Lohmus, Heikko Kallakas, Eero Tuhkanen, Volodymyr Gulik, Madis Kiisk, Kristjan Saal and Targo Kalamees

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4701; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164701 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2578

Abstract

The reinforcement of plywood is demonstrated by laminating pretensioned basalt fibers between veneer sheets, to fabricate so-called prestressed plywood. Belt type basalt fibers bearing a specific adhesion promoting silane sizing were aligned between veneer sheets with 20 mm spacing and were pretensioned at [...] Read more.

The reinforcement of plywood is demonstrated by laminating pretensioned basalt fibers between veneer sheets, to fabricate so-called prestressed plywood. Belt type basalt fibers bearing a specific adhesion promoting silane sizing were aligned between veneer sheets with 20 mm spacing and were pretensioned at 150 N. Three-layer plywood samples were prepared and tested for tensile strength at room temperature and at 150 °C. The room temperature tensile tests revealed a 35% increase in tensile strength for prestressed plywood compared to that of the conventional specimen. The reinforcement effect deteriorated at 150 °C but was restored upon cooling to room temperature. The deterioration is attributed to the weakening of bonding between the basalt fibers and phenolic resin matrix at elevated temperatures due to the softening of the resin. Full article

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18 pages, 7788 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Near-Tip Stress Field of a Notch Terminating at a Bi-Material Interface

by Grzegorz Mieczkowski, Dariusz Szpica, Andrzej Borawski, Mohamed M. Awad, Ahmed Elgarayhi and Mohammed Sallah

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4466; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164466 - 9 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2076

Abstract

The article deals with the problem of a sharp corner, the tip of which is located on the bi-material interface. The paper presents a qualitative and quantitative description of singular stress fields occurring in the tip area of such a stress concentrator. The [...] Read more.

The article deals with the problem of a sharp corner, the tip of which is located on the bi-material interface. The paper presents a qualitative and quantitative description of singular stress fields occurring in the tip area of such a stress concentrator. The qualitative description was obtained by solving the problem of the plane theory of elasticity with appropriately defined boundary conditions. To obtain a quantitative description, it was necessary to determine the values of generalised stress intensity factors (GSIFs). The GSIFs were determined using the developed analytical-numerical method. The calculations were made for various load variants (uniaxial/biaxial tension load, shear load) and notch positions (single/double edge-notched plate, centre-notched plate). Additionally, the impact of notch geometry (height and opening angle) and relative stiffness (Young’s moduli ratio of both components of bi-material) on GSIFs was investigated. It has been noticed that with a decrease in the relative stiffness and an increase in the notch angle or its height, the normalised GSIFs values increased. The obtained results were compared with the data available in the literature and their satisfactory agreement with those presented by other scientists was found. Full article

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18 pages, 8417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Silicone-Based Composites Filled with Manganese Waste

by Maciej Mrówka, Anna Woźniak, Jerzy Nowak, Gabriel Wróbel and Sebastian Sławski

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4459; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164459 - 9 Aug 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2513

Abstract

High-tonnage industrial processes generate high amount of waste. This is a growing problem in the whole world. Neutralizing such waste can be time consuming and costly. One of the possibilities of their reuse is to use them as fillers in polymer composites. Introduction [...] Read more.

High-tonnage industrial processes generate high amount of waste. This is a growing problem in the whole world. Neutralizing such waste can be time consuming and costly. One of the possibilities of their reuse is to use them as fillers in polymer composites. Introduction of the filler in polymer matrix causes change in its mechanical and tribological properties. In the article, the effect of introducing fillers from post-production waste, and its effect on changing the physical properties of silicone-based composites filled with manganese (II) oxide and waste manganese residue was investigated. The composites were made by gravity casting. Composites with 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 wt% of the fillers were examined. The composite materials were subjected to tests such as: density, hardness, resilience, tensile test, abrasion resistance, and ball-on-disc. Microscopic images showed that, the particles of the fillers are uniformly distributed in silicone matrix with the formation of smaller agglomerates. Such agglomerates introduced a discontinuity in the structure of the polymer material, which caused a decrease in the tensile strength and elongation at break for all tested compositions in comparison with the mechanical properties of the silicone used as the matrix. However, it was found that all silicone-based composites filled with manganese (II) oxide and manganese residue showed a reduction in abrasive wear, compared to the reference sample. Full article

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25 pages, 8092 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Microcellular Injection Moulding

by Yifei Ding, Mohammed H. Hassan, Otto Bakker, Srichand Hinduja and Paulo Bártolo

Materials 2021, 14(15), 4209; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14154209 - 28 Jul 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6254

Abstract

Microcellular injection moulding (MuCell^®) is a polymer processing technology that uses a supercritical fluid inert gas, CO₂ or N₂, to produce light-weight products. Due to environmental pressures and the requirement of light-weight parts with good mechanical properties, this [...] Read more.

Microcellular injection moulding (MuCell^®) is a polymer processing technology that uses a supercritical fluid inert gas, CO₂ or N₂, to produce light-weight products. Due to environmental pressures and the requirement of light-weight parts with good mechanical properties, this technology recently gained significant attention. However, poor surface appearance and limited mechanical properties still prevent the wide applications of this technique. This paper reviews the microcellular injection moulding process, main characteristics of the process, bubble nucleation and growth, and major recent developments in the field. Strategies to improve both the surface quality and mechanical properties are discussed in detail as well as the relationships between processing parameters, morphology, and surface and mechanical properties. Modelling approaches to simulate microcellular injection moulding and the mathematical models behind Moldex 3D and Moldflow, the two most commonly used software tools by industry and academia, are reviewed, and the main limitations are highlighted. Finally, future research perspectives to further develop this technology are also discussed. Full article

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16 pages, 2943 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manganese and Nickel Acetylacetonates as Curatives for Chloroprene Rubber Based on Heck’s Reaction

by Anna Dziemidkiewicz and Magdalena Maciejewska

Materials 2021, 14(4), 807; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14040807 - 8 Feb 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2753

Abstract

The commonly used curing system for chloroprene rubber (CR) is a combination of two metal oxides, such as magnesium oxide (MgO) and zinc oxide (ZnO). Application of MgO and ZnO enables to obtain a good balance between processability of rubber compounds and mechanical [...] Read more.

The commonly used curing system for chloroprene rubber (CR) is a combination of two metal oxides, such as magnesium oxide (MgO) and zinc oxide (ZnO). Application of MgO and ZnO enables to obtain a good balance between processability of rubber compounds and mechanical properties of the vulcanizates. Despite high activity in crosslinking reactions, ZnO is classified as ecotoxic to aquatic organisms, thus environmental legislation requires its quantity in technology to be limited. In our studies more environmentally friendly curing systems were applied, which enabled eliminating ZnO from CR compounds. These curing systems consisted of manganese acetylacetonate (Mn(acac)) or nickel acetylacetonate (Ni(acac)) and triethanolamine (TEOA) used as a base necessary to perform Heck’s reaction. Both metal acetylacetonates exhibited high activity in crosslinking reactions, which was confirmed by a great torque increment during rheometric measurements and high degree of elastomer crosslinking. The type of metal acetylacetonate and the amount of TEOA seemed to have less influence on the efficiency of the curing system than the filler used. Rubber compounds filled with carbon black (CB) were characterized by definitely shorter optimal vulcanization times and higher degree of crosslinking compared to CR composites filled with nanosized SiO₂. Moreover, application of the proposed curing systems allowed to obtain CR vulcanizates with mechanical properties comparable with the benchmarks cured with metal oxides. Full article

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2020

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2022, 2021, 2019

17 pages, 3322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of the Selected Physical Modifier on the Dynamical Behavior of the Polymer Composites Used in the Aviation Industry

by Ewelina Kosicka, Marek Borowiec, Marcin Kowalczuk, Aneta Krzyzak and Robert Szczepaniak

Materials 2020, 13(23), 5479; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13235479 - 1 Dec 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3720

Abstract

In this research, an analysis of polymer composite with the matrix of L285-cured hardener H286 and six reinforcement layers of carbon fabric GG 280 T was provided. It involved a comparison of the dynamical behavior responses for three cases of composite structures in [...] Read more.

In this research, an analysis of polymer composite with the matrix of L285-cured hardener H286 and six reinforcement layers of carbon fabric GG 280 T was provided. It involved a comparison of the dynamical behavior responses for three cases of composite structures in the context of the presence of the mass share modifier. The samples with the addition of a physical modifier with varying mass percentages were investigated by being subjected to dynamic tests with specific parameters, i.e., constant excitation amplitude and vibration frequency in the vicinity of the base resonance zone. The analysis allowed for indicating the relationship between the composition of the prepared composites and their dynamic response via stiffness characteristics. In addition, the investigation resulted in determining the range of harmful dynamical operating conditions, which may contribute to damage to the composite structures. Full article

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30 pages, 10895 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study of Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Compounds Modified with Calcium Carbonate and Carbon after Hygrothermal Exposure

by Anna Rudawska

Materials 2020, 13(23), 5439; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13235439 - 29 Nov 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2813

Abstract

The objective of this paper is to analyze the effects of hygrothermal exposure on the mechanical properties of epoxy compounds modified with calcium carbonate or carbon fillers. In addition, comparative tests were carried out with the same parameters as hygrothermal exposure, but the [...] Read more.

The objective of this paper is to analyze the effects of hygrothermal exposure on the mechanical properties of epoxy compounds modified with calcium carbonate or carbon fillers. In addition, comparative tests were carried out with the same parameters as hygrothermal exposure, but the epoxy compounds were additionally exposed to thermal shocks. The analysis used cylindrical specimens produced from two different epoxy compounds. The specimens were fabricated from compounds of epoxy resins, based on Bisphenol A (one mixture modified, one unmodified) and a polyamide curing agent. Some of the epoxy compounds were modified with calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). The remainder were modified with activated carbon (C). Each modifying agent, or filler, was added at a rate of 1 g, 2 g, or 3 g per 100 g of epoxy resin. The effect of the hygrothermal exposure (82 °C temperature and 95% RH humidity) was examined. The effects of thermal shocks, achieved by cycling between 82 °C and −40 °C, on selected mechanical properties of the filler-modified epoxy compounds were investigated. Strength tests were carried out on the cured epoxy compound specimens to determine the shear strength, compression modulus, and compressive strain. The analysis of the results led to the conclusion that the type of tested epoxy compounds and the quantity and type of filler determine the effects of climate chamber aging and thermal shock chamber processing on the compressive strength for the tested epoxy compounds. The different filler quantities, 1–3 g of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) or activated carbon (C), determined the strength parameters, with results varying from the reference compounds and the compounds exposure in the climate chamber and thermal shock chamber. The epoxy compounds which contained unmodified epoxy resin achieved a higher strength performance than the epoxy compounds made with modified epoxy resin. In most instances, the epoxy compounds modified with CaCO₃ had a higher compressive strength than the epoxy compounds modified with C (activated carbon). Full article

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11 pages, 4632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Boric Acid Content in Aluminosilicate Matrix on Mechanical Properties of Carbon Prepreg Composites

by Eliška Haincová and Pavlína Hájková

Materials 2020, 13(23), 5409; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13235409 - 27 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2354

Abstract

This work presents carbon fabric reinforced aluminosilicate matrix composites with content of boric acid, where boron replaces aluminum ions in the matrix and can increase the mechanical properties of composites. Five different amounts of boric acid were added to the alkaline activator for [...] Read more.

This work presents carbon fabric reinforced aluminosilicate matrix composites with content of boric acid, where boron replaces aluminum ions in the matrix and can increase the mechanical properties of composites. Five different amounts of boric acid were added to the alkaline activator for preparing six types (including alkaline activator without boric acid) of composites by the prepreg method. The influence of boric acid content in the matrix on the tensile strength, Young’s modulus and interlaminar strength of composites was studied. Attention was also paid to the influence of boron content on the behavior of the matrix and on the internal structure of composites, which was monitored using a scanning electron microscope. The advantage of the aluminosilicate matrix is its resistance to high temperatures; therefore, tests were also performed on samples affected by temperatures of 400–800 °C. The interlaminar strength obtained by short-beam test were measured on samples exposed to 500 °C either hot (i.e. measured at 500 °C) or cooled down to room temperature. The results showed that the addition of boron to the aluminosilicate matrix of the prepared composites did not have any significant effect on their mechanical properties. The presence of boron affected the brittleness and swelling of the matrix and the differences in mechanical properties were evident in samples exposed to temperatures above 500 °C. All six prepared composites showed tensile strength higher than 320 MPa at laboratory temperature. The boron-free composite had the highest strength 385 MPa. All samples showed a tensile strength higher than 230 MPa at elevated temperatures up to 500 °C. Full article

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20 pages, 3989 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Curing Systems on the Cure Characteristics and Physical Properties of Styrene–Butadiene Elastomer

by Magdalena Maciejewska and Monika Siwek

Materials 2020, 13(23), 5329; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13235329 - 25 Nov 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3264

Abstract

The goal of this work is to study the influence of different curing systems on the cure characteristics and performance of styrene–butadiene elastomer (SBR) filled with carbon black or nanosized silica. A multifunctional additive for rubber compounds, namely Activ8, was applied as an [...] Read more.

The goal of this work is to study the influence of different curing systems on the cure characteristics and performance of styrene–butadiene elastomer (SBR) filled with carbon black or nanosized silica. A multifunctional additive for rubber compounds, namely Activ8, was applied as an additional activator and accelerator to increase the efficiency of sulfur vulcanization and to reduce the content of zinc oxide elastomers cured in the presence of 2-mercaptobenzothizole or 1,3-diphenylguanidine as a primary accelerator. The influence of the curing system composition on the crosslink density and physical properties of SBR vulcanizates, such as mechanical properties, thermal stability, and resistance to thermo-oxidative aging, is also reported. Activ8 effectively supports the vulcanization of SBR compounds, especially filled with nanosized silica. It reduces the optimal vulcanization time of SBR compounds and increases the crosslink density of the vulcanizates. Moreover, vulcanizates with Activ8 exhibit higher tensile strength and better damping properties than elastomer with zinc oxide. Activ8 allows the amount of ZnO to be reduced by 40% without detrimental effects on the crosslink density and mechanical performance compared to the vulcanizates conventionally crosslinked with ZnO. This is an important ecological goal since ZnO is classified as being toxic to aquatic species. Full article

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21 pages, 6749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Alumina Nano-Particles on Physical and Mechanical Properties of Medium Density Fiberboard

by Hisham Alabduljabbar, Rayed Alyousef, Waheed Gul, Syed Riaz Akbar Shah, Afzal Khan, Razaullah Khan and Abdulaziz Alaskar

Materials 2020, 13(18), 4207; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13184207 - 22 Sep 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3510

Abstract

This research aims to explore the effects of nanoparticles such as alumina (Al₂O₃) on the physical and mechanical properties of medium density fiberboards (MDF). The nanoparticles are added in urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin with different concentration levels e.g., 1.5%, 3%, [...] Read more.

This research aims to explore the effects of nanoparticles such as alumina (Al₂O₃) on the physical and mechanical properties of medium density fiberboards (MDF). The nanoparticles are added in urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin with different concentration levels e.g., 1.5%, 3%, and 4.5% by weight. A combination of forest fibers such as Populus Deltuidess (Poplar) and Euamericana (Ghaz) are used as a composite reinforcement due to their exceptional abrasion confrontation as well as their affordability and economic value with Al₂O₃-UF as a matrix or nanofillers for making the desired nanocomposite specimens. Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) and thermal analytical analysis (TAA) in the form of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) are carried out and it has been found that increasing the percentage of alumina nanoparticles leads to an increase in the total heat content. The mechanical properties such as internal bonding (IB), modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR), and physical properties such as density, water absorption (WA), and thickness swelling (TS) of the specimens have been investigated. The experimental results showed that properties of the new Nano-MDF are higher when compared to the normal samples. The results also showed that increasing the concentration of alumina nanoparticles in the urea-formaldehyde resin effects the mechanical properties of panels considerably. Full article

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10 pages, 4142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructures and Properties of AlMgTi-Based Metal-Intermetallic Laminate Composites by Dual-Steps Vacuum Hot Pressing

by Linggang Meng, Bingwen Zhou, Bin Ya, Dong Jing, Yingxi Jiang, Danning Zhang and Xingguo Zhang

Materials 2020, 13(18), 3932; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13183932 - 5 Sep 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2368

Abstract

AlMgTi-based metal–intermetallic laminated composites were successfully fabricated through an innovative dual-step vacuum hot pressing. First, this study prepares the AlTi-based laminated composites by vacuum hot pressing at 650 °C. Then, the researchers place the Mg-Al-1Zn (AZ31) magnesium alloy between the prepared AlTi-based laminated [...] Read more.

AlMgTi-based metal–intermetallic laminated composites were successfully fabricated through an innovative dual-step vacuum hot pressing. First, this study prepares the AlTi-based laminated composites by vacuum hot pressing at 650 °C. Then, the researchers place the Mg-Al-1Zn (AZ31) magnesium alloy between the prepared AlTi-based laminated composites at 430 °C for hot pressing. This study investigates the microstructure, phase composition, and microhardness distribution across interfaces of the intermetallics and metal. A multilayer phase (Mg₁₇Al₁₂, Al₃Mg₂, and transition layers) structure can be found from the diffusion layers between Al and AZ31. The microhardness of the material presents a wavy distribution in the direction perpendicular to the layers; the maximum can be up to 600.0 HV0.2 with a minimum of 28.7 HV0.2 The microhardness gradient of an AlMgTi-based composite is smoother due to the different microhardness of the layers, and reduces the interface stress concentration. The bending strength of AlMgTi-based composites can reach 265 MPa, and the specific strength is 105 × 10³ Nm/kg, higher than AlTi-based composites. Full article

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24 pages, 11782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of the Hybridization Process on the Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Polyoxymethylene (POM) Composites with the Use of a Novel Sustainable Reinforcing System Based on Biocarbon and Basalt Fiber (BC/BF)

by Jacek Andrzejewski, Bartosz Gapiński, Aminul Islam and Marek Szostak

Materials 2020, 13(16), 3496; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13163496 - 7 Aug 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3583

Abstract

The presented work focuses on the assessment of the material performance of polyoxymethylene (POM)-based composites reinforced with the use of a biocarbon/basalt fiber system (BC/BF). The use of BC particles was aimed at eliminating mineral fillers (chalk, talc) by using fully biobased material, [...] Read more.

The presented work focuses on the assessment of the material performance of polyoxymethylene (POM)-based composites reinforced with the use of a biocarbon/basalt fiber system (BC/BF). The use of BC particles was aimed at eliminating mineral fillers (chalk, talc) by using fully biobased material, while basalt fibers can be considered an alternative to glass fibers (GF). All materials were prepared with the same 20% filler content, the differences concerned the (BC/BF) % ratio. Hybrid samples with (25/75), (50/50), and (75/25) ratios were prepared. Additionally, reference samples were also prepared (POM BC20% and POM BF20%.). Samples prepared by the injection molding technique were subjected to a detailed analysis of mechanical properties (static tensile and Charpy impact tests), thermomechanical characteristics (dynamic mechanical thermal analysis—DMTA, heat deflection temperature - HDT), and thermal and rheological properties (DSC, rotational rheometer tests). In order to assess fiber distribution within the material structure, the samples were scanned by a microtomography method (μCT). The addition of even a significant amount of BC particles did not cause excessive material brittleness, while the elongation and impact strength of all hybrid samples were very similar to the reference POM BF20% sample. The tensile modulus and strength values appear to be strictly dependent on the increasing BF fiber content. Thermomechanical analysis (DMTA, HDT) showed very similar heat resistance for all hybrid samples; the results did not differ from the values for the POM BF20 sample. Full article

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12 pages, 5978 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microwave Curing Characteristics of CFRP Composite Depending on Thickness Variation Using FBG Temperature Sensors

by Heonyoung Kim, Donghoon Kang, Moosun Kim and Min Hye Jung

Materials 2020, 13(7), 1720; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13071720 - 7 Apr 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2929

Abstract

Microwave curing technology, which has seen increased commercialization recently due to its ability to cut the curing time and ensure high quality, requires an understanding of the curing characteristics of composite materials of varying thickness. Therefore, this study aimed to perform cure monitoring [...] Read more.

Microwave curing technology, which has seen increased commercialization recently due to its ability to cut the curing time and ensure high quality, requires an understanding of the curing characteristics of composite materials of varying thickness. Therefore, this study aimed to perform cure monitoring to evaluate the effects of variations in thickness on the quality of microwave curing. For this study, a fiber Bragg grating sensor was used to measure temperature changes in specimens during the curing cycle for cure monitoring which is generally used for optimization of the curing cycle; then, the time taken for temperature increase and overshoot of the specimen, and the times at which the specimen thickness varied, were quantitatively evaluated. Testing confirmed that microwave curing reduced the curing time in the sections in which the temperature rose; also, the specimen thickness caused overshoot of up to approximately 40 °C at the side, which can affect the curing quality of the composite materials. Furthermore, voids were observed on the side of all specimens. The results indicated that, in order to improve the quality of microwave curing of composite materials, the curing cycle should be optimized by considering the characteristics of the microwave curing equipment. Full article

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26 pages, 8676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ultrasonic Welding of Novel Carbon/Elium^® Thermoplastic Composites with Flat and Integrated Energy Directors: Lap Shear Characterisation and Fractographic Investigation

by Somen K. Bhudolia, Goram Gohel, Jayaram Kantipudi, Kah Fai Leong and Robert J. Barsotti, Jr.

Materials 2020, 13(7), 1634; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13071634 - 1 Apr 2020

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 4396

Abstract

The current research work presents a first attempt to investigate the welding attributes of Elium^® thermoplastic resin and the fusion bonding using ultrafast ultrasonic welding technique. The integrated energy director (ED) polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) panel manufacturing was carried out using the Resin [...] Read more.

The current research work presents a first attempt to investigate the welding attributes of Elium^® thermoplastic resin and the fusion bonding using ultrafast ultrasonic welding technique. The integrated energy director (ED) polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) panel manufacturing was carried out using the Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) technique and the scheme is deduced to manufacture a bubble-free panel. Integrated ED configurations and flat specimens with Elium^® film of different thickness at the interface were investigated for ultrasonic welding optimization. Optimised weld time for integrated ED and flat Elium^® panels with film (0.5 mm thick) configuration was found to be 1 s and 5.5 s, respectively. The ED integrated configuration showed the best welding results with a lap shear strength of 18.68 MPa. The morphological assessment has shown significant plastic deformation of Elium^® resin and the shear cusps formation, which enhances the welding strength. This research has the potential to open up an excellent and automated way of joining Elium^® composite parts in automotive, wind turbines, sports, and many other industrial applications. Full article

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26 pages, 3643 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplastic Composites: A Review

by Somen K. Bhudolia, Goram Gohel, Kah Fai Leong and Aminul Islam

Materials 2020, 13(6), 1284; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13061284 - 12 Mar 2020

Cited by 125 | Viewed by 16033

Abstract

The ultrasonic welding (UW) technique is an ultra-fast joining process, and it is used to join thermoplastic composite structures, and provides an excellent bonding strength. It is more cost-efficient as opposed to the conventional adhesive, mechanical and other joining methods. This review paper [...] Read more.

The ultrasonic welding (UW) technique is an ultra-fast joining process, and it is used to join thermoplastic composite structures, and provides an excellent bonding strength. It is more cost-efficient as opposed to the conventional adhesive, mechanical and other joining methods. This review paper presents the detailed progress made by the scientific and research community to date in the direction of the UW of thermoplastic composites. The focus of this paper is to review the recent development of the ultrasonic welding technique for thermoplastic composites to thermoplastic composites, and to dissimilar materials. Different ultrasonic welding modes and their processing parameters, namely, weld time, weld pressure, amplitude, type of energy directors (EDs) affecting the welding quality and the advantages and disadvantages of UW over other bonding techniques, are summarized. The current state of the ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites and their future perspectives are also deliberated. Full article

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18 pages, 6612 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on Ultrasonic Welding Attributes of Novel Carbon/Elium^® Composites

by Somen K. Bhudolia, Goram Gohel, Kah Fai Leong and Robert J. Barsotti, Jr.

Materials 2020, 13(5), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13051117 - 3 Mar 2020

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 5068

Abstract

Joining large and complex polymer–matrix composite structures is becoming increasingly important in industries such as automobiles, aerospace, sports, wind turbines, and others. Ultrasonic welding is an ultra-fast joining process and also provides excellent joint quality as a cost-effective alternative to other joining processes. [...] Read more.

Joining large and complex polymer–matrix composite structures is becoming increasingly important in industries such as automobiles, aerospace, sports, wind turbines, and others. Ultrasonic welding is an ultra-fast joining process and also provides excellent joint quality as a cost-effective alternative to other joining processes. This research aims at investigating the welding characteristics of novel methyl methacrylate Elium^®, a liquid thermoplastic resin. Elium^® is the first of its kind of thermoplastic resin, which is curable at room temperature and is suitable for mass production processes. The welding characteristics of Elium^® composites were investigated by optimizing the welding parameters with specially designed integrated energy directors (ED) and manufactured using the Resin transfer molding process. The results showed a 23% higher lap shear strength for ultrasonically welded composite joints when compared to the adhesively bonded joints. The optimized welding time for the ultrasonic welded joint was found to be 1.5 s whereas it was 10 min for the adhesively bonded joint. Fractographic analysis showed the significant plastic deformation and shear cusps formation on the fractured surface, which are typical characteristics for strong interfacial bonding. Full article

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2019

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11 pages, 7691 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prepregs for Temperature Resistant Composites

by Eliška Haincová, Pavlína Hájková and Jan Kohout

Materials 2019, 12(23), 4012; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12234012 - 3 Dec 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3476

Abstract

In this paper, carbon fabric reinforced inorganic matrix composites were prepared. The inorganic matrix based on alkali activated aluminosilicate was used because of its resistance to fire and the temperatures up to 1000 °C. Influence of heat treatment of fabric, high temperature treatment [...] Read more.

In this paper, carbon fabric reinforced inorganic matrix composites were prepared. The inorganic matrix based on alkali activated aluminosilicate was used because of its resistance to fire and the temperatures up to 1000 °C. Influence of heat treatment of fabric, high temperature treatment of composite and preparation method on the mechanical properties and morphology of the composites were studied. The preparation of composites with the subsequent steps of impregnation, layering and curing of the composites was compared with the prepreg preparation method, which separates the impregnation of the reinforcement from the production of the composite. The SEM photographs show no differences in morphology between composites prepared from heat treated fabric and composites prepared from original fabrics. All four series of samples were comparatively saturated with matrix. Despite this, tensile properties of heat-treated fabric composites were negatively affected. While composites with heat-treated fabric reached the tensile strength up to 274 MPa, composites prepared without heat-treated fabric exhibited strengths higher than 336 MPa. Samples exposed to temperatures reaching 600 °C retained up to 40% of their original strength. The effect of composite preparation method on the tensile properties of the composites has not been proved. Full article

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13 pages, 10543 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interfacial Bonding and Abrasive Wear Behavior of Iron Matrix Composite Reinforced by Ceramic Particles

by Yefei Li, Cong Li, Shuli Tang, Qiaoling Zheng, Juan Wang, Zhibo Zhang and Zhicheng Wang

Materials 2019, 12(22), 3646; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12223646 - 6 Nov 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3702

Abstract

Using zirconia toughened alumina (ZTA) particles and Ni–Ti complex powders as raw materials, high-Cr cast iron reinforced by ZTA particles was prepared by an infiltration casting process. A continuous transition layer formed at the interface between ZTA particles and the Cr15 matrix, which [...] Read more.

Using zirconia toughened alumina (ZTA) particles and Ni–Ti complex powders as raw materials, high-Cr cast iron reinforced by ZTA particles was prepared by an infiltration casting process. A continuous transition layer formed at the interface between ZTA particles and the Cr15 matrix, which proves that there is strong metallurgical interfacial bonding at the interface. The phases in the Ni–Ti layer of the ZTA_P/Fe composite were preserved compared with the microstructure of sintered ZTA ceramic preform. The hardness of the Ni₃Ti, TiO and AlNi₂Ti phases in the interfacial transition layer was measured by the nano-indentation method, which is 12.5 GPa, 16.1 GPa and 9.2 GPa, respectively. The three-body wear resistance of the composite reached 12.6 times that of high-Cr cast iron. Full article

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14 pages, 3523 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Shear Deformation on Permeability of 2.5D Woven Preform

by Zhiming Chen, Shidong Pan, Zhengong Zhou, Tao Lei, Baofeng Dong and Peifei Xu

Materials 2019, 12(21), 3594; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12213594 - 31 Oct 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3794

Abstract

The accurate prediction of the permeability is the key to optimizing the molding process of fiber reinforced composites, thus to improve the composite quality, and reduce the material and labor costs in the manufacturing process. In this paper, the permeability of 2.5D woven [...] Read more.

The accurate prediction of the permeability is the key to optimizing the molding process of fiber reinforced composites, thus to improve the composite quality, and reduce the material and labor costs in the manufacturing process. In this paper, the permeability of 2.5D woven preform with shear deformation was studied by experiments and numerical simulations. The permeabilities of the samples under various shear angles were measured by the radial flow method. An RVE (representative volume element) model based on the fabric microstructure and shear deformation is developed to predict the permeability of preform and the simulation results are compared with experiments value to verify the effectiveness of this model. Using this model, the effect of the fiber volume fraction on the permeability of the 2.5D woven preform was determined. Based on the structural characteristics, experimental and simulation results of the 2.5D woven preform, an empirical equation for predicting its permeability under shear deformation was formulated. The prediction accuracy of the equation was evaluated, and the equation was used to determine the change of permeability with shear deformation for the 2.5D woven preform. Full article

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