Atmosphere

21 pages, 3827 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of PM₁₀ and Weather on Respiratory and Cardiovascular Diseases in the Ciuc Basin (Romanian Carpathians)

by Katalin Bodor, Miruna Mihaela Micheu, Ágnes Keresztesi, Marius-Victor Birsan, Ion-Andrei Nita, Zsolt Bodor, Sándor Petres, Attila Korodi and Róbert Szép

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020289 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3678

Abstract

This study presents the PM₁₀ concentration, respiratory and cardiovascular disease hospital admissions evolution in the Ciuc basin for a period of 9 years (2008–2016), taking into consideration different meteorological conditions: boundary layer, lifting condensation level, temperature-humidity index, and wind chill equivalent chart [...] Read more.

This study presents the PM₁₀ concentration, respiratory and cardiovascular disease hospital admissions evolution in the Ciuc basin for a period of 9 years (2008–2016), taking into consideration different meteorological conditions: boundary layer, lifting condensation level, temperature-humidity index, and wind chill equivalent chart index. The PM₁₀ and hospital admissions evolution showed a very fluctuated hourly, weekly, monthly, yearly tendency. The PM₁₀ concentration in winter (34.72 μg/m³) was 82% higher than the multiannual average (19.00 μg/m³), and almost three times higher than in summer (11.71 μg/m³). During the winter, PM₁₀ concentration increased by an average of 9.36 μg/m³ due to the increased household heating. Climatological parameters have a demonstrable effect on the PM₁₀ concentration variation. Children, the elderly and men are more sensitive to air pollution, the calculated relative risk for men was (RR = 1.45), and for women (RR = 1.37), respectively. A moderate correlation (0.51) was found between PM₁₀ and pneumonia (P), while a relatively weak correlation (0.39) was demonstrated in the case of PM₁₀ and upper respiratory tract infections (URTI). Furthermore, except thermal humidity index (THI), strong negative correlations were observed between the multiannual monthly mean PM₁₀ and the meteorological data. The PM₁₀ followed a moderate negative correlation with the boundary layer (−0.61). In the case of URTI and P, the highest number of hospital admissions occurred with a 5 to 7-day lag, while the 10 μg/m³ PM₁₀ increase resulted in a 2.04% and 8.28% morbidity increase. For lung cancer (LC) and cardiovascular diseases (AMI, IHD, CCP), a maximum delay of 5–6 months was found. Three-month delay and an average growth of 1.51% was observed in the case of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Overall, these findings revealed that PM₁₀ was and it is responsible for one-third of the diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality and Health)

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15 pages, 2201 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of the Atmospheric Aerosol in Weather Forecasts for the Iberian Peninsula: Investigating the Direct Effects Using the WRF-Chem Model

by Carlos Silveira, Ana Martins, Sónia Gouveia, Manuel Scotto, Ana I. Miranda and Alexandra Monteiro

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020288 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3092

Abstract

In the atmosphere, aerosols play an important role in climate change, the Earth’s environment and human health. The purpose of this study is to investigate the direct and semi-direct aerosol effects on weather forecasting, focusing on the Iberian Peninsula (IP). To that end, [...] Read more.

In the atmosphere, aerosols play an important role in climate change, the Earth’s environment and human health. The purpose of this study is to investigate the direct and semi-direct aerosol effects on weather forecasting, focusing on the Iberian Peninsula (IP). To that end, two Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF)-Chem simulations (with and without aerosol feedback) for an entire year (2015) were performed. The model setup includes two nested domains run in two-way mode, allowing the downscaling for the IP domain at a 5 × 5 km² high-horizontal resolution. The results were explored through agreement of pairs of time series and their spatial variability in order to analyse the importance of including the online-coupled aerosol radiative effect on the meteorological variables: shortwave (solar) radiation, air temperature and precipitation. Significant variations of agreement were found when capturing both temporal and spatial patterns of the analysed meteorological variables. While the spatial distribution of temperature and precipitation is similar throughout the IP domain, with agreement values ranging from 0.87 up to 1.00, the solar radiation presents a distinct spatial pattern with lower agreement values (0.68–0.75) over ocean and higher agreement (0.75–0.98) over land regions. With regard to the spatial differences between simulations, the aerosol contributed to a considerable decrease in annual mean and maximum radiation (up to 20 and 40 Wm⁻², respectively), slightly impacting the temperature variation (up to 0.5 °C). These results suggest that the aerosol feedback effects should be accounted when performing weather forecasts, and not only for purposes of air quality assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Air Pollution in Portugal)

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16 pages, 23196 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Study of Meteorological Factors for Tropospheric Nocturnal Ozone Increase in the Metropolitan Area of São Paulo

by Viviana Vanesa Urbina Guerrero, Marcos Vinicius Bueno de Morais, Edmilson Dias de Freitas and Leila Droprinchinski Martins

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020287 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2214

Abstract

One of the central problems in large cities is air pollution, mainly caused by vehicular emissions. Tropospheric ozone is an atmospheric oxidizing gas that forms in minimal amounts naturally, affecting peoples’ health. This pollutant is formed by the NO₂ photolysis, creating a [...] Read more.

One of the central problems in large cities is air pollution, mainly caused by vehicular emissions. Tropospheric ozone is an atmospheric oxidizing gas that forms in minimal amounts naturally, affecting peoples’ health. This pollutant is formed by the NO₂ photolysis, creating a main peak during the day. Nighttime secondary peaks occur in several parts of the world, but their intensity and frequency depend on the local condition. In this sense, this works aims to study the local characteristics for tropospheric nocturnal ozone levels in the Metropolitan Area of São Paulo, in Brazil, using the Simple Photochemical Module coupled to the Brazilian Developments on the Regional Atmospheric Modeling System. For this, three different situations of nocturnal occurrence were studied. The results show that the nocturnal maximum of ozone concentrations is related to the vertical transport of this pollutant from higher levels of the atmosphere to the surface and is not related to the synoptic condition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the Third International Electronic Conference on Atmospheric Sciences)

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18 pages, 8818 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigations of Museum Indoor Microclimate and Air Quality. Case Study from Romania

by Dorina Camelia Ilieș, Florin Marcu, Tudor Caciora, Liliana Indrie, Alexandru Ilieș, Adina Albu, Monica Costea, Ligia Burtă, Ștefan Baias, Marin Ilieș, Mircea Sandor, Grigore Vasile Herman, Nicolaie Hodor, Gabriela Ilieș, Zharas Berdenov, Anca Huniadi and Jan Andrzej Wendt

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020286 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 5308

Abstract

Poor air quality inside museums is one of the main causes influencing the state of conservation of exhibits. Even if they are mostly placed in a controlled environment because of their construction materials, the exhibits can be very vulnerable to the influence of [...] Read more.

Poor air quality inside museums is one of the main causes influencing the state of conservation of exhibits. Even if they are mostly placed in a controlled environment because of their construction materials, the exhibits can be very vulnerable to the influence of the internal microclimate. As a consequence, museum exhibits must be protected from potential negative effects. In order to prevent and stop the process of damage of the exhibits, monitoring the main parameters of the microclimate (especially temperature, humidity, and brightness) and keeping them in strict values is extremely important. The present study refers to the investigations and analysis of air quality inside a museum, located in a heritage building, from Romania. The paper focuses on monitoring and analysing temperature of air and walls, relative humidity (RH), CO₂, brightness and particulate matters (PM), formaldehyde (HCHO), and total volatile organic compounds (TVOC). The monitoring was carried out in the Summer–Autumn 2020 Campaign, in two different exhibition areas (first floor and basement) and the main warehouse where the exhibits are kept and restored. The analyses aimed both at highlighting the hazard induced by the poor air quality inside the museum that the exhibits face. The results show that this environment is potentially harmful to both exposed items and people. Therefore, the number of days in which the ideal conditions in terms of temperature and RH are met are quite few, the concentration of suspended particles, formaldehyde, and total volatile organic compounds often exceed the limit allowed by the international standards in force. The results represent the basis for the development and implementation of strategies for long-term conservation of exhibits and to ensure a clean environment for employees, restorers, and visitors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Indoor Air Quality—What Is Known and What Needs to Be Done)

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19 pages, 10633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development of Volcanic Ash Cloud Layers over Hours to Days Due to Atmospheric Turbulence Layering

by Marcus Bursik, Qingyuan Yang, Adele Bear-Crozier, Michael Pavolonis and Andrew Tupper

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020285 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3193

Abstract

Volcanic ash clouds often become multilayered and thin with distance from the vent. We explore one mechanism for the development of this layered structure. We review data on the characteristics of turbulence layering in the free atmosphere, as well as examples of observations [...] Read more.

Volcanic ash clouds often become multilayered and thin with distance from the vent. We explore one mechanism for the development of this layered structure. We review data on the characteristics of turbulence layering in the free atmosphere, as well as examples of observations of layered clouds both near-vent and distally. We then explore dispersion models that explicitly use the observed layered structure of atmospheric turbulence. The results suggest that the alternation of turbulent and quiescent atmospheric layers provides one mechanism for the development of multilayered ash clouds by modulating vertical particle motion. The largest particles, generally μ

> 100 μ

m, are little affected by turbulence. For particles in which both settling and turbulent diffusion are important to vertical motion, mostly in the range of 10–100 μ

μ

m, the greater turbulence intensity and more rapid turbulent diffusion in some layers causes these particles to spend greater time in the more turbulent layers, leading to a layering of concentration. The results may have important implications for ash cloud forecasting and aviation safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University—Monitoring and Modelling Volcanic Ash Transport and Deposition)

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18 pages, 5005 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity of an Idealized Tropical Cyclone to the Configuration of the Global Forecast System–Eddy Diffusivity Mass Flux Planetary Boundary Layer Scheme

by Evan A. Kalina, Mrinal K. Biswas, Jun A. Zhang and Kathryn M. Newman

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020284 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2430

Abstract

The intensity and structure of simulated tropical cyclones (TCs) are known to be sensitive to the planetary boundary layer (PBL) parameterization in numerical weather prediction models. In this paper, we use an idealized version of the Hurricane Weather Research and Forecast system (HWRF) [...] Read more.

The intensity and structure of simulated tropical cyclones (TCs) are known to be sensitive to the planetary boundary layer (PBL) parameterization in numerical weather prediction models. In this paper, we use an idealized version of the Hurricane Weather Research and Forecast system (HWRF) with constant sea-surface temperature (SST) to examine how the configuration of the PBL scheme used in the operational HWRF affects TC intensity change (including rapid intensification) and structure. The configuration changes explored in this study include disabling non-local vertical mixing, changing the coefficients in the stability functions for momentum and heat, and directly modifying the Prandtl number (Pr), which controls the ratio of momentum to heat and moisture exchange in the PBL. Relative to the control simulation, disabling non-local mixing produced a ~15% larger storm that intensified more gradually, while changing the coefficient values used in the stability functions had little effect. Varying Pr within the PBL had the greatest impact, with the largest Pr (~1.6 versus ~0.8) associated with more rapid intensification (~38 versus 29 m s⁻¹ per day) but a 5–10 m s⁻¹ weaker intensity after the initial period of strengthening. This seemingly paradoxical result is likely due to a decrease in the radius of maximum wind (~15 versus 20 km), but smaller enthalpy fluxes, in simulated storms with larger Pr. These results underscore the importance of measuring the vertical eddy diffusivities of momentum, heat, and moisture under high-wind, open-ocean conditions to reduce uncertainty in Pr in the TC PBL. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rapid Intensity Changes of Tropical Cyclones)

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13 pages, 3968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bulk Deposition and Source Apportionment of Atmospheric Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Agricultural Areas of Rural Beijing during 2016–2020

by Yuepeng Pan, Jin Liu, Lan Zhang, Jing Cao, Jiabao Hu, Shili Tian, Xingyu Li and Wen Xu

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020283 - 22 Feb 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4256

Abstract

While atmospheric deposition plays a vital role in cleaning air pollutants, it also supplies toxic heavy metals and metalloids (MMs) to the receiving terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and threatens human health through food chains. To characterize the input of atmospheric deposition to agricultural [...] Read more.

While atmospheric deposition plays a vital role in cleaning air pollutants, it also supplies toxic heavy metals and metalloids (MMs) to the receiving terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and threatens human health through food chains. To characterize the input of atmospheric deposition to agricultural soils, bulk rain samples were collected on an event basis at a rural site in the North China Plain during 2016–2020. The results show that higher concentrations of MMs in bulk rain samples were associated with western and southern air masses passing polluted areas. In addition, the annual deposition flux of MMs tends to decline during the study period, coinciding with the inter-annual variations of particulate matter rather than the precipitation amounts. Of note, the deposition flux of MMs that exist entirely in fine particles declined significantly compared to those that exist in coarse particulate form, indicating that the clean air actions implemented in recent years were highly effective in reducing ambient MMs from anthropogenic emissions. The positive matrix factorization receptor model was also applied to the whole data set for bulk depositions and five sources were identified as agricultural (biomass burning and soil), dust, coal combustion, industrial and traffic emissions. These factors contributed 41%, 24%, 21%, 9% and 5% of the chemical components in bulk depositions, respectively. Future control strategies should tighten the emissions from combustion and soil/dust in the North China Plain to protect agriculture from atmospheric MMs depositions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)

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Graphical abstract

9 pages, 603 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Association between Long-Term Exposure to PM_2.5 and Lung Imaging Phenotype in CODA Cohort

by Youlim Kim, So Hyeon Bak, Sung Ok Kwon, Ho Kim, Woo Jin Kim and Chang Youl Lee

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020282 - 22 Feb 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2402

Abstract

Background and Aims: Ambient particulate matter (PM) is causing respiratory symptoms of individuals at all ages and reducing their lung functions. These individuals could develop chronic pulmonary disease. Recent studies have shown that short-term exposure to PM affects acute exacerbation of respiratory disease. [...] Read more.

Background and Aims: Ambient particulate matter (PM) is causing respiratory symptoms of individuals at all ages and reducing their lung functions. These individuals could develop chronic pulmonary disease. Recent studies have shown that short-term exposure to PM affects acute exacerbation of respiratory disease. However, evidence about the association between long-term exposure and progression of respiratory diseases remains insufficient. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between long-term exposure of air pollution (PM_2.5) and the effect on lung imaging phenotype in dust-exposed Korean adults living near cement factories. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis on the Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in Dusty Areas (CODA) cohort, which was recruited from 2012 to 2014. Emphysema index and mean wall area were measured using an in-house software program developed by the Korean obstructive lung disease study group based on chest CT scan. A satellite-based model was used to estimate the long-term PM_2.5 concentration at each participant’s address. Results: Of 504 eligible participants, 400 participants were analyzed. Their mean age was 71.7 years. Most participants were men (N = 301, 75.3%). The emphysema index of the whole group was 6.63 ± 0.70, and the mean wall area was 68.8 ± 5.2. Image measurement and PM_2.5 concentration showed no significant difference in the whole group; however, in the group of subjects with normal lung function, there were significant associations between long-term PM_2.5 exposure and emphysema index measurement: 1-year (ß = 0.758, p = 0.021), 3-year (ß = 0.629, p = 0.038), and 5-year (ß = 0.544, p = 0.045). There was no significant association between long-term PM_2.5 exposure and mean wall area measurement: 1-year (ß = −0.389, p = 0.832), 3-year (ß = −3.677, p = 0.170), and 5-year (ß = −3.769, p = 0.124). Conclusions: This study suggests that long-term exposure of PM2.5 may affect the emphysematous change in patients with normal lung functions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Indoor Air Pollution on Cardiopulmonary System)

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22 pages, 3646 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Correction of Eddy Covariance Based Crop ET Considering the Heat Flux Source Area

by Stuart L. Joy and José L. Chávez

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020281 - 21 Feb 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2923

Abstract

Eddy covariance (EC) systems are being used to measure sensible heat (H) and latent heat (LE) fluxes in order to determine crop water use or evapotranspiration (ET). The reliability of EC measurements depends on meeting certain meteorological assumptions; the most important of such [...] Read more.

Eddy covariance (EC) systems are being used to measure sensible heat (H) and latent heat (LE) fluxes in order to determine crop water use or evapotranspiration (ET). The reliability of EC measurements depends on meeting certain meteorological assumptions; the most important of such are horizontal homogeneity, stationarity, and non-advective conditions. Over heterogeneous surfaces, the spatial context of the measurement must be known in order to properly interpret the magnitude of the heat flux measurement results. Over the past decades, there has been a proliferation of ‘heat flux source area’ (i.e., footprint) modeling studies, but only a few have explored the accuracy of the models over heterogeneous agricultural land. A composite ET estimate was created by using the estimated footprint weights for an EC system in the upwind corner of four fields and separate ET estimates from each of these fields. Three analytical footprint models were evaluated by comparing the composite ET to the measured ET. All three models performed consistently well, with an average mean bias error (MBE) of about −0.03 mm h⁻¹ (−4.4%) and root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.09 mm h⁻¹ (10.9%). The same three footprint models were then used to adjust the EC-measured ET to account for the fraction of the footprint that extended beyond the field of interest. The effectiveness of the footprint adjustment was determined by comparing the adjusted ET estimates with the lysimetric ET measurements from within the same field. This correction decreased the absolute hourly ET MBE by 8%, and the RMSE by 1%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Microclimate and Irrigation Water Management)

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16 pages, 1918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reproducibility of the Quantification of Reversible Wall Interactions in VOC Sampling Lines

by Guido Sassi, Bilal Alam Khan and Maricarmen Lecuna

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020280 - 20 Feb 2021

Viewed by 2791

Abstract

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are widely measured at ppb and ppt level in many contexts, from therapeutic drug control in respiratory diseases to monitoring of climate change and indoor air quality. The need for accuracy is a common denominator in all these fields. [...] Read more.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are widely measured at ppb and ppt level in many contexts, from therapeutic drug control in respiratory diseases to monitoring of climate change and indoor air quality. The need for accuracy is a common denominator in all these fields. The interactions between gas mixtures and solid surfaces in sampling lines and instruments play an important role in calculating the total uncertainty of the amount of VOC. The amount of substances in the gas mixture is affected by its reversible and irreversible interactions with the sampling line. The main aim of this paper is to propose and discuss a method to quantify the amount of substance segregated by reversible interactions on sampling lines. To validate the proposed method, the areic amount of a VOC (Acetone) is measured for a commercial test pipe (Sulfinert^®) as the amount of substance per unit area of the internal surface of the test pipe segregated from the flowing gas mixture. Stainless steel coated by Sulfinert^® was chosen as a test material because of its wide use and its limited irreversible and permeation effects. A certified gas mixture of Acetone in air with a nominal mole fraction of 10 µmol mol⁻¹ was used for validation. Broad temperature control was used and the sensibility of the method to the temperature and the pressure has been evaluated to correct the bias due to physical condition. The sensitivity to the residence time and the Reynolds number of the gas flow has been evaluated to verify the reaching of equilibrium and the limits of the applicability of the method. The areic amount of Acetone at equilibrium on Sulfinert^® coated pipe was measured as 40 nmol m⁻², and an equilibrium constant value of around 0.2 m was calculated as the ratio between the superficial amount segregated on the wall and the amount concentration of Acetone in the mixture, both at the equilibrium. The observed reproducibility was better than 2.5%. This method is aimed to investigate VOC losses due to interactions for many VOC/material systems at a lower amount of substance levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue VOC Sensing and Measurements)

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15 pages, 4085 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantification of Regional Ozone Pollution Characteristics and Its Temporal Evolution: Insights from Identification of the Impacts of Meteorological Conditions and Emissions

by Leifeng Yang, Danping Xie, Zibing Yuan, Zhijiong Huang, Haibo Wu, Jinglei Han, Lijun Liu and Wenchao Jia

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 279; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020279 - 20 Feb 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3052

Abstract

Ozone (O₃) pollution has become the major new challenge after the suppression of PM_2.5 to levels below the standard for the Pearl River Delta (PRD). O₃ can be transported between nearby stations due to its longevity, leading stations with [...] Read more.

Ozone (O₃) pollution has become the major new challenge after the suppression of PM_2.5 to levels below the standard for the Pearl River Delta (PRD). O₃ can be transported between nearby stations due to its longevity, leading stations with a similar concentration in a state of aggregation, which is an alleged regional issue. Investigations in such regional characteristics were rarely involved ever. In this study, the aggregation (reflected by the global Moran’s I index, GM), its temporal evolution, and the impacts from meteorological conditions and both local (i.e., produced within the PRD) and non-local (i.e., transported from outside the PRD) contributions were explored by spatial analysis and statistical modeling based on observation data. The results from 2007 to 2018 showed that the GM was positive overall, implying that the monitoring stations were surrounded by stations with similar ozone levels, especially during ozone seasons. State of aggregation was reinforced from 2007 to 2012, and remained stable thereafter. Further investigations revealed that GM values were independent of meteorological conditions, while closely related to local and non-local contributions, and its temporal variations were driven only by local contributions. Then, the correlation (R²) between O₃ and meteorology was identified. Result demonstrated that the westerly belonged to temperature (T) and surface solar radiation (SSR) sensitive regions and the correlation between ozone and the two became intense with time. Relative humidity (RH) showed a negative correlation with ozone in most areas and periods, whereas correlations with u and v were positive for northerly winds and negative for southerly winds. Two important key points of such investigation are that, firstly, we defined the features of ozone pollution by characterizing the temporal variations in spatial discrepancies among all stations, secondly, we highlighted the significance of subregional cooperation within the PRD and regional cooperation with external environmental organizations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Quality Management)

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17 pages, 3751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the WRF Temperature and Precipitation Performance Sensitivity to Spatial Resolution over Central Europe

by Ioannis Stergiou, Efthimios Tagaris and Rafaella-Eleni P. Sotiropoulou

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 278; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020278 - 19 Feb 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3149

Abstract

The grid size resolution effect on the annual and seasonal simulated mean, maximum and minimum daily temperatures and precipitation is assessed using the Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting model (ARW-WRF, hereafter WRF) that dynamically downscales the National Centers for Environmental Prediction’s final [...] Read more.

The grid size resolution effect on the annual and seasonal simulated mean, maximum and minimum daily temperatures and precipitation is assessed using the Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting model (ARW-WRF, hereafter WRF) that dynamically downscales the National Centers for Environmental Prediction’s final (NCEP FNL) Operational Global Analysis data. Simulations were conducted over central Europe for the year 2015 using 36, 12 and 4 km grid resolutions. Evaluation is done using daily E-OBS data. Several performance metrics and the bias adjusted equitable threat score (BAETS) for precipitation are used. Results show that model performance for mean, maximum and minimum temperature improves when increasing the spatial resolution from 36 to 12 km, with no significant added value when further increasing it to 4 km. Model performance for precipitation is slightly worsened when increasing the spatial resolution from 36 to 12 km while further increasing it to 4 km has minor effect. However, simulated and observed precipitation data are in quite good agreement in areas with precipitation rates below 3 mm/day for all three grid resolutions. The annual mean fraction of observed and/or forecast events that were correctly predicted (BAETS), when increasing the grid size resolution from 36 to 12 and 4 km, suggests a slight modification on average over the domain. During summer the model presents significantly lower BAETS skill score compared to the rest of the seasons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Meteorological and Air Quality Modelling)

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19 pages, 1708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PM₁₀ Chemical Profile during North African Dust Episodes over French West Indies

by Philippe Quénel, Jade Vadel, Céline Garbin, Séverine Durand, Olivier Favez, Alexandre Albinet, Christina Raghoumandan, Stéphanie Guyomard, Laurent Yves Alleman and Fabien Mercier

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020277 - 19 Feb 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2927

Abstract

The French West Indies are periodically affected by North African dust episodes (NADE) resulting in PM₁₀ concentrations exceeding air quality standards. The aim of the present study was to decipher the PM₁₀ chemical profile during NADE over Guadeloupe. PM₁₀ samples [...] Read more.

The French West Indies are periodically affected by North African dust episodes (NADE) resulting in PM₁₀ concentrations exceeding air quality standards. The aim of the present study was to decipher the PM₁₀ chemical profile during NADE over Guadeloupe. PM₁₀ samples were collected daily at a rural site and an urban site during five episodes between April and October in 2017. During these events, the median PM₁₀ mass concentrations were, on average, 2 to 5 times higher than in the post-episode baseline period. Sampled filters were analyzed for their quantification of chemical constituents including carbonaceous fractions (elemental and organic carbon, EC/OC), anions/cations and levoglucosan, 51 elements, and 57 selected organic species. An orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) was conducted to identify the specific chemical profile of PM₁₀ during NADE: 16 elements were identified as the most discriminant between the NADE and the control samples with mass concentration levels twice as high during a NADE. Among them, only two (Mn and V) are classified as emerging pollutant while no limit values exist for the other ones. The extensive characterization of the NADE PM₁₀ chemical profile we performed is a key step to assess the chemical exposure of French West Indies populations during such events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution and Environment in France)

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18 pages, 2860 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical and Optical Characteristics and Sources of PM_2.5 Humic-Like Substances at Industrial and Suburban Sites in Changzhou, China

by Ye Tao, Ning Sun, Xudong Li, Zhuzi Zhao, Shuaishuai Ma, Hongying Huang, Zhaolian Ye and Xinlei Ge

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020276 - 19 Feb 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3123

Abstract

The chemical and optical properties and sources of atmospheric PM_2.5 humic-like substances (HULIS) were investigated from October to December 2016 in both industrial and suburban areas in Changzhou, China, during polluted and fair days. The average PM_2.5 concentration in the industrial [...] Read more.

The chemical and optical properties and sources of atmospheric PM_2.5 humic-like substances (HULIS) were investigated from October to December 2016 in both industrial and suburban areas in Changzhou, China, during polluted and fair days. The average PM_2.5 concentration in the industrial region was 113.06 (±64.3) μg m⁻³, higher than 85.27 (±41.56) μg m⁻³ at the suburban site. The frequency of polluted days was significantly higher in the industrial region. In contrast, the chemical compositions of PM_2.5 at the two sampling sites exhibited no statistically significant differences. Rapidly increased secondary inorganic ions (SNA = NH₄⁺ + SO₄²⁻ + NO₃⁻) concentrations suggested secondary formation played an important role in haze formation. The daily mean concentration of humic-like substance (HULIS) was 1.8–1.9 times that of HULIS-C (the carbon content of HULIS). Our results showed that HULIS accounted for a considerable fraction of PM_2.5 (industrial region: 6.3% vs. suburban region: 9.4%). There were no large differences in the mass ratios of HULIS-C/WSOC at the two sites (46% in the industrial region and 52% in the suburban region). On average, suburban HULIS-C constituted 35.1% of organic carbon (OC), higher than that (21.1%) in the industrial region. Based on different MAE (mass absorption efficiency) values under different pollution levels, we can infer that the optical properties of HULIS varied with PM levels. Moreover, our results showed no distinct difference in E₂/E₃ (the ratio of light absorbance at 250 nm to that at 365 nm) and AAE_300–400 (Absorption Angstrom Exponent at 300–400 nm) for HULIS and WSOC. the MAE₃₆₅ (MAE at 365 nm) value of HULIS-C was different under three PM_2.5 levels (low: PM_2.5 < 75 μg m⁻³, moderate: PM_2.5 = 75–150 μg m⁻³, high: PM_2.5 > 150 μg m⁻³), with the highest MAE₃₆₅ value on polluted days in the industrial region. Strong correlations between HULIS-C and SNA revealed that HULIS might be contributed from secondary formation at both sites. In addition, good correlations between HULIS-C with K⁺ in the industrial region implied the importance of biomass burning to PM_2.5-bound HULIS. Three common sources of HULIS-C (i.e., vehicle emissions, biomass burning, and secondary aerosols) were identified by positive matrix factorization (PMF) for both sites, but the contributions were different, with the largest contribution from biomass burning in the industrial region and secondary sources in the suburban region, respectively. The findings presented here are important in understanding PM_2.5 HULIS chemistry and are valuable for future air pollution control measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aerosols)

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21 pages, 4799 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Environmental Partitioning, Spatial Distribution, and Transport of Atmospheric Mercury (Hg) Originating from a Site of Former Chlor-Alkali Plant

by Mert Guney, Aiganym Kumisbek, Zhanel Akimzhanova, Symbat Kismelyeva, Kamila Beisova, Almagul Zhakiyenova, Vassilis Inglezakis and Ferhat Karaca

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020275 - 18 Feb 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2954

Abstract

Mercury (Hg) is one of the trace toxic and bioaccumulative global pollutants, and due to its long atmospheric lifetime, it presents a significant global challenge. The present study (1) utilizes total gaseous mercury (TGM) measurements made around a former Hg-cell chlor-alkali plant (CAP) [...] Read more.

Mercury (Hg) is one of the trace toxic and bioaccumulative global pollutants, and due to its long atmospheric lifetime, it presents a significant global challenge. The present study (1) utilizes total gaseous mercury (TGM) measurements made around a former Hg-cell chlor-alkali plant (CAP) located in Pavlodar, Kazakhstan, and predicts the spatial distribution of Hg over its premises and the nearby city. It then (2) estimates the environmental repartition of Hg deposited by the CAP using three fugacity models of varying complexity: Level I, QWASI, and HERMES. Finally, it (3) predicts long-range Hg transport via forward trajectory-based cluster analysis. The atmospheric Hg levels measured in Pavlodar and around Lake Balkyldak were elevated: in the range of 1–37 ng/m³ with an urban background level at 4.9 ng/m³. Specifically, concentrations up to 37 ng/m³ close to Lake Balkyldak and up to 22 ng/m³ nearby the city’s industrial zone (where the CAP was located) had been observed. Interpolation maps created using kriging also suggest these locations as the primary sources of atmospheric Hg in the city. The Level I fugacity model indicated that almost all of Hg is expected to end up in the atmosphere. The modeling results obtained using more complex QWASI and HERMES models showed that some significant quantity of Hg would still be associated with the sediments of Lake Balkyldak (a large wastewater discharge pond nearby the CAP). The forward trajectory-based cluster analysis method revealed the long-range atmospheric transportation routes and local, regional, and global impact zones. Furthermore, a source-receptor relationship using air transportation pathways to identify “areas of impact” was addressed. During both heating and non-heating seasons, the frequency-based analysis identified the distribution of Hg reaching the territories of Mongolia, northwest China, southwest Kazakhstan. The Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT-4) model forward trajectory analysis has confirmed similar patterns during heating and non-heating seasons, except with shorter impact distances during the non-heating period. Even though the CAP was closed more than 30 years ago and those past remediation efforts cleaned up the site, the residual Hg pollution seems significant and should be further investigated in different environmental media. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sources, Spatiotemporal Variation and Potential Health Risk of Hazardous Air Pollutants)

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33 pages, 49210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Baltic Sea Spray Emissions: In Situ Eddy Covariance Fluxes vs. Simulated Tank Sea Spray

by Ernst Douglas Nilsson, Kim A. H. Hultin, Eva Monica Mårtensson, Piotr Markuszewski, Kai Rosman and Radovan Krejci

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020274 - 18 Feb 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3466

Abstract

We present the first ever evaluation of sea spray aerosol eddy covariance (EC) fluxes at near coastal conditions and with limited fetch, and the first over water with brackish water (on average 7 ppt). The measurements were made on the island of Garpen [...] Read more.

We present the first ever evaluation of sea spray aerosol eddy covariance (EC) fluxes at near coastal conditions and with limited fetch, and the first over water with brackish water (on average 7 ppt). The measurements were made on the island of Garpen in the Baltic Sea (56°23′ N, 16°06′ E) in September 2005. We found that wind speed is a major factor that is driving an exponential increase in sea spray sea salt emissions, comparable to previous studies over waters with higher salinity. We were able to show that the inclusion of a thermodenuder in the EC system allowed for the parallel measurements of the dry unheated aerosol flux (representing both organic and sea salt sea spray emissions) and the heated (300 °C) non-volatile sea salt emissions. This study’s experimental approach also included measurements of the artificial sea spray formed in a tank in locally sampled water at the same location as the EC fluxes. We attempted to use the EC aerosol flux measurements to scale the tank measurements to aerosol emissions in order to derive a complete size distribution for the sea spray emission fluxes below the size range (0.3–2 µm dry diameter) of the optical particle counters (OPCs) in the EC system, covering in total 0.01 µm to 2 µm diameter. In the wind directions with long fetches (corresponding to conditions similar to open sea), we were able to distinguish between the aerosol emission fluxes of dry aerosol and heated non-volatile (sea salt only) in the smallest size bins of the OPC, and could therefore indirectly estimate the organic sea spray fraction. In agreement with several previous ambient and tank experiments deriving the size resolved chemical mass concentration of sea salt and water-insoluble organic sea spray, our EC fluxes showed that sea sprays were dominated by sea salt at sizes ≥1 µm diameter, and by organics at the smallest OPC sizes. Since we used direct measures of the sea spray emission fluxes, we confirmed previous suggestions that this size distribution of sea salt and organics is a signature of sea spray aerosols. We were able to show that two sea salt source parameterizations (Mårtensson et al. (2003) and Salter et al. (2015)) agreed fairly well with our observed heated EC aerosol emission fluxes, as long as their predicted emissions were modified for the actual salinity by shifting the particle diameters proportionally to the cubic rote of the salinity. If, in addition, we added organics to the parameterized sea spray following the mono-layer model by Ellison et al. (1999), the combined sea spray parameterizations for sea salt and organics fell reasonably close to the observed fluxes for diameters > 0.15 µm, while one of them overpredicted the sea spray emissions below this size. The organic mono-layer model by Ellison et al. appeared to be able to explain most of the differences we observed between the aerosol emission fluxes with and without the thermodenuder. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical-Physical and Optical Properties of the Aerosol in Europe and the Arctic)

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24 pages, 3686 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Fidelity Framework for Wildland Fire Behavior Simulations over Complex Terrain

by Marcos Vanella, Kevin McGrattan, Randall McDermott, Glenn Forney, William Mell, Emanuele Gissi and Paolo Fiorucci

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020273 - 18 Feb 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3781

Abstract

A method for the large-eddy simulation (LES) of wildfire spread over complex terrain is presented. In this scheme, a cut-cell immersed boundary method (CC-IBM) is used to render the complex terrain, defined by a tessellation, on a rectilinear Cartesian grid. Discretization of scalar [...] Read more.

A method for the large-eddy simulation (LES) of wildfire spread over complex terrain is presented. In this scheme, a cut-cell immersed boundary method (CC-IBM) is used to render the complex terrain, defined by a tessellation, on a rectilinear Cartesian grid. Discretization of scalar transport equations for chemical species is done via a finite volume scheme on cut-cells defined by the intersection of the terrain geometry and the Cartesian cells. Momentum transport and heat transfer close to the immersed terrain are handled using dynamic wall models and a direct forcing immersed boundary method. A new “open” convective inflow/outflow method for specifying atmospheric wind boundary conditions is presented. Additionally, three basic approaches have been explored to model fire spread: (1) Representing the vegetation as a collection of Lagrangian particles, (2) representing the vegetation as a semi-porous boundary, and (3) representing the fire spread using a level set method, in which the fire spreads as a function of terrain slope, vegetation type, and wind speed. Several test and validation cases are reported to demonstrate the capabilities of this novel wildfire simulation methodology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coupled Fire-Atmosphere Simulation)

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19 pages, 20163 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Dynamically Constrained Interpolation Methodology in Simulating National-Scale Spatial Distribution of PM_2.5 Concentrations in China

by Ning Li, Junli Xu and Xianqing Lv

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020272 - 18 Feb 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2687

Abstract

Numerous studies have revealed that the sparse spatiotemporal distributions of ground-level PM_2.5 measurements affect the accuracy of PM_2.5 simulation, especially in large geographical regions. However, the high precision and stability of ground-level PM_2.5 measurements make their role irreplaceable in PM [...] Read more.

Numerous studies have revealed that the sparse spatiotemporal distributions of ground-level PM_2.5 measurements affect the accuracy of PM_2.5 simulation, especially in large geographical regions. However, the high precision and stability of ground-level PM_2.5 measurements make their role irreplaceable in PM_2.5 simulations. This article applies a dynamically constrained interpolation methodology (DCIM) to evaluate sparse PM_2.5 measurements captured at scattered monitoring sites for national-scale PM_2.5 simulations and spatial distributions. The DCIM takes a PM_2.5 transport model as a dynamic constraint and provides the characteristics of the spatiotemporal variations of key model parameters using the adjoint method to improve the accuracy of PM_2.5 simulations. From the perspective of interpolation accuracy and effect, kriging interpolation and orthogonal polynomial fitting using Chebyshev basis functions (COPF), which have been proved to have high PM_2.5 simulation accuracy, were adopted to make a comparative assessment of DCIM performance and accuracy. Results of the cross validation confirm the feasibility of the DCIM. A comparison between the final interpolated values and observations show that the DCIM is better for national-scale simulations than kriging or COPF. Furthermore, the DCIM presents smoother spatially interpolated distributions of the PM_2.5 simulations with smaller simulation errors than the other two methods. Admittedly, the sparse PM_2.5 measurements in a highly polluted region have a certain degree of influence on the interpolated distribution accuracy and rationality. To some extent, adding the right amount of observations can improve the effectiveness of the DCIM around existing monitoring sites. Compared with the kriging interpolation and COPF, the results show that the DCIM used in this study would be more helpful for providing reasonable information for monitoring PM_2.5 pollution in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Estimation)

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23 pages, 42884 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Overview of Aerosol Properties in the European Arctic in Spring 2019 Based on In Situ Measurements and Lidar Data

by Fieke Rader, Rita Traversi, Mirko Severi, Silvia Becagli, Kim-Janka Müller, Konstantina Nakoudi and Christoph Ritter

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020271 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3305

Abstract

In this work, we analysed aerosol measurements from lidar and PM

_{10}

samples around the European Arctic site of Ny-Ålesund during late winter–early spring 2019. Lidar observations above 700 m revealed time-independent values for the aerosol backscatter coefficient (β

β

), colour [...] Read more.

In this work, we analysed aerosol measurements from lidar and PM

_{10}

samples around the European Arctic site of Ny-Ålesund during late winter–early spring 2019. Lidar observations above 700 m revealed time-independent values for the aerosol backscatter coefficient (β

β

), colour ratio (CR), linear particle depolarisation ratio (δ

δ

) and lidar ratio (LR) from January to April. In contrast to previous years, in 2019 the early springtime backscatter increase in the troposphere, linked to Arctic haze, was not observed. In situ nss-sulphate (nss-SO

_{4}^{2 -}

) concentration was measured both at a coastal (Gruvebadet) and a mountain (Zeppelin) station, a few kilometres apart. As we employed different measurement techniques at sites embedded in complex orography, we investigated their agreement. From the lidar perspective, the aerosol load (indicated by β

β

) above 700 m changed by less than a factor of 3.5. On the contrary, the daily nss-SO

_{4}^{2 -}

concentration erratically changed by a factor of 25 (from 0.1 to 2.5 ng m

^{- 3}

) both at Gruvebadet and Zeppelin station, with the latter mostly lying above the boundary layer. Moreover, daily nss-SO

_{4}^{2 -}

concentration was remarkably variable (correlation about 0.7 between the sites), despite its long-range origin. However, on a seasonal average basis the in situ sites agreed very well. Therefore, it can be argued that nss-SO

_{4}^{2 -}

advection mainly takes place in the lowest free troposphere, while under complex orography it is mixed downwards by local boundary layer processes. Our study suggests that at Arctic sites with complex orography ground-based aerosol properties show higher temporal variability compared to the free troposphere. This implies that the comparison between remote sensing and in situ observations might be more reasonable on longer time scales, i.e., monthly and seasonal basis even for nearby sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical-Physical and Optical Properties of the Aerosol in Europe and the Arctic)

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16 pages, 2013 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation and Application of a Novel Low-Cost Wearable Sensing Device in Assessing Real-Time PM_2.5 Exposure in Major Asian Transportation Modes

by Wen-Cheng Vincent Wang, Shih-Chun Candice Lung, Chun-Hu Liu, Tzu-Yao Julia Wen, Shu-Chuan Hu and Ling-Jyh Chen

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020270 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3406

Abstract

Small low-cost sensing (LCS) devices enable assessment of close-to-reality PM_2.5 exposures, though their data quality remains a challenge. This work evaluates the precision, accuracy, wearability and stability of a wearable particle LCS device, Location-Aware Sensing System (LASS, with Plantower PMS3003), which is [...] Read more.

Small low-cost sensing (LCS) devices enable assessment of close-to-reality PM_2.5 exposures, though their data quality remains a challenge. This work evaluates the precision, accuracy, wearability and stability of a wearable particle LCS device, Location-Aware Sensing System (LASS, with Plantower PMS3003), which is 104 × 66 × 46 mm³ in size and less than 162 g in weight. Real-time particulate matter (PM) exposures in six major Asian transportation modes were assessed. Side-by-side laboratory evaluation of PM_2.5 between a GRIMM aerosol spectrometer and sensors yielded a correlation of 0.98 and a mean absolute error of 0.85 µg/m³. LASS readings collected in the summer of 2016 in Taiwan were converted to GRIMM-comparable values. Mean PM_2.5 concentrations obtained from GRIMM and converted LASS values of the six different transportation microenvironments were 16.9 ± 11.7 (n = 1774) and 17.0 ± 9.5 (n = 3399) µg/m³, respectively, showing a correlation of 0.93. The average one-hour PM_2.5 exposure increments (concentration increase above ambient levels) from converted LASS values for Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), bus, car, scooter, bike and walk were 15.6, 6.7, −19.2, 8.1, 6.1 and 7.1 µg/m³, respectively, very close to those obtained from GRIMM. This work is one of the earliest studies applying wearable particulate matter (PM) LCS devices in exposure assessment in different transportation modes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)

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17 pages, 3903 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Predictive Human Health Risk Assessment of Non-Choleraic Vibrio spp. during Hurricane-Driven Flooding Events in Coastal South Carolina, USA

by Alexandra M. Frank, Mariana G. Cains and Diane S. Henshel

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020269 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3026

Abstract

Densely populated, low-lying coastal areas are most at-risk for negative impacts from increasing intensity of storm-induced flooding. Due to the effects of global warming and subsequent climate change, coastal temperatures and the magnitude of storm-induced flooding are projected to increase, creating a hospitable [...] Read more.

Densely populated, low-lying coastal areas are most at-risk for negative impacts from increasing intensity of storm-induced flooding. Due to the effects of global warming and subsequent climate change, coastal temperatures and the magnitude of storm-induced flooding are projected to increase, creating a hospitable environment for the aquatic Vibrio spp. bacteria. A relative risk model analysis was used to determine which census block groups in coastal South Carolina have the highest risk of Vibrio spp. exposure using storm surge flooding as a proxy. Coastal block groups with dense vulnerable sub-populations exposed to storm surge have the highest relative risk, while inland block groups away from riverine-mediated storm surge have the lowest relative risk. As Vibriosis infections may be extremely severe or even deadly, the best methods of infection control will be regular standardized coastal and estuarine water monitoring for Vibrio spp. to enable more informed and timely public health advisories and help prevent future exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Climate Change on Human Infectious Diseases Related to Water Ecosystems)

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15 pages, 474 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Satellite-Based Personal UV Dose Estimation

by Todd C. Harris, Laurent Vuilleumier, Claudine Backes, Athanasios Nenes and David Vernez

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020268 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3834

Abstract

Epidemiology and public health research relating to solar ultraviolet (UV) exposure usually relies on dosimetry to measure UV doses received by individuals. However, measurement errors affect each dosimetry measurement by unknown amounts, complicating the analysis of such measurements and their relationship to the [...] Read more.

Epidemiology and public health research relating to solar ultraviolet (UV) exposure usually relies on dosimetry to measure UV doses received by individuals. However, measurement errors affect each dosimetry measurement by unknown amounts, complicating the analysis of such measurements and their relationship to the underlying population exposure and the associated health outcomes. This paper presents a new approach to estimate UV doses without the use of dosimeters. By combining new satellite-derived UV data to account for environmental factors and simulation-based exposure ratio (ER) modelling to account for individual factors, we are able to estimate doses for specific exposure periods. This is a significant step forward for alternative dosimetry techniques which have previously been limited to annual dose estimation. We compare our dose estimates with dosimeter measurements from skiers and builders in Switzerland. The dosimetry measurements are expected to be slightly below the true doses due to a variety of dosimeter-related measurement errors, mostly explaining why our estimates are greater than or equal to the corresponding dosimetry measurements. Our approach holds much promise as a low-cost way to either complement or substitute traditional dosimetry. It can be applied in a research context, but is also fundamentally well-suited to be used as the basis for a dose-estimating mobile app that does not require an external device. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measuring Personal Exposure to Solar Ultraviolet Radiation Using Dosimetric Techniques)

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15 pages, 3430 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toward Understanding the Variation of Air Quality Based on a Comprehensive Analysis in Hebei Province under the Influence of COVID-19 Lockdown

by Shuyi Jiang, Chuanfeng Zhao and Hao Fan

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020267 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3242

Abstract

Associated with the outbreak of new coronavirus in 2019 (COVID-19), lockdown measures were taken in spring 2020 in China, providing an ideal experiment to investigate the effects of emission controls on air quality. Using the observation data at 56 stations in Hebei province [...] Read more.

Associated with the outbreak of new coronavirus in 2019 (COVID-19), lockdown measures were taken in spring 2020 in China, providing an ideal experiment to investigate the effects of emission controls on air quality. Using the observation data at 56 stations in Hebei province from the China National Environmental Monitoring Center from January 2019 to May 2020, along with the reanalysis meteorology data from ERA5, this study investigates the spatial and temporal variations of six air pollutants, and the clean and pollution events in COVID-19 period. Compared with the same periods in day and month in 2019 (SP19), the concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 μm (PM₁₀), particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5), and carbon monoxide (CO) decreased by 39.2%, 38.2%, 42.1%, 39.8%, and 24.8% for lockdown period, respectively; and decreased by 13.7%, 8.9%, 16.8%, 13.4%, and 10.6% for post-lockdown period, respectively. In contrast, ozone (O₃) increased by 8.0% and 5.5% for lockdown and post-lockdown periods, respectively. The diurnal variation analysis shows that the air pollutants other than O₃ decrease more in the morning time (6:00–10:00 local time) than in the afternoon time (14:00–18:00 local time) during both lockdown and post-lockdown periods compared to SP19, implying the potential contribution from pollution-meteorology interaction. After lockdown period, SO₂ and NO₂ resumed quickly in most cities other than in Zhangjiakou, which is a city with few industries making it more sensitive to meteorology. The significant improvement of air quality during the lockdown period suggests that the whole air quality is highly dependent on the pollutant emissions, while the relatively weak reduction of pollution events imply that the pollution events are more dependent on adverse weather conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Atmospheric Aerosol Perturbations on Aerosol-Cloud Interactions and Climate Forcing during the COVID-19 Outbreak)

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16 pages, 1283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Is the Urban Form a Driver of Heavy Metal Pollution in Road Dust? Evidence from Mexico City

by Anahi Aguilera, Dorian Bautista-Hernández, Francisco Bautista, Avto Goguitchaichvili and Rubén Cejudo

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020266 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4506

Abstract

Environmental pollution is a negative externality of urbanization and is of great concern due to the fact that it poses serious problems to human health. Pollutants, such as heavy metals, have been found in urban road dust; however, it is unclear whether the [...] Read more.

Environmental pollution is a negative externality of urbanization and is of great concern due to the fact that it poses serious problems to human health. Pollutants, such as heavy metals, have been found in urban road dust; however, it is unclear whether the urban form has a role in its accumulation, mainly in cases where there is no dominant unique source. We collected 482 samples of road dust, we determined the concentrations of five heavy metals (Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Ni) using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), and then we derived the pollution load index (PLI). After estimating the mostly anthropogenic origin of these pollutants based on global levels of reference, there were two main aims of this study. Firstly, to analyze the spatial correlation of heavy metals, and secondly, to identify the main factors that influenced the heavy metal concentrations in the road dust of Mexico City. We did this by using a spatial autocorrelation indicator (Global Moran’s I) and applying ordinary least squares (OLS) and spatial regression models. The results indicated low levels of positive spatial autocorrelation for all heavy metals. Most variables failed to detect any relationship with heavy metals. The median strip area in the roads had a weak (significance level of 90%) but consistent positive relationship with Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and the PLI. The distance to the airport had a weak (significance level of 90%) and inverse relationship with Pb. Manufacturing units were associated with an increase in Cu (significance level of 95%), while the entropy index was associated with an increase in Ni (significance level of 95%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Road Dust in Urban and Industrial Environments: Sources, Pollutants, Impacts, and Management)

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15 pages, 4108 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Limitations of GC-QTOF-MS Technique in Identification of Odorous Compounds from Wastewater: The Application of GC-IMS as Supplement for Odor Profiling

by Wei Gao, Xiaofang Yang, Xinmeng Zhu, Ruyuan Jiao, Shan Zhao, Jianwei Yu and Dongsheng Wang

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020265 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4031

Abstract

Odorous emissions from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) cause negative impacts on the surrounding areas and possible health risks on nearby residents. However, the efficient and reliable identification of WWTPs’ odorants is still challenging. In this study, odorous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from domestic [...] Read more.

Odorous emissions from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) cause negative impacts on the surrounding areas and possible health risks on nearby residents. However, the efficient and reliable identification of WWTPs’ odorants is still challenging. In this study, odorous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from domestic wastewater at different processing units were profiled and identified using gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS) and gas chromatography quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-QTOF-MS). The GC-QTOF-MS results confirmed the odor contribution of sulfur organic compounds in wastewater before primary sedimentation and ruled out the significance of most of the hydrocarbons in wastewater odor. The problems in odorous compounds analysis using GC-QTOF-MS were discussed. GC-IMS was developed for visualized analysis on composition characteristics of odorants. Varied volatile compounds were detected by GC-IMS, mainly oxygen-containing VOCs including alcohols, fatty acids, aldehydes and ketones with low odor threshold values. The fingerprint plot of IMS spectra showed the variation in VOCs’ composition, indicating the changes of wastewater quality during treatment process. The GC-IMS technique may provide an efficient profiling method for the changes of inlet water and performance of treatment process at WWTPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Odour)

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20 pages, 4929 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Regional Scale Impact of the COVID-19 Lockdown on Air Quality: Gaseous Pollutants in the Po Valley, Northern Italy

by Giovanni Lonati and Federico Riva

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020264 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4700

Abstract

The impact of the reduced atmospheric emissions due to the COVID-19 lockdown on ambient air quality in the Po Valley of Northern Italy was assessed for gaseous pollutants (NO₂, benzene, ammonia) based on data collected at the monitoring stations distributed all [...] Read more.

The impact of the reduced atmospheric emissions due to the COVID-19 lockdown on ambient air quality in the Po Valley of Northern Italy was assessed for gaseous pollutants (NO₂, benzene, ammonia) based on data collected at the monitoring stations distributed all over the area. Concentration data for each month of the first semester of 2020 were compared with those of the previous six years, on monthly, daily, and hourly bases, so that pre, during, and post-lockdown conditions of air quality could be separately analyzed. The results show that, as in many other areas worldwide, the Po Valley experienced better air quality during 2020 spring months for NO₂ and benzene. In agreement with the reductions of nitrogen oxides and benzene emissions from road traffic, estimated to be −35% compared to the regional average, the monthly mean concentration levels for 2020 showed reductions in the −40% to −35% range compared with the previous years, but with higher reductions, close to −50%, at high-volume-traffic sites in urban areas. Conversely, NH₃ ambient concentration levels, almost entirely due the emissions of the agricultural sector, did not show any relevant change, even at high-volume-traffic sites in urban areas. These results point out the important role of traffic emissions in NO₂ and benzene ambient levels in the Po Valley, and confirm that this region is a rather homogeneous air basin with urban area hot-spots, the contributions of which add up to a relatively high regional background concentration level. Additionally, the relatively slow response of the air quality levels to the sudden decrease of the emissions due to the lockdown shows that this region is characterized by a weak exchange of the air masses that favors both the build-up of atmospheric pollutants and the development of secondary formation processes. Thus, air quality control strategies should aim for structural interventions intended to reduce traffic emissions at the regional scale and not only in the largest urban areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coronavirus Pandemic Shutdown Effects on Urban Air Quality)

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25 pages, 7732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recent Increases in Winter Snowfall Provide Resilience to Very Small Glaciers in the Julian Alps, Europe

by Renato R. Colucci, Manja Žebre, Csaba Zsolt Torma, Neil F. Glasser, Eleonora Maset, Costanza Del Gobbo and Simone Pillon

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020263 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6038

Abstract

Very small glaciers (<0.5 km²) account for more than 80% of the total number of glaciers and more than 15% of the total glacier area in the European Alps. This study seeks to better understand the impact of extreme snowfall events [...] Read more.

Very small glaciers (<0.5 km²) account for more than 80% of the total number of glaciers and more than 15% of the total glacier area in the European Alps. This study seeks to better understand the impact of extreme snowfall events on the resilience of very small glaciers and ice patches in the southeastern European Alps, an area with the highest mean annual precipitation in the entire Alpine chain. Mean annual precipitation here is up to 3300 mm water equivalent, and the winter snow accumulation is approximately 6.80 m at 1800 m asl averaged over the period 1979–2018. As a consequence, very small glaciers and ice/firn patches are still present in this area at rather low altitudes (1830–2340 m). We performed repeated geodetic mass balance measurements on 14 ice bodies during the period 2006–2018 and the results show an increase greater than 10% increase in ice volume over this period. This is in accordance with several extreme winter snow accumulations in the 2000s, promoting a positive mass balance in the following years. The long-term evolution of these very small glaciers and ice bodies matches well with changes in mean temperature of the ablation season linked to variability of Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. Nevertheless, the recent behaviour of such residual ice masses in this area where orographic precipitation represents an important component of weather amplification is somehow different to most of the Alps. We analysed synoptic meteorological conditions leading to the exceptional snowy winters in the 2000s, which appear to be related to the influence and modification of atmospheric planetary waves and Arctic Amplification, with further positive feedbacks due to change in local sea surface temperature and its interactions with low level flows and the orography. Although further summer warming is expected in the next decades, we conclude that modification of storm tracks and more frequent occurrence of extreme snowfall events during winter are crucial in ensuring the resilience of small glacial remnants in maritime alpine sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interactions between the Cryosphere and Climate (Change))

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16 pages, 7015 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Hector Mine M7.1 to Ridgecrest M7.1 Earthquake. A Look from a 20-Year Perspective

by Sergey Pulinets, Marina Tsidilina, Dimitar Ouzounov and Dmitry Davidenko

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020262 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2992

Abstract

The paper provides a comparative analysis of precursory phenomena in the ionosphere and atmosphere for two strong earthquakes of the same magnitude M7.1 that happened in the same region (North-East from Los Angeles) within a time span of 20 years, the Hector Mine [...] Read more.

The paper provides a comparative analysis of precursory phenomena in the ionosphere and atmosphere for two strong earthquakes of the same magnitude M7.1 that happened in the same region (North-East from Los Angeles) within a time span of 20 years, the Hector Mine and Ridgecrest earthquakes. Regardless of the similarity of their location (South-Eastern California, near 160 km one from another), there was one essential difference: the Hector Mine earthquake happened during geomagnetically disturbed conditions (essential in the sense of ionospheric precursors identification). In contrast, the quiet geomagnetic conditions characterized the period around the time of the Ridgecrest earthquake. The Hector mine earthquake happened in the middle of the rising phase of the 23-rd solar cycle characterized by high solar activity, while the Ridgecrest earthquake happened by the very end of the 24th cycle under very low solar activity conditions. We provide a comprehensive multi-factor analysis, determine the precursory period for both earthquakes and demonstrate the close similarity of ionospheric precursors. Unlike the majority of papers dealing with earthquake precursor identification based on the “abnormality” of observed time-series mainly determined by amplitude difference between “normal” (usually climatic) behavior and “abnormal” behavior with amplitudes exceeding some pre-established threshold, we used the technique of cognitive recognition of the precursors based on the physical mechanisms of their generation and the morphology of their behavior during the precursory period. These permits to uniquely identify precursors even in conditions of disturbed environment as it was around the time of the Hector Mine earthquake. We demonstrate the close similarity of precursors’ development for both events. The leading time of precursor appearance for the same region and similar magnitude was identical. For the Hector Mine it was 11 October 1999—5 days in advance—and for 2019 Ridgecrest it was 28 June—7 days before the mainshock and five days before the strongest foreshock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling (LAIC) Models (Vol. 2))

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18 pages, 4819 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing the Encoding-Forecasting Model for Precipitation Nowcasting by Putting High Emphasis on the Latest Data of the Time Step

by Chang Hoo Jeong, Wonsu Kim, Wonkyun Joo, Dongmin Jang and Mun Yong Yi

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020261 - 16 Feb 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2932

Abstract

Nowcasting is an important technique for weather forecasting because sudden weather changes significantly affect human life. The encoding-forecasting model, which is a state-of-the-art architecture in the field of data-driven radar extrapolation, does not particularly focus on the latest data when forecasting natural phenomena. [...] Read more.

Nowcasting is an important technique for weather forecasting because sudden weather changes significantly affect human life. The encoding-forecasting model, which is a state-of-the-art architecture in the field of data-driven radar extrapolation, does not particularly focus on the latest data when forecasting natural phenomena. This paper proposes a weighted broadcasting method that emphasizes the latest data of the time step to improve the nowcasting performance. This weighted broadcasting method allows the most recent rainfall patterns to have a greater impact on the forecasting network by extending the architecture of the existing encoding-forecasting model. Experimental results show that the proposed model is 1.74% and 2.20% better than the existing encoding-forecasting model in terms of mean absolute error and critical success index, respectively. In the case of heavy rainfall with an intensity of 30 mm/h or higher, the proposed model was more than 30% superior to the existing encoding-forecasting model. Therefore, applying the weighted broadcasting method, which explicitly places a high emphasis on the latest information, to the encoding-forecasting model is considered as an improvement that is applicable to the state-of-the-art implementation of data-driven radar-based precipitation nowcasting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Non-linear Approaches and Frequency Analysis in Characterization and Prediction of Rainfall Data)

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20 pages, 5726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison between One-Step and Two-Step Nesting Strategy in the Dynamical Downscaling of Regional Climate Model COSMO-CLM at 2.2 km Driven by ERA5 Reanalysis

by Mario Raffa, Alfredo Reder, Marianna Adinolfi and Paola Mercogliano

Atmosphere 2021, 12(2), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12020260 - 16 Feb 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4049

Abstract

Recently, the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF) has released a new generation of reanalysis, acknowledged as ERA5, representing at the present the most plausible picture for the current climate. Although ERA5 enhancements, in some cases, its coarse spatial resolution (~31 [...] Read more.

Recently, the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF) has released a new generation of reanalysis, acknowledged as ERA5, representing at the present the most plausible picture for the current climate. Although ERA5 enhancements, in some cases, its coarse spatial resolution (~31 km) could still discourage a direct use of precipitation fields. Such a gap could be faced dynamically downscaling ERA5 at convection permitting scale (resolution < 4 km). On this regard, the selection of the most appropriate nesting strategy (direct one-step against nested two-step) represents a pivotal issue for saving time and computational resources. Two questions may be raised within this context: (i) may the dynamical downscaling of ERA5 accurately represents past precipitation patterns? and (ii) at what extent may the direct nesting strategy performances be adequately for this scope? This work addresses these questions evaluating two ERA5-driven experiments at ~2.2 km grid spacing over part of the central Europe, run using the regional climate model COSMO-CLM with different nesting strategies, for the period 2007–2011. Precipitation data are analysed at different temporal and spatial scales with respect to gridded observational datasets (i.e., E-OBS and RADKLIM-RW) and existing reanalysis products (i.e., ERA5-Land and UERRA). The present work demonstrates that the one-step experiment tendentially outperforms the two-step one when there is no spectral nudging, providing results at different spatial and temporal scales in line with the other existing reanalysis products. However, the results can be highly model and event dependent as some different aspects might need to be considered (i.e., the nesting strategies) during the configuration phase of the climate experiments. For this reason, a clear and consolidated recommendation on this topic cannot be stated. Such a level of confidence could be achieved in future works by increasing the number of cities and events analysed. Nevertheless, these promising results represent a starting point for the optimal experimental configuration assessment, in the frame of future climate studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regional Climate Modeling with COSMO-CLM: Performance Assessment and Climate Projections)

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Atmosphere, Volume 12, Issue 2 (February 2021) – 164 articles

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