Polymers

Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 201 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Wood Composites II

by Antonios N. Papadopoulos

Polymers 2020, 12(7), 1552; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12071552 - 13 Jul 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2161

Abstract

The main advantage of wood composites is that they can be designed for specific performance requirements or specific qualities, since they are man-made [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

15 pages, 2940 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Selected Parameters on the Bonding Quality and Temperature Evolution Inside Plywood During Pressing

by Pavlo Bekhta, Ján Sedliačik and Nataliya Bekhta

Polymers 2020, 12(5), 1035; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12051035 - 2 May 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4665

Abstract

This research optimizes the process of plywood production to determine its effectiveness in reducing energy and adhesive consumption for more efficient production with the required quality. The influence of selected parameters including veneer treatment (non-densified and densified), plywood structure, temperature, time and pressure [...] Read more.

This research optimizes the process of plywood production to determine its effectiveness in reducing energy and adhesive consumption for more efficient production with the required quality. The influence of selected parameters including veneer treatment (non-densified and densified), plywood structure, temperature, time and pressure of pressing, on the bonding quality and temperature evolution within the veneer stacks during hot pressing was investigated. Rotary-cut, non-densified and densified birch veneers and phenol formaldehyde (PF) adhesive were used to manufacture plywood samples. The effect of pressure and time of pressing on bonding quality of the plywood was determined. Bonding quality was evaluated by determining the shear strength of the plywood samples. The temperature evolution inside the veneer stacks was measured for birch veneers for different pressing temperatures and pressures for different numbers of veneer layers. The heating rate of the veneer stacks increased as the pressing temperature increased and decreased markedly with an increasing number of veneer layers. At a high pressing pressure, the heating rate of the densified veneer stacks was faster than that of non-densified veneers at the same pressure. The use of densified veneers for the production of plywood can lead to a shorter pressing time (17–50% reduction), lower glue consumption (33.3% reduction) and a lower pressing pressure (22.2% reduction) without negatively impacting the bonding strength of the plywood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

11 pages, 2321 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sound-Absorption Coefficient of Bark-Based Insulation Panels

by Eugenia Mariana Tudor, Anna Dettendorfer, Günther Kain, Marius Catalin Barbu, Roman Réh and Ľuboš Krišťák

Polymers 2020, 12(5), 1012; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12051012 - 29 Apr 2020

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 6561

Abstract

The objective of this study was to investigate the sound absorption coefficient of bark-based insulation panels made of softwood barks Spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Larch (Larix decidua Mill.) by means of impedance tube, with a frequency range between [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to investigate the sound absorption coefficient of bark-based insulation panels made of softwood barks Spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Larch (Larix decidua Mill.) by means of impedance tube, with a frequency range between 125 and 4000 Hz. The highest efficiency of sound absorption was recorded for spruce bark-based insulation boards bonded with urea-formaldehyde resin, at a level of 1000 and 2000 Hz. The potential of noise reduction of larch bark-based panels glued with tannin-based adhesive covers the same frequency interval. The experimental results show that softwood bark, an underrated material, can substitute expensive materials that involve more grey energy in sound insulation applications. Compared with wood-based composites, the engineered spruce bark (with coarse-grained and fine-grained particles) can absorb the sound even better than MDF, particleboard or OSB. Therefore, the sound absorption coefficient values strengthen the application of insulation panels based on tree bark as structural elements for the noise reduction in residential buildings, and concurrently they open the new ways for a deeper research in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 3474 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Engineering Composites Made from Wood and Chicken Feather Bonded with UF Resin Fortified with Wollastonite: A Novel Approach

by Hamid R. Taghiyari, Roya Majidi, Ayoub Esmailpour, Younes Sarvari Samadi, Asghar Jahangiri and Antonios N. Papadopoulos

Polymers 2020, 12(4), 857; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040857 - 7 Apr 2020

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 4553

Abstract

Wood-composite panel factories are in shortage of raw materials; therefore, finding new sources of fibers is vital for sustainable production. The effects of chicken feathers, as a renewable source of natural fibers, on the physicomechanical properties of medium-density fiberboard (MDF) and particleboard panels [...] Read more.

Wood-composite panel factories are in shortage of raw materials; therefore, finding new sources of fibers is vital for sustainable production. The effects of chicken feathers, as a renewable source of natural fibers, on the physicomechanical properties of medium-density fiberboard (MDF) and particleboard panels were investigated here. Wollastonite was added to resin to compensate possible negative effects of chicken feathers. Only feathers of the bodies of chickens were added to composite matrix at 5% and 10% content, based on the dry weight of the raw material, particles or fibers. Results showed significant negative effects of 10%-feather content on physical and mechanical properties. However, feather content of 5% showed some promising results. Addition of wollastonite to resin resulted in the improvement of some physical and mechanical properties. Wollastonite acted as reinforcing filler in resin and improved some of the properties; therefore, future studies should be carried out on the reduction of resin content. Moreover, density functional theory (DFT) demonstrated the formation of new bonds between wollastonite and carbohydrate polymers in the wood cell wall. It was concluded that chicken feathers have potential in wood-composite panel production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 3091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hygroscopicity of Waterlogged Archaeological Wood from Xiaobaijiao No.1 Shipwreck Related to Its Deterioration State

by Liuyang Han, Juan Guo, Kun Wang, Philippe Grönquist, Ren Li, Xingling Tian and Yafang Yin

Polymers 2020, 12(4), 834; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040834 - 6 Apr 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3874

Abstract

Waterlogged archaeological wood (WAW) artifacts, made of natural biodegradable polymers, are important parts of many precious cultural heritages. It is of great importance to understand the hygroscopic behavior of WAW in different deterioration states for the development of optimal drying processes and choices [...] Read more.

Waterlogged archaeological wood (WAW) artifacts, made of natural biodegradable polymers, are important parts of many precious cultural heritages. It is of great importance to understand the hygroscopic behavior of WAW in different deterioration states for the development of optimal drying processes and choices of safe storage in varying conditions. This was investigated in a case-study using two Hopea (Giam) and two Tectona (Teak) WAW samples collected from the Xiaobaijiao No.1 shipwreck. The deterioration state of WAW was evaluated by the maximum water content (MWC) method and by the cell morphological structure. Both Hopea and Tectona WAW could be classified into moderately and less decayed WAW. The hygroscopic behavior of moderately and less decayed WAW was then comparatively investigated using Dynamic Vapor Sorption (DVS) measurements alongside two sorption fitting models. Compositional analysis and hydroxyl accessibility measurements of WAW cell walls were shown to correlate with the hygroscopicity of WAW in different deterioration states. It was concluded that moderately decayed WAW possessed higher hygroscopicity and hysteresis than less decayed WAW because of the lower relative content of polysaccharides and the higher relative content of lignin, including the slow hydrolysis of O-acetyl groups of xylan and the partial breakage of β-O-4 interlinks, accompanied by an increased hydroxyl accessibility. This work helps in deciding on which consolidation measures are advised for shipwreck restauration, i.e., pretreatments with specific consolidates during wood drying, particularly for wooden artifacts displayed in museums. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 3460 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Properties of Partially Transparent Wood under Different Delignification Processes

by Yan Wu, Jichun Zhou, Qiongtao Huang, Feng Yang, Yajing Wang and Jing Wang

Polymers 2020, 12(3), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12030661 - 15 Mar 2020

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5997

Abstract

Two common tree species of Betula alnoides (Betula) and New Zealand pine (Pinups radiata D. Don) were selected as the raw materials to prepare for the partially transparent wood (TW) in this study. Although the sample is transparent in [...] Read more.

Two common tree species of Betula alnoides (Betula) and New Zealand pine (Pinups radiata D. Don) were selected as the raw materials to prepare for the partially transparent wood (TW) in this study. Although the sample is transparent in a broad sense, it has color and pattern, so it is not absolutely colorless and transparent, and is therefore called partially transparent. For ease of interpretation, the following “partially transparent wood” is referred to as “transparent wood (TW)”. The wood template (FW) was prepared by removing part of the lignin with the acid delignification method, and then the transparent wood was obtained by impregnating the wood template with a refractive-index-matched resin. The goal of this study is to achieve transparency of the wood (the light transmittance of the prepared transparent wood should be improved as much as possible) by exploring the partial delignification process of different tree species on the basis of retaining the aesthetics, texture and mechanical strength of the original wood. Therefore, in the process of removing partial lignin by the acid delignification method, the orthogonal test method was used to explore the better process conditions for the preparation of transparent wood. The tests of color difference, light transmittance, porosity, microstructure, chemical groups, mechanical strength were carried out on the wood templates and transparent wood under different experimental conditions. In addition, through the three major elements (lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose) test and orthogonal range analysis method, the influence of each process factor on the lignin removal of each tree species was obtained. It was finally obtained that the two tree species acquired the highest light transmittance at the experimental level 9 (process parameters: NaClO₂ concentration 1 wt%, 90 °C, 1.5 h); and the transparent wood retained most of the color and texture of the original wood under partial delignification up to 4.84–11.07%, while the mechanical strength with 57.76% improved and light transmittance with 14.14% higher than these properties of the original wood at most. In addition, the wood template and resin have a good synergy effect from multifaceted analysis, which showed that this kind of transparent wood has the potential to become the functional decorative material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2022 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Veneer-Drying Temperature on Selected Properties and Formaldehyde Emission of Birch Plywood

by Pavlo Bekhta, Ján Sedliačik and Nataliya Bekhta

Polymers 2020, 12(3), 593; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12030593 - 5 Mar 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4111

Abstract

In this study, the effect of the veneer-drying process at elevated temperatures on selected properties and formaldehyde emission of plywood panels was determined. We assume that during the veneer drying at high temperatures, more formaldehyde is released from it, and therefore, a lower [...] Read more.

In this study, the effect of the veneer-drying process at elevated temperatures on selected properties and formaldehyde emission of plywood panels was determined. We assume that during the veneer drying at high temperatures, more formaldehyde is released from it, and therefore, a lower formaldehyde emission can be expected from the finished plywood. Prior to bonding, birch veneers were dried at 160 °C (control) and 185 °C in an industrial veneer steam dryer (SD) and at 180 °C, 240 °C and 280 °C in an industrial veneer gas dryer (GD). Two types of adhesives were used: urea–formaldehyde (UF) and phenol–formaldehyde (PF) resins. Bonding quality, bending strength and modulus of elasticity in bending, water absorption and thickness swelling of plywood samples were determined. The formaldehyde emission level of samples was also measured. It was concluded from the study that the effects of veneer-drying temperatures on the bonding strength and physical and mechanical properties of plywood panels were significant. Veneer-drying temperatures of 185 °C/SD, 180 °C/GD and 240 °C/GD negatively affected the bending strength and the modulus of elasticity along and across the fibres for both UF and PF plywood samples. Bonding strength mean values obtained from all test panels were above the required value (1.0 MPa) indicated in EN 314-2 standard. The lowest formaldehyde emissions for the UF and PF plywood samples were observed in the samples from veneer dried in a steam dryer at 185 °C/SD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 11770 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Ammonia-Treated Black Locust Wood

by Mariana Domnica Stanciu, Daniela Sova, Adriana Savin, Nicolae Ilias and Galina A. Gorbacheva

Polymers 2020, 12(2), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020377 - 7 Feb 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4112

Abstract

Because of the uneven colour of black locust wood, different technologies are used to change the colour, the bestknown being chemical and thermal treatments. Some of them affect the mechanical properties of wood, such as elasticity modulus, strength, durability. This study aims to [...] Read more.

Because of the uneven colour of black locust wood, different technologies are used to change the colour, the bestknown being chemical and thermal treatments. Some of them affect the mechanical properties of wood, such as elasticity modulus, strength, durability. This study aims to compare the physical and mechanical properties of black locust wood control samples and treated wood samples with ammonia hydroxide, in terms of density profile, colour values (CIE L*, a*, b*), mechanical properties of samples subjected to static bending, viscous-elastic properties (storage modulus (E’), loss modulus (E”) and damping (tanδ)). Two types of ammonia-fuming treatment were applied on samples: first treatment T1-5% concentration of ammonia hydroxide for 30 days; second treatment T2-10% concentration for 60 days. The results highlighted the following aspects: the overall colour change in the case of the second treatment is 27% in comparison with 7% recorded for the control samples; the lightness and yellowness values are the most affected by the second ammonia treatment of black locust wood. The density increased with almost 20% due to ammonium fuming (10% concentration/60 days); in case of static bending, the elastic modulus (MOE) tends to decrease with increasing the exposure time to ammonium, but the modulus of rupture (MOR) increases with almost 17% and the breaking force increases too, with almost 41%. In the case of dynamic mechanical analysis, the temperature leads to different viscous-elastic behaviour of each type of samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 3128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Fire Retardancy of Beech Wood by Graphene

by Ayoub Esmailpour, Roya Majidi, Hamid R. Taghiyari, Mehdi Ganjkhani, Seyed Majid Mohseni Armaki and Antonios N. Papadopoulos

Polymers 2020, 12(2), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020303 - 3 Feb 2020

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3572

Abstract

The aim of this paper was to improve the fire retardancy of beech wood by graphene. Six fire properties, namely time to onset of ignition, time to onset of glowing, back-darkening time, back-holing time, burnt area and weight loss were measured using a [...] Read more.

The aim of this paper was to improve the fire retardancy of beech wood by graphene. Six fire properties, namely time to onset of ignition, time to onset of glowing, back-darkening time, back-holing time, burnt area and weight loss were measured using a newly developed apparatus with piloted ignition. A set of specimens was treated with nano-wollastonite (NW) for comparison with the results of graphene-treated specimens. Graphene and NW were mixed in a water-based paint and brushed on the front and back surface of specimens. Results demonstrated significant improving effects of graphene on times to onset of ignition and glowing. Moreover, graphene drastically decreased the burnt area. Comparison between graphene- and NW-treated specimens demonstrated the superiority of graphene in all six fire properties measured here. Fire retardancy impact of graphene was attributed to its very low reaction ability with oxygen, as well as its high and low thermal conductivity in in-plane and cross-section directions, respectively. The improved fire-retardancy properties by the addition of graphene in paint implied its effectiveness in hindering the spread of fire in buildings and structures, providing a longer timespan to extinguish a fire, and ultimately reducing the loss of life and property. Based on the improvements in fire properties achieved in graphene-treated specimens, it was concluded that graphene has a great potential to be used as a fire retardant in solid wood species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 3109 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flexural Creep Behavior of High-Density Polyethylene Lumber and Wood Plastic Composite Lumber Made from Thermally Modified Wood

by Murtada Abass A. Alrubaie, Roberto A. Lopez-Anido and Douglas J. Gardner

Polymers 2020, 12(2), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020262 - 24 Jan 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3586

Abstract

The use of wood plastic composite lumber as a structural member material in marine applications is challenging due to the tendency of wood plastic composites (WPCs) to creep and absorb water. A novel patent-pending WPC formulation that combines a thermally modified wood flour [...] Read more.

The use of wood plastic composite lumber as a structural member material in marine applications is challenging due to the tendency of wood plastic composites (WPCs) to creep and absorb water. A novel patent-pending WPC formulation that combines a thermally modified wood flour (as a cellulosic material) and a high strength styrenic copolymer (high impact polystyrene and styrene maleic anhydride) have been developed with advantageous viscoelastic properties (low initial creep compliance and creep rate) compared with the conventional WPCs. In this study, the creep behavior of the WPC and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) lumber in flexure was characterized and compared. Three sample groupings of WPC and HDPE lumber were subjected to three levels of creep stress; 7.5, 15, and 30% of the ultimate flexural strength (Fb) for a duration of 180 days. Because of the relatively low initial creep compliance of the WPC specimens (five times less) compared with the initial creep compliance of HDPE specimens, the creep deformation of HDPE specimens was six times higher than the creep deformation of WPC specimens at the 30% creep stress level. A Power Law model predicted that the strain (3%) to failure in the HDPE lumber would occur in 1.5 years at 30% Fb flexural stress while the predicted strain (1%) failure for the WPC lumber would occur in 150 years. The findings of this study suggest using the WPC lumber in structural application to replace the HDPE lumber in flexure attributable to the low time-dependent deformation when the applied stress value is withing the linear region of the stress-strain relationship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

13 pages, 4264 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Properties of Injection Molded Biocomposites Reinforced with Wood Particles of Short-Rotation Aspen and Willow

by Anuj Kumar, Tuula Jyske and Veikko Möttönen

Polymers 2020, 12(2), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020257 - 22 Jan 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3720

Abstract

Injection molded biocomposite specimens were prepared by using four different weight percentages, i.e., 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of aspen (Populus tremula L.) and willow (Salix caprea L.) wood particles in a biopolymeric matrix. Dog-bone test specimens were used for testing [...] Read more.

Injection molded biocomposite specimens were prepared by using four different weight percentages, i.e., 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of aspen (Populus tremula L.) and willow (Salix caprea L.) wood particles in a biopolymeric matrix. Dog-bone test specimens were used for testing the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties, and microstructure of biocomposites. The tensile and bending strength changed with the change in weight percentages of wood particles and the bending stiffness increased with the increasing weight percentage of wood. In Brinell hardness, similar changes as a function of wood particle weight percentage were shown, and a relationship between hardness and tensile strength with wood content was also investigated. The prepared biocomposites could be an alternative for plastic-based materials and encourage the use of fast growing (aspen and willow) wood from short-rotation forests in biocomposites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 16699 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiple Analysis and Characterization of Novel and Environmentally Friendly Feather Protein-Based Wood Preservatives

by Yan Xia, Chengye Ma, Hanmin Wang, Shaoni Sun, Jialong Wen and Runcang Sun

Polymers 2020, 12(1), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12010237 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3465

Abstract

In this study, feather was used as the source of protein and combined with copper and boron salts to prepare wood preservatives with nano-hydroxyapatite or nano-graphene oxide as nano-carriers. The treatability of preservative formulations, the changes of chemical structure, micromorphology, crystallinity, thermal properties [...] Read more.

In this study, feather was used as the source of protein and combined with copper and boron salts to prepare wood preservatives with nano-hydroxyapatite or nano-graphene oxide as nano-carriers. The treatability of preservative formulations, the changes of chemical structure, micromorphology, crystallinity, thermal properties and chemical composition of wood cell walls during the impregnation and decay experiment were investigated by retention rate of the preservative, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electronic microscopy-energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermoanalysis (TG), and confocal Raman microscopy (CRM) techniques. Results revealed that the preservatives (particularly with nano-carrier) successfully penetrated wood blocks, verifying the enhanced effectiveness of protein-based preservative with nano-carrier formulations. Decay experiment demonstrated that the protein-based wood preservative can remarkably improve the decay resistance of the treated wood samples, and it is an effective, environmentally friendly wood preservative. Further analysis of these three preservative groups confirmed the excellent function of nano-hydroxyapatite as a nano-carrier, which can promote the chelation of preservatives with higher content of effective preservatives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 2861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Method to Improve the Characteristics of EPDM Rubber Based Eco-Composites with Electron Beam

by Gabriela Craciun, Elena Manaila, Daniel Ighigeanu and Maria Daniela Stelescu

Polymers 2020, 12(1), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12010215 - 15 Jan 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6645

Abstract

A natural fiber reinforced composite, belonging to the class of eco composites, based on ethylene-propylene-terpolymer rubber (EPDM) and wood wastes were obtained by electron beam irradiation at 75, 150, 300, and 600 kGy in atmospheric conditions and at room temperature using a linear [...] Read more.

A natural fiber reinforced composite, belonging to the class of eco composites, based on ethylene-propylene-terpolymer rubber (EPDM) and wood wastes were obtained by electron beam irradiation at 75, 150, 300, and 600 kGy in atmospheric conditions and at room temperature using a linear accelerator of 5.5 MeV. The sawdust (S), in amounts of 5 and 15 phr, respectively, was used to act as a natural filler for the improvement of physical and chemical characteristics. The cross-linking effects were evaluated through sol-gel analysis, mechanical tests, and Fourier Transform Infrared FTIR spectroscopy comparatively with the classic method with dibenzoyl peroxide (P) applied on the same types of samples at high temperature. Gel fraction exhibits values over 98% but, in the case of P cross-linking, is necessary to add more sawdust (15 phr) to obtain the same results as in the case of electron beam (EB) cross-linking (5 phr/300 kGy). Even if the EB cross-linking and sawdust addition have a reinforcement effect on EPDM rubber, the medium irradiation dose of 300 kGy looks to be a limit to which or from which the properties of the composite are improved or deteriorated. The absorption behavior of the eco-composites was studied through water uptake tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

27 pages, 2999 KiB

Open AccessReview

Wood Composites and Their Polymer Binders

by Antonio Pizzi, Antonios N. Papadopoulos and Franco Policardi

Polymers 2020, 12(5), 1115; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12051115 - 13 May 2020

Cited by 135 | Viewed by 8361

Abstract

This review presents first, rather succinctly, what are the important points to look out for when preparing good wood composites, the main types of wood composites manufactured industrially, and the mainly oil-derived wood composite adhesives and binders that dominate and have been dominating [...] Read more.

This review presents first, rather succinctly, what are the important points to look out for when preparing good wood composites, the main types of wood composites manufactured industrially, and the mainly oil-derived wood composite adhesives and binders that dominate and have been dominating this industry. Also briefly described are the most characteristic biosourced, renewable-derived adhesives that are actively researched as substitutes. For all these adhesives, synthetic and biosourced, the reviews expose the considerable progresses which have occurred relatively recently, with a host of new approaches and ideas having been proposed and tested, some even implemented, but with even many more already appearing on the horizon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Composites II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Advances in Wood Composites II

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (14 papers)

Editorial

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI