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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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23 pages, 42300 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Agricultural Land Suitability Based on RS, AHP, and MEA: A Case Study in Jilin Province, China
by Cheng Han, Shengbo Chen, Yan Yu, Zhengyuan Xu, Bingxue Zhu, Xitong Xu and Zibo Wang
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040370 - 19 Apr 2021
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5882
Abstract
The suitability evaluation of agricultural land at the regional scale is of great significance for protecting land and water resources and building sustainable agricultural systems. Based on climate, soil, topographical, and surface water resources, land suitability index (LSI) data for maize, rice, and [...] Read more.
The suitability evaluation of agricultural land at the regional scale is of great significance for protecting land and water resources and building sustainable agricultural systems. Based on climate, soil, topographical, and surface water resources, land suitability index (LSI) data for maize, rice, and soybeans are established using an analytical hierarchy process and matter element analysis (AHP–MEA) model in Jilin Province, China. The results show that there is a significant positive linear correlation between the LSI and the measured yield, which indicates that the model has an ideal effect and certain reference and extension significance. The main limiting factors for maize and soybean planting are pH, total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (AP), and soil texture, while water shortage limits rice planting. Different spatial structure optimization schemes for planting are established using the LSI and measured yield, along with economic indices. This study shows that the scheme that integrates policy and cost can make full use of land and water resources and promote the economic growth of agriculture. After optimization, the planting areas of maize, rice, and soybeans were 7.22, 2.44, and 0.71 million ha, respectively, representing an increase of 15.71 billion yuan over the agricultural GDP for the existing planting structure. It is expected that this study will provide a basis for follow-up studies on crop cultivation suitability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Digital Agriculture)
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18 pages, 632 KiB  
Article
China’s Tea Industry: Net Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Mitigation Potential
by Long Liang, Bradley G. Ridoutt, Liyuan Wang, Bin Xie, Minghong Li and Zhongbai Li
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040363 - 16 Apr 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 6698
Abstract
Tea is an important cash crop and a beverage that is widely consumed across the world. In China (the largest producer of tea), the industry is growing, and there is a need to understand current greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and sequestrations and the [...] Read more.
Tea is an important cash crop and a beverage that is widely consumed across the world. In China (the largest producer of tea), the industry is growing, and there is a need to understand current greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and sequestrations and the potential for mitigation so that climate action can be strategically undertaken. Life cycle assessment and carbon footprint methods were used to quantify emissions in tea cultivation and processing in the 16 major producing regions for the year 2017. The system boundary was from cradle to factory gate, which was divided into three subsystems, namely agricultural materials production, tea production and tea processing. Several units of analysis were chosen: the production region (province), the production area (ha) and the product (kg loose tea), etc. Total GHG emissions were 28.75 Mt CO2eq, which were mainly attributable to energy use in tea processing (41%), fertilizer production (31.6%) and soil emissions (26.7%). This equated to 12.0 t CO2eq per ha and 10.8 kg CO2eq per kg processed tea. Production in Hubei, Yunan, Guizhou, Sichuan and Fujian provinces contributed almost two thirds of industry emissions, representing priority areas for strategic action to reduce GHG emissions. At the same time, the total carbon sink amounted to 21.37 MtCO2, representing 74.3% of total GHG emissions. The proportions stored in soil, biomass, and tea production were 49.3%, 30.0%, and 20.7%, respectively. If best recommended management practices for fertilizer application were adopted and biomass was used as a source of energy for tea processing, the GHG emissions reduction potential was 16.66 Mt CO2eq, or 58% of total emissions. The GHG emissions associated with tea production and processing in China appeared high by comparison to other regions of the world. However, considering the carbon sink and emissions reduction potential, the tea industry should be viewed as an important sector for climate action. Moreover, the potential for substantial GHG emissions reduction through the adoption of improved practices seems very realistic. There may also be additional opportunities for GHG emissions reduction through the development of organic tea cultivation systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)
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21 pages, 2264 KiB  
Article
Less Is More: A Hard Way to Get Potential Dwarfing Hybrid Rootstocks for Valencia Sweet Orange
by Danilo Pereira Costa, Eduardo Sanches Stuchi, Eduardo Augusto Girardi, Alécio Souza Moreira, Abelmon da Silva Gesteira, Mauricio Antonio Coelho Filho, Carlos Alberto da Silva Ledo, André Luiz Vanucci da Silva, Helton Carlos de Leão, Orlando Sampaio Passos and Walter dos Santos Soares Filho
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040354 - 15 Apr 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3693
Abstract
As in several fruit crops, citrus trees with decreased size allow for a higher planting density, which may lead to higher productivity and facilitate operations such as harvesting and spraying. The use of dwarfing rootstocks is one of the most feasible methods for [...] Read more.
As in several fruit crops, citrus trees with decreased size allow for a higher planting density, which may lead to higher productivity and facilitate operations such as harvesting and spraying. The use of dwarfing rootstocks is one of the most feasible methods for tree size control, but few commercial varieties are available to date. In this work, the long-term performance of Valencia sweet orange grafted onto 51 hybrid citrus rootstocks was evaluated in rainfed cultivation at 6.0 m × 2.5 m tree spacing in Northern São Paulo State, Brazil. About a third of the evaluated hybrids were classified as dwarfing and semi-dwarfing rootstocks, that is, respectively inducing a relative canopy volume of <40% and 40–60% compared with the standard rootstock, the Rangpur lime Santa Cruz selection. The production efficiency and soluble solids concentration were conversely related to the canopy volume. Three citrandarins of Sunki mandarin (TSKC) × Flying Dragon trifoliate orange (TRFD) were grouped within the most productive dwarfing rootstocks. Other hybrids that expressively decreased tree size were mainly sensitive to drought; therefore, the mean fruit yield was low, indicating the need for irrigation, albeit fruit quality was high. Estimated productivity on the selected TSKC × TRFD rootstocks would double to an average of 40 t·ha−1·year−1 if tree spacing was adjusted to the smaller tree size. Although the HTR-208 citrandarin and the LCR × CTSW-009 citrumelimonia were as vigorous as the Santa Cruz Rangpur lime, they induced an outstanding fruit yield due to their highest tolerance to drought and, hence, can be considered for rainfed cultivation at wider tree spacing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Breeding, Genetics and Omics of Citrus)
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18 pages, 1528 KiB  
Article
Alley Cropping Mitigates the Impacts of Climate Change on a Wheat Crop in a Mediterranean Environment: A Biophysical Model-Based Assessment
by Francesco Reyes, Marie Gosme, Kevin J. Wolz, Isabelle Lecomte and Christian Dupraz
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040356 - 15 Apr 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5362
Abstract
Introduction: Climate change (CC) and the increased occurrence of extreme climatic events pose a serious threat to crop yields and their stability worldwide. This study analyzed the CC mitigation potential of an alley cropping system on crop physiological stresses and growth as compared [...] Read more.
Introduction: Climate change (CC) and the increased occurrence of extreme climatic events pose a serious threat to crop yields and their stability worldwide. This study analyzed the CC mitigation potential of an alley cropping system on crop physiological stresses and growth as compared to a monoculture system. Materials and Methods: Growth of winter durum wheat, cultivated alone (agriculture) and in combination with hybrid walnut (agroforestry), was simulated with the Hi-sAFe agroforestry model, as driven by business-as-usual Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projections, split into three scenarios, representing Past (1951–1990), Present (1991–2030), and Future (2031–2070) climatic conditions. Crop growth and the occurrence of thermal, nitrogen, and water stresses were analyzed. Results: Cold-related stresses were modest in Past and almost disappeared over time. Heat, drought, and nitrogen stresses increased about twofold from Past to Future, but were reduced by 20–35% in agroforestry, already with medium-sized trees (diameter at breast height (DBH) of about 10–15 cm). Crop yields in agriculture increased from Past to the end of Present and then remained stable. This moderately decreased with tree age in agroforestry (especially in Future). Discussion: The impact of CC on the crop was buffered in agroforestry, especially for the most extreme climatic events. The mitigation of crop microclimate and the increased stability of crop yields highlight the potential of agroforestry as a CC adaptation strategy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture)
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14 pages, 1944 KiB  
Article
Short-Term Carbon Sequestration and Changes of Soil Organic Carbon Pools in Rice under Integrated Nutrient Management in India
by Mousumi Ghosh, Waqar Ashiq, Hiteshkumar Bhogilal Vasava, Duminda N. Vidana Gamage, Prasanta K. Patra and Asim Biswas
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040348 - 14 Apr 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4815
Abstract
While the capability of integrated nutrient management (INM) in rice systems has been adequately studied, little is known about the related short-term carbon sequestration and changes in soil carbon fractions. Our study examined the responses of organic carbon pools, carbon sequestration and rice [...] Read more.
While the capability of integrated nutrient management (INM) in rice systems has been adequately studied, little is known about the related short-term carbon sequestration and changes in soil carbon fractions. Our study examined the responses of organic carbon pools, carbon sequestration and rice yields after application of different organic manures combined with chemical fertilizers in a rice–rice (Oryza sativa L.) cropping system in the red and laterite agro-climatic zones of West Bengal, India. The treatments included non-fertilized control; rice straw (RS) + nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizer (NPK); Gliricidia (GL) + NPK; farmyard manure (FYM) + NPK; vermicompost (VC) + NPK; and NPK only. Rice straw + NPK treatment resulted in the highest total organic carbon and passive pool of carbon. Vermicompost + NPK treatment resulted in the highest oxidizable organic carbon (0.69%), dissolved organic carbon (0.007%) and microbial biomass carbon (0.01%), followed by FYM + NPK, GL + NPK and RS + NPK as compared to control. Rice straw + NPK sequestered the highest amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) as the total organic carbon (91.10 t ha−1) and passive pool of carbon (85.64 t ha−1), whereas VC + NPK resulted in the highest amount of CO2 (10.24 t ha−1) being sequestered as the active pool of carbon, followed by FYM + NPK (8.33 t ha−1) and GL + NPK (7.22 t ha−1). The application of both NPK only and VC + NPK treatments resulted in the highest grain yields over the three cropping seasons. In spite of high carbon sequestration being observed in more recalcitrant carbon pools, RS + NPK resulted in little increase (3.52 t ha−1) in rice yield over the short term. The results of this study suggest that the short-term changes of soil carbon fractions and carbon sequestration primarily depend on the type of organic manure used. Vermicompost, FYM and GL provide more labile carbon, which can improve rice yield over the short term. However, it is suggested to explore the dynamics of different carbon fractions, carbon sequestration in different pools and rice yields over longer periods of time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)
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14 pages, 729 KiB  
Article
The Role of the Ecological Awareness and the Influence on Food Preferences in Shaping Pro-Ecological Behavior of Young Consumers
by Bogdan Wierzbiński, Tomasz Surmacz, Wiesława Kuźniar and Lucyna Witek
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040345 - 13 Apr 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5400
Abstract
Pro-ecological behavior of consumers on the food market is conditioned by many factors, among which the literature on the subject particularly indicates, is high environmental awareness. Among other factors, the influence of social groups is also emphasized, in relation to young consumers; these [...] Read more.
Pro-ecological behavior of consumers on the food market is conditioned by many factors, among which the literature on the subject particularly indicates, is high environmental awareness. Among other factors, the influence of social groups is also emphasized, in relation to young consumers; these are mainly peers and friends, which was confirmed by the authors’ research. The aim of the research was to identify the role of ecological awareness and influence on the food purchasing habits of young consumers in shaping their pro-ecological behavior. Based on the literature on the subject, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the empirical material, reducing the number of dimensions through the use of factor analysis. Analyzing the collected material, the authors proposed three latent variables—ecological awareness (EA), impact on food preferences (IFP), and ecological behavior (EB). Hidden variables were defined by explicit variables, and the whole was characterized in the light of the literature. The research results indicated that there are significant correlations between all latent variables, however the strongest one could be observed between EA and EB. This proves that the ecological behavior of young consumers is strongly determined by their environmental awareness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Challenges of Agriculture and Rural Areas in the Context of Sustainable Development)
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10 pages, 1607 KiB  
Article
Effect of Organic and Chemical Fertilizer Application on Apple Nutrient Content and Orchard Soil Condition
by Takamitsu Kai and Dinesh Adhikari
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040340 - 10 Apr 2021
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7939
Abstract
Apple cultivation in Japan typically involves the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides which can damage the environment. Therefore, in this study we investigated the orchard soil biochemical characteristics as well as the fruit nutrient contents, and pesticide residues of apples grown either [...] Read more.
Apple cultivation in Japan typically involves the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides which can damage the environment. Therefore, in this study we investigated the orchard soil biochemical characteristics as well as the fruit nutrient contents, and pesticide residues of apples grown either organically (organic fertilizers + reduced pesticides) or with conventional chemical fertilizers and pesticide rates. Compared with conventional chemical fertilizer treatment, the organic fertilizer treatment produced fruit with significantly higher contents of sugar, as well as soil with higher total carbon, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus. There were also significantly greater soil bacterial biomass and N circulation in the organically fertilized treatments. Minimal pesticide residues were detected in the organically fertilized fruits, but in the apples cultivated with conventional rates of fertilizers and pesticides there were significantly higher levels of propargite that was used to control spider mites. These residue levels from the conventionally fertilized orchards exceeded European and Codex residue standards. These results indicate that environmentally friendly arboricultural soil management practices, such as organic fertilizer and reduced pesticide cultivation can enhance nutrient cycling in soil, reduce the burden on the environment, and promote food safety and security. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)
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15 pages, 4812 KiB  
Article
Powdery Mildew Caused by Erysiphe cruciferarum on Wild Rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia): Hyperspectral Imaging and Machine Learning Modeling for Non-Destructive Disease Detection
by Catello Pane, Gelsomina Manganiello, Nicola Nicastro, Teodoro Cardi and Francesco Carotenuto
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040337 - 9 Apr 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5710
Abstract
Wild rocket is a widely cultivated salad crop. Typical signs and symptoms of powdery mildew were observed on leaves of Diplotaxis tenuifolia, likely favored by climatic conditions occurring in a greenhouse. Based on morphological features and molecular analysis, the disease agent was [...] Read more.
Wild rocket is a widely cultivated salad crop. Typical signs and symptoms of powdery mildew were observed on leaves of Diplotaxis tenuifolia, likely favored by climatic conditions occurring in a greenhouse. Based on morphological features and molecular analysis, the disease agent was identified as the fungal pathogen Erysiphe cruciferarum. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of E. cruciferarum on D. tenuifolia. Moreover, the present study provides a non-destructive high performing digital approach to efficiently detect the disease. Hyperspectral image analysis allowed to characterize the spectral response of wild rocket affected by powdery mildew and the adopted machine-learning approach (a trained Random Forest model with the four most contributory wavelengths falling in the range 403–446 nm) proved to be able to accurately discriminate between healthy and diseased wild rocket leaves. Shifts in the irradiance absorption by chlorophyll a of diseased leaves in the spectrum blue range seems to be at the base of the hyperspectral imaging detection of wild rocket powdery mildew. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Protection, Diseases, Pests and Weeds)
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25 pages, 647 KiB  
Article
Development of Organic Milk Production in Poland on the Background of the EU
by Piotr Bórawski, Marek Bartłomiej Bórawski, Andrzej Parzonko, Ludwik Wicki, Tomasz Rokicki, Aleksandra Perkowska and James William Dunn
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 323; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040323 - 6 Apr 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4964
Abstract
Organic milk production is an environmentally friendly production system based on local forage and a ban on using chemical fertilizers and certain other rules. Organic milk is considered to be healthier and is gaining attention worldwide. The market for organic products is increasing. [...] Read more.
Organic milk production is an environmentally friendly production system based on local forage and a ban on using chemical fertilizers and certain other rules. Organic milk is considered to be healthier and is gaining attention worldwide. The market for organic products is increasing. The aim of the paper was to analyze changes in the development of organic dairy production in Poland in the context of the EU. We analyzed the changes on the European Union (EU) level and the Poland level. To analyze the changes in organic milk production on European Union level, we used the autoregressive integrated moving average model (ARIMA). Our results show that both organic milk production and the farm area used for organic production will increase. Moreover, we analyzed the organic dairy farms running rural accountancy within the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) in Poland in the years 2007–2018. We used tabular and graphic methods to present the data. In the analysis the methods of correlation and regression were used. Germany, France, Austria, and Great Britain are the countries with the largest numbers of organic dairy cows. Our prognosis examined the development of organic milk production in the European Union (EU). The number of cows on dairy organic farms will increase in most countries in the EU. Then, we analyzed the impact of the chosen factors on three dependent variables: organic milk production, total production of organic dairy farms, and income from family farms. The most important independent variables were cow numbers, the value of fixed assets, the value of current assets, long-term debt, and short-term debt. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)
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18 pages, 2877 KiB  
Article
Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria Isolated from the Jujube (Ziziphus lotus) Plant Enhance Wheat Growth, Zn Uptake, and Heavy Metal Tolerance
by Nidal Fahsi, Ismail Mahdi, Abdelhalem Mesfioui, Latefa Biskri and Abdelmounaaim Allaoui
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040316 - 4 Apr 2021
Cited by 64 | Viewed by 6728
Abstract
In recent years, the low Zn content of wheat has become critical. Consequently, solutions that can improve the Zn nutrition of wheat are highly researched. In the present investigation, we aimed to evaluate the potential benefits of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria isolated from Ziziphus lotus [...] Read more.
In recent years, the low Zn content of wheat has become critical. Consequently, solutions that can improve the Zn nutrition of wheat are highly researched. In the present investigation, we aimed to evaluate the potential benefits of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria isolated from Ziziphus lotus on wheat seedling growth. Based on the phosphate-solubilizing criteria, four isolated strains, J16, J143, J146, and J158, were identified by 16SrRNA gene sequencing as Pseudomonas moraviensis, Bacillus halotolerans, Enterobacter hormaechei, and Pseudomonas frederiksbergensis, respectively. Studies of the conventional properties of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) showed that E. hormaechei J146 produced up to 550 mg·L−1 of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Siderophores and ammonia were produced by all strains but cellulase was restricted to B. halotolerans J143, whereas proteases were missing in E. hormaechei J146 and P. frederiksbergensis J158. E. hormaechei J146 tolerate up to 1.5 mg·L−1 of copper and cadmium, while B. halotolerans J143 withstood 1.5 mg·L−1 of nickel. Strains B. halotolerant J143, E. hormaechei J146, and P. frederiksbergensis J158 remarkably improved wheat seed germination, plant growth, and Zn absorption. Lastly, nutrient measurement revealed that a wheat plant inoculated with E. hormaechei J146 and P. frederiksbergensis J158 increased its nitrogen and potassium uptake by up to 17%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research of Soil Microbial Functional Diversity)
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14 pages, 2065 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Grain Yield and Water Use Efficiency Based on the Relationship between Leaf Area Index and Evapotranspiration
by Guoqiang Zhang, Bo Ming, Dongping Shen, Ruizhi Xie, Peng Hou, Jun Xue, Keru Wang and Shaokun Li
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040313 - 3 Apr 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3490
Abstract
Achieving optimal balance between maize yield and water use efficiency is an important challenge for irrigation maize production in arid areas. In this study, we conducted an experiment in Xinjiang China in 2016 and 2017 to quantify the response of maize yield and [...] Read more.
Achieving optimal balance between maize yield and water use efficiency is an important challenge for irrigation maize production in arid areas. In this study, we conducted an experiment in Xinjiang China in 2016 and 2017 to quantify the response of maize yield and water use to plant density and irrigation schedules. The treatments included four irrigation levels: 360 (W1), 480 (W2), 600 (W3), and 720 mm (W4), and five plant densities: 7.5 (D1), 9.0 (D2), 10.5 (D3), 12.0 (D4), and 13.5 plants m−2 (D5). The results showed that increasing the plant density and the irrigation level could both significantly increase the leaf area index (LAI). However, LAI expansion significantly increased evapotranspiration (ETa) under irrigation. The combination of irrigation level 600 mm (W3) and plant density 12.0 plants m−2 (D4) produced the highest maize yield (21.0–21.2 t ha−1), ETa (784.1–797.8 mm), and water use efficiency (WUE) (2.64–2.70 kg m−3), with an LAI of 8.5–8.7 at the silking stage. The relationship between LAI and grain yield and evapotranspiration were quantified, and, based on this, the relationship between water use and maize productivity was analyzed. Moreover, the optimal LAI was established to determine the reasonable irrigation level and coordinate the relationship between the increase in grain yield and the decrease in water use efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Water Management)
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12 pages, 746 KiB  
Article
EC Sensitivity of Hydroponically-Grown Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) Types in Terms of Nitrate Accumulation
by Noémi Kappel, Ildikó Fruzsina Boros, Francia Seconde Ravelombola and László Sipos
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040315 - 3 Apr 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6510
Abstract
The goal of this research was to investigate the effect of electrical conductivity (EC) levels of the nutrient solution on the fresh weight, chlorophyll, and nitrate content of hydroponic-system-grown lettuce. The selected cultivars are the most representative commercial varieties grown for European markets. [...] Read more.
The goal of this research was to investigate the effect of electrical conductivity (EC) levels of the nutrient solution on the fresh weight, chlorophyll, and nitrate content of hydroponic-system-grown lettuce. The selected cultivars are the most representative commercial varieties grown for European markets. Seven cultivars (‘Sintia,’ ‘Limeira,’ ‘Corentine,’ ‘Cencibel,’ ‘Kiber,’ ‘Attiraï,’ and ‘Rouxaï’) of three Lactuca sativa L. types’ (butterhead, loose leaf, and oak leaf) were grown in a phytotron in rockwool, meanwhile the EC level of the nutrient solutions were different: normal (<1.3 dS/m) and high (10 dS/m). The plants in the saline condition had a lower yield but elevated chlorophyll content and nitrate level, although the ‘Limeira’ and ‘Cencibel’ cultivars had reduced nitrate levels. The results and the special characteristic of the lollo-type cultivars showed that the nitrate level could be very different due to salinity (‘Limeira’ had the lowest (684 µg/g fresh weight (FW)) and ‘Cencibel’ had the highest (4396 µg/g FW)). There was a moderately strong negative correlation (−0.542) in the reverse ratio among the chlorophyll and nitrate contents in plants treated with a normal EC value, while this relationship was not shown in the saline condition. Under the saline condition, cultivars acted differently, and all examined cultivars stayed under the permitted total nitrate level (5000 µg/g FW). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Cultivation Techniques to Improve the Nutritional Quality of Vegetables)
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24 pages, 4983 KiB  
Article
Responses of Root Characteristic Parameters and Plant Dry Matter Accumulation, Distribution and Transportation to Nitrogen Levels for Spring Maize in Northeast China
by Yang Yu, Chunrong Qian, Wanrong Gu and Caifeng Li
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040308 - 2 Apr 2021
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3410
Abstract
Improving nitrogen use efficiency is a significant scientific problem to be solved. Two maize hybrids JD27 (Jidan 27) and SD19 (Sidan 19) were selected to study the effects of nitrogen levels on root characteristic parameters and plant dry matter accumulation, distribution and transportation. [...] Read more.
Improving nitrogen use efficiency is a significant scientific problem to be solved. Two maize hybrids JD27 (Jidan 27) and SD19 (Sidan 19) were selected to study the effects of nitrogen levels on root characteristic parameters and plant dry matter accumulation, distribution and transportation. We set five different nitrogen levels, which were nitrogen deficiency (000N), low nitrogen (075N), medium nitrogen (150N), high nitrogen (225N) and excessive nitrogen (300N). The results showed that the root length and root surface area of JD27 were significantly higher than those of SD19 under 075N. With the increase of nitrogen levels, the root difference among varieties gradually decreased. The root length, projection area, total surface area and total volume reached the maximum values at silking stage. The average root diameter kept stable or decreased slowly with the growth stage. The dry matter accumulation of JD27 was higher than that of SD19 at all growth stages. Increasing the amount of nitrogen fertilizer can promote the transport of dry matter to grain and improve dry matter transport efficiency after anthesis. Under the treatment of medium and high nitrogen fertilizer, maize was easy to obtain a higher yield, but excessive nitrogen fertilizer inhibited the increase of yield. This study provides theoretical and practical guidance for maize production techniques. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)
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17 pages, 3387 KiB  
Article
Study on the Atomization Characteristics of Flat Fan Nozzles for Pesticide Application at Low Pressures
by Shougen Li, Chongchong Chen, Yaxiong Wang, Feng Kang and Wenbin Li
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040309 - 2 Apr 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4632
Abstract
Spraying is the most widely used means of pesticide application for pest control in agriculture and forestry. The atomization characteristics of the nozzles are directly related to the spray drift, rebound, and deposition. Previous research studies have mainly focused on the change pattern [...] Read more.
Spraying is the most widely used means of pesticide application for pest control in agriculture and forestry. The atomization characteristics of the nozzles are directly related to the spray drift, rebound, and deposition. Previous research studies have mainly focused on the change pattern of atomization characteristics. Mathematical descriptions of the atomization characteristics of flat fan nozzles are rare, and pesticide application theories are also insufficient. Atomization characteristics mainly include droplet size and velocity. This study analyzes the influence of the spray parameters (spray angle, pressure, and equivalent orifice diameter of nozzles) and the spatial position in the flow field. To obtain the atomization characteristics of flat fan nozzles, the phase Doppler particle analyzer (PDPA) was selected for the accurate measurement of the droplet sizes and velocities at distances 0.30–0.60 m, using low spray pressures (0.15–0.35 MPa). The droplet size and velocity models were then established and validated. The results revealed that the average absolute error of the droplet size model was 23.74 µm and the average relative error was 8.23%. The average absolute and relative errors of the droplet velocity model were 0.37 m/s and 7.86%, respectively. At a constant spray pressure and angle, there was a positive correlation between the droplet size and the equivalent orifice diameter of the nozzles. The test also verified that the spray angle and distance had a negative correlation with the droplet velocity at a given pressure. The spray distance had no effect on the spray axial droplet size at constant spray pressure. In addition, the spray angle greatly affected the droplet velocity along the X-axis; similarly, the spray parameters, especially spray angle, greatly affected the droplet size. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)
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18 pages, 1907 KiB  
Review
The Use of Multispectral Imaging and Single Seed and Bulk Near-Infrared Spectroscopy to Characterize Seed Covering Structures: Methods and Applications in Seed Testing and Research
by Anders Krogh Mortensen, René Gislum, Johannes Ravn Jørgensen and Birte Boelt
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040301 - 1 Apr 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6667
Abstract
The objective of seed testing is to provide high-quality seeds in terms of high varietal identity and purity, germination capacity, and seed health. Across the seed industry, it is widely acknowledged that quality assessment needs an upgrade and improvement by inclusion of faster [...] Read more.
The objective of seed testing is to provide high-quality seeds in terms of high varietal identity and purity, germination capacity, and seed health. Across the seed industry, it is widely acknowledged that quality assessment needs an upgrade and improvement by inclusion of faster and more cost-effective techniques. Consequently, there is a need to develop and apply new techniques alongside the classical testing methods, to increase efficiency, reduce analysis time, and meet the needs of stakeholders in seed testing. Multispectral imaging (MSI) and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) are both quick and non-destructive methods that attract attention in seed research and in the seed industry. This review addresses the potential benefits and challenges of using MSI and NIRS for seed testing with a comprehensive focus on applications in physical and physiological seed quality as well as seed health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Seed Technology)
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11 pages, 318 KiB  
Article
Chemical Composition and Broad-Spectrum Insecticidal Activity of the Flower Essential Oil from an Ancient Sicilian Food Plant, Ridolfia segetum
by Natale Badalamenti, Vincenzo Ilardi, Maurizio Bruno, Roman Pavela, Maria C. Boukouvala, Nickolas G. Kavallieratos, Filippo Maggi, Angelo Canale and Giovanni Benelli
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040304 - 1 Apr 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 3804
Abstract
Several species of the family Apiaceae are aromatic herbs that produce essential oils usable on an industrial scale for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food purposes. In particular, some essential oils, such as green insecticides for example, may replace synthetic insecticides, keeping most of their [...] Read more.
Several species of the family Apiaceae are aromatic herbs that produce essential oils usable on an industrial scale for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food purposes. In particular, some essential oils, such as green insecticides for example, may replace synthetic insecticides, keeping most of their efficacy and avoiding environmental pollution or human poisoning. In the present study, we explored the insecticidal potential of Ridolfia segetum (L.) Moris essential oil (EO) against three different pests: Culex quinquefasciatus Say, Musca domestica L., and Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval). For this purpose, the EO was obtained by hydrodistillation of flowers and its composition was achieved by gas chromatography/flame ionization detection (GC/FID) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). This EO was rich in α-phellandrene (49.3%), β-phellandrene (9.2%), terpinolene (20.7%), and piperitenone oxide (5.9%). Concerning the mosquitocidal efficacy, the EO showed noteworthy toxicity against C. quinquefasciatus 3rd instar larvae, with a LC50 = 27.1 µL L−1 and LC90 = 42.5 µL L−1. Regarding M. domestica, a different toxicity of the R. segetum EO was found on male and female flies, calculating LD50 values of 10.5 and 50.8 µg adult−1, respectively. The EO was also toxic to S. littoralis 3rd instar larvae, achieving LD50 and LD90 values of 37.9 and 99.6 µg larva−1, respectively. Overall, this flower EO, extracted from a traditional Sicilian food plant, merits further investigation for the development of green insecticide formulations to be used in real world conditions, pending a careful assessment of non-target toxicity on beneficial organisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopesticides: The Naturally Originating Plant Protection Products and Biocides)
14 pages, 3579 KiB  
Article
Sunflower Husk Biochar as a Key Agrotechnical Factor Enhancing Sustainable Soybean Production
by Agnieszka Klimek-Kopyra, Urszula Sadowska, Maciej Kuboń, Maciej Gliniak and Jakub Sikora
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040305 - 1 Apr 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3348
Abstract
Climate change has a decisive impact on the physical parameters of soil. To counteract this phenomenon, the ongoing search for more effective agri-technical solutions aims at the improvement of the physical properties of soil over a short time. The study aimed to assess [...] Read more.
Climate change has a decisive impact on the physical parameters of soil. To counteract this phenomenon, the ongoing search for more effective agri-technical solutions aims at the improvement of the physical properties of soil over a short time. The study aimed to assess the effect of biochar produced from sunflower husks on soil respiration (SR), soil water flux (SWF), and soil temperature (ST), depending on its dose and different soil cover (with and without vegetation). Moreover, the seed yield was assessed depending on the biochar fertilization. Field experiments were conducted on Calcaric/Dolomitic Leptosols (Ochric soil). SR, ST, and SWT were evaluated seven times in three-week intervals during two seasons, over 2018 and 2019. It was found that the time of biochar application had a significant effect on the evaluated parameters. In the second year, the authors observed significantly (p < 0.005) higher soil respiration (4.38 µmol s−1 m−2), soil temperature (21.2 °C), and the level of water net transfer in the soil (0.38 m mol s−1 m−2), compared to the first year. The most effective biochar dose regarding SR and soybean yield was 60 t ha−1. These are promising results, but a more comprehensive cost-benefit analysis is needed to recommend large-scale biochar use at this dose. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Diversification)
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19 pages, 25056 KiB  
Article
A Biotreatment Effect on Dynamics of Cattle Manure Composition and Reduction of Ammonia Emissions from Agriculture
by Vilma Naujokienė, Indrė Bagdonienė, Rolandas Bleizgys and Mantas Rubežius
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040303 - 1 Apr 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4222
Abstract
Increasing control of localized air pollution caused by ammonia is identified, including limiting the maximum emissions from agriculture. In EU countries, the agricultural sector is the source of above 94% of the total anthropogenic emissions of ammonia, of which manure removal systems account [...] Read more.
Increasing control of localized air pollution caused by ammonia is identified, including limiting the maximum emissions from agriculture. In EU countries, the agricultural sector is the source of above 94% of the total anthropogenic emissions of ammonia, of which manure removal systems account for 56%. In view of the reason for the agricultural waste management by formation and propagation of ammonia gas—the bacterial and enzymatic degradation of organic components in excrement—it is important to evaluate the effect of biotreatment of 100% natural composition (contain Azospirillum sp. (N) (number of bacterial colonies −1 × 109 cm−3), Frateuria aurentia (K) (number of bacterial colonies −1 × 109 cm−3), Bacillus megaterium (P) (bacterial colony count −1 × 109 cm−3), seaweed extract (10% by volume), phytohormones, auxins, cytokinin, gibberellins, amino acids, and vitamins) on the emission of ammonia from organic waste. Experimental research was carried out to determine significant differences of dynamics in agrochemical composition of manure, NH3 gas emissions, depending on biotreatment, manure storage duration, and ventilation intensity of the barn. Gas emission was obtained via laser gas analyzer using a spectroscopic method in a specially reconstructed wind tunnel chamber. About 32% manure biotreatment effect on reduction of ammonia emissions was established. The maximum effect of the biodegradable compound on gaseous propagation was assessed after 28–35 days of manure storage and proved all biotreatment effect time of 49–56 days. By the saving nitrogen loses priority, manure biotreatment could reduce nitrogen losses from manure and inorganic N fertilizers by approximately 5%, also could reduce approximately 5911.1 thousand tones nitrogen fertilizer in the world and reduce approximately 5.5 Eur ha−1. “The biotreatment impact assessment confirmed that proper application of biotreatment can reduce ammonia emissions from manure and environmental pollution from agriculture”. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)
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21 pages, 1929 KiB  
Review
An Overview on the Use of Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) on Farms for the Management of Dairy Cows
by Chiara Evangelista, Loredana Basiricò and Umberto Bernabucci
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040296 - 30 Mar 2021
Cited by 55 | Viewed by 9593
Abstract
Dairy farming is increasingly affected by the digital revolution. To respond to current challenges—such as environmental, economic, and social sustainability—new technologies must be adopted, entering the perspective of precision livestock farming. This is made possible by the development of countless sensors to be [...] Read more.
Dairy farming is increasingly affected by the digital revolution. To respond to current challenges—such as environmental, economic, and social sustainability—new technologies must be adopted, entering the perspective of precision livestock farming. This is made possible by the development of countless sensors to be adopted in the barn. The technology that is affecting various aspects of dairy cattle breeding is certainly near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) which is versatile and can be used online/inline to evaluate and control the critical points of the production process by entering the PAT (process analytical technology). In the barn, NIRS currently can obtain information on the chemical-physical composition of raw materials, total mixed ration (TMR), feces and digestibility, chemical and technological analysis of milk. All this in a short time by eliminating the waiting times for analysis response and costs, allowing an improvement of livestock management. Many studies affirm the validity of NIRS as a reliable and predictive technology against multiple relevant parameters in matrices such as raw feed, TMR, feces, and milk. This review highlights the usefulness of NIRS technology in dairy farm with particular attention to portable instrumentation usable directly on the farm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Technologies for the Feeding of Dairy Cattle to Ensure Animal Welfare and Production Quality—INNOVALAT)
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12 pages, 3483 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Nutrients Uptake by Tomato Plants in Different Phenological Stages Using an Electrical Conductivity Technique
by Ilie Bodale, Gabriela Mihalache, Vladut Achiţei, Gabriel-Ciprian Teliban, Ana Cazacu and Vasile Stoleru
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040292 - 29 Mar 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8548
Abstract
Nutrient consumption by plants depends on the growth stage and environmental conditions. In general, plants take up species of elements at different speeds. We monitored and recorded the electrical charge flow through xylem sap of tomato plants (Brillante F1) using femto/picoammeter equipment (Keysight [...] Read more.
Nutrient consumption by plants depends on the growth stage and environmental conditions. In general, plants take up species of elements at different speeds. We monitored and recorded the electrical charge flow through xylem sap of tomato plants (Brillante F1) using femto/picoammeter equipment (Keysight B2981A). This technique evaluates the nutrient uptake of tomato treated with the most common macronutrients (KNO3; KH2PO4; Ca(NO3)2; KCl) by monitoring the electrical conductivity for 24 h. The electrical conductivity of each treatment correlated with the plant growth and development stages. The results showed that the tomato plants had a high consumption of nutrients in the vegetative stage, while in other stages, they had a specific consumption, like phosphorus for bulb formation, potassium for increasing the number of flowers and water for the ripening of fruits. The quantitative evaluation of the ions absorbed by the plant was based on the magnitude and shape of the electrical conductivity curves. Our technique is an efficient method to determine nutrient consumption and is useful in predicting the deficiency of a certain element in tomato plants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from 2020 XIV International Conference of Food Physicists)
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11 pages, 328 KiB  
Article
Effects of Poultry Manure and Biochar on Acrisol Soil Properties and Yield of Common Bean. A Short-Term Field Experiment
by José Romualdo de Sousa Lima, Maria da Conceição Cavalcanti de Goes, Claude Hammecker, Antonio Celso Dantas Antonino, Érika Valente de Medeiros, Everardo Valadares de Sá Barretto Sampaio, Maria Camila de Barros Silva Leite, Vanilson Pedro da Silva, Eduardo Soares de Souza and Rodolfo Souza
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040290 - 28 Mar 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4773
Abstract
Common bean is usually cropped under rainfed conditions and in soils with low pH and water retention, in the sub-humid and semiarid regions of Brazil. To improve soil conditions, smallholder farmers commonly use cattle manure. However, manure is available in limited amounts, insufficient [...] Read more.
Common bean is usually cropped under rainfed conditions and in soils with low pH and water retention, in the sub-humid and semiarid regions of Brazil. To improve soil conditions, smallholder farmers commonly use cattle manure. However, manure is available in limited amounts, insufficient to fertilize all cropping areas. Thus, other amendments, such as poultry manure (PM) and biochar (BC), have been proposed to increase soil water retention and pH. We evaluated the effects of BC (10, 20, and 40 t ha−1; BC10, BC20, and BC40, respectively), PM (5 t ha−1; PM), the combination of both amendments (BC10 + PM, BC20 + PM, and BC40 + PM) and an absolute control (Control), with no amendment, on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties, and on common bean water use efficiency (WUE) and yield. The treatments had no effects on total organic carbon, cation exchange capacity, microbial biomass carbon, soil physical properties, and evapotranspiration. Treatment combination BC (10 t ha−1) + PM (5 t ha−1) significantly improved phosphorus concentration, enzymatic activities, WUE, and bean yield in this one-year experiment and it can be a viable management practice for smallholder farmers in the Brazilian sub-humid region. However, further investigations are required to study the long-term field effects of the best performing soil amendments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Biochar and Compost Amendments on Soil Fertility)
18 pages, 2253 KiB  
Article
Organic Beekeeping Practices in Romania: Status and Perspectives towards a Sustainable Development
by Cristina Bianca Pocol, Peter Šedík, Ioan Sebastian Brumă, Antonio Amuza and Aurica Chirsanova
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040281 - 25 Mar 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 9425
Abstract
Romanian beekeeping faces a lot of challenges nowadays due to the problems related to climate change, the use of pesticides in agriculture, but also to the pandemic crisis. In this context, organic beekeeping represents an important alternative to traditional apicultural practices. The purpose [...] Read more.
Romanian beekeeping faces a lot of challenges nowadays due to the problems related to climate change, the use of pesticides in agriculture, but also to the pandemic crisis. In this context, organic beekeeping represents an important alternative to traditional apicultural practices. The purpose of the study was to present the current situation of organic beekeeping in Romania, but also to identify some aspects related to sustainability. The research methodology was based on secondary and primary data. An online survey was conducted in 2020 on a sample of 433 Romanian beekeepers. The main findings showed that the majority of participants were aware of organic principles and were familiar with the concept of sustainability in beekeeping. However, only a small percentage of beekeepers were certified in the organic system. The evaluation of the concept of sustainability showed that the most important factor for the surveyed beekeepers was the environmental aspect, followed by the economic and social components. The pandemic crisis has negatively impacted the beekeepers’ activities due to travel restrictions and the limited access to the apiaries. If, in economic terms, they were affected by the sales drop in the first months of the crisis, there were also some positive effects such as the increase in demand for health-related products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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21 pages, 970 KiB  
Article
Agricultural Potential of the EU Countries: How Far Are They from the USA?
by Karolina Pawlak, Luboš Smutka and Pavel Kotyza
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040282 - 25 Mar 2021
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 5686
Abstract
Although the EU and the USA are the largest players in the global agricultural market, there are only a few up-to-date comparative studies concerning their agricultural potential and performance. No comprehensive study covering all individual EU member states in relation to the USA [...] Read more.
Although the EU and the USA are the largest players in the global agricultural market, there are only a few up-to-date comparative studies concerning their agricultural potential and performance. No comprehensive study covering all individual EU member states in relation to the USA has been provided so far. Considering that in the light of the lasting impasse in the negotiations on both international and transatlantic trade liberalization, differences in the production structures seem to be a decisive factor affecting competitiveness of the EU and the US agriculture, the paper attempts to identify the gap in the agricultural potential between individual EU countries and the USA and determine which EU countries are able to face the competitive pressure exerted by the US agricultural producers. Ward’s agglomerative hierarchical clustering method with the Euclidean distance was used to separate the most and the least competitive countries depending on their agricultural potential. Based on the conducted analyses it may be stated that the US agriculture is characterized by more rational ratios between production factors, resulting in their higher efficiency compared to the EU. The conducted typological analysis showed that thanks to the high standard of capital assets per employee leading to high labor productivity, only such countries as Germany, the Netherlands, France, Denmark, and Belgium may be considered as capable of meeting the competitive pressure exerted by the US agriculture with its greater degree of concentration and benefits from proper proportions between the production factors. A much more difficult competitive situation is observed in the EU countries of Central and Eastern Europe as well as the Mediterranean region, specializing in land- and labor-intensive production, in which the rational utilization of the production potential is limited by the structural deficit, resulting from the fragmented agrarian structure and manifested in the low level of land and capital assets assigned to labor actively involved in the production process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Challenges of Agriculture and Rural Areas in the Context of Sustainable Development)
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22 pages, 2791 KiB  
Article
Targeting Youths’ Intentions to Avoid Food Waste: Segmenting for Better Policymaking
by Ewelina M. Marek-Andrzejewska and Anna Wielicka-Regulska
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040284 - 25 Mar 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6118
Abstract
Food waste is a global challenge that raises many questions about the reasons and prevalence of this phenomenon in all sectors of the economy. The youth is regarded as a consumer group, which is the most prone to food waste. This paper aims [...] Read more.
Food waste is a global challenge that raises many questions about the reasons and prevalence of this phenomenon in all sectors of the economy. The youth is regarded as a consumer group, which is the most prone to food waste. This paper aims to understand their food waste intentions to support tailored policies for policymakers, retailers, and other market actors. We applied the extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to find the relevant variables that affect the youth’s intention not to waste food. Besides creating a general model, we divided the sample into segments differing in respondents’ intentions to avoid food waste and specific socioeconomic characteristics. The data confirm significant differences between young women and men from urban and rural areas. Each of the segments was characterized by specific latent variables, influencing the intentions to avoid food waste. This segmentation allowed for developing policy recommendations that were tailored to each segment. It is a unique approach to differentiate the youth to unveil their specific food-waste intentions. Based on the above, we conclude that segmenting is a useful approach to the general TPB model, allowing for interesting insights. A fine segmentation is also a milestone to develop tailored policies, interventions, and communication on food waste reduction in rural and urban areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Food Marketing, Economics and Policies)
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15 pages, 1193 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Transport Infrastructure on the Sustainable Development of the Region—Case Study
by Piotr Prus and Marek Sikora
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 279; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040279 - 24 Mar 2021
Cited by 69 | Viewed by 12641
Abstract
The transport infrastructure can be defined as a factor that guarantees the growth and economic development of the region, due to the functions of traversing space in terms of the movement of people and the exchange of goods. The effects of the impact [...] Read more.
The transport infrastructure can be defined as a factor that guarantees the growth and economic development of the region, due to the functions of traversing space in terms of the movement of people and the exchange of goods. The effects of the impact of transport infrastructure on the economy of the region largely depend on how the society uses the services offered by infrastructure facilities and devices. The study examines the impact of transport infrastructure on the sustainable socio-economic development of the Wałcz Lake District. To conduct the analysis, a questionnaire addressed to entrepreneurs from this region was used. In the second part of the research, the indicators of sustainable development at the regional level were applied: the level of transport infrastructure and the level of socio-economic development of the studied area. The study is an attempt to fill the cognitive gap for areas outside the country’s main transport corridors. The existing differentiation in both the development of infrastructure and the economic attractiveness of urban and rural areas was shown. Factors influencing the effectiveness of implementing the concept of sustainable rural development were indicated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Challenges of Agriculture and Rural Areas in the Context of Sustainable Development)
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20 pages, 2233 KiB  
Article
Assessing Sustainability of Organic Livestock Farming in Sicily: A Case Study Using the FAO SAFA Framework
by Mariarita Cammarata, Giuseppe Timpanaro and Alessandro Scuderi
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030274 - 23 Mar 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 7405
Abstract
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and pollutants, soil erosion and groundwater pollution are some of the negative aspects blamed on livestock farming, so their level of sustainability needs to be assessed, taking into account the territory in which they operate. The research focuses on [...] Read more.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and pollutants, soil erosion and groundwater pollution are some of the negative aspects blamed on livestock farming, so their level of sustainability needs to be assessed, taking into account the territory in which they operate. The research focuses on the assessment of sustainability performance in the four dimensions of good governance: environmental integrity, economic resilience and social well-being, considered by the ‘‘Sustainability Assessment of Food and Agriculture Systems’’ (SAFA) tool developed by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The objective of applying this methodology is to highlight the sustainability dimensions in which the ten analyzed farms are weakest and the ones in which they show the most strength, in order to provide farmers a tool to understand the criticalities on which to intervene. The farms considered follow the principles of agroecology and organic farming, which are decisive in the pursuit of sustainable development. The overall results show a satisfactory level of sustainability with high prospects for improvement, in line with the EU commitments undertaken in the Green Deal and the Millennium Development Goals. Livestock farms must, therefore, be encouraged and accompanied with targeted technical assistance strategies and appropriate agroecological protocols. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Food Marketing, Economics and Policies)
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14 pages, 1724 KiB  
Article
Qualitative Analysis of Lambda-Cyhalothrin on Chinese Cabbage Using Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy Combined with Fuzzy Feature Extraction Algorithms
by Yanjun Shen, Xiaohong Wu, Bin Wu, Yang Tan and Jinmao Liu
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030275 - 23 Mar 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3549
Abstract
Excess pesticide residues on cabbage are harmful to humans. In this study, we propose an innovative strategy for a quick and nondestructive qualitative test of lambda-cyhalothrin residues on Chinese cabbage. Spectral profiles of Chinese cabbage leaf samples with different concentrations of surface residues [...] Read more.
Excess pesticide residues on cabbage are harmful to humans. In this study, we propose an innovative strategy for a quick and nondestructive qualitative test of lambda-cyhalothrin residues on Chinese cabbage. Spectral profiles of Chinese cabbage leaf samples with different concentrations of surface residues of lambda-cyhalothrin were collected with an Agilent Cary 630 FTIR Spectrometer. Standard normal variate (SNV), multiplicative scatter correlation (MSC), and principle component analysis (PCA) were utilized to preprocess the spectra. Then, fuzzy Foley-Sammon transformation (FFST), fuzzy linear discriminant analysis (FLDA), and fuzzy uncorrelated discriminant transformation (FUDT) were employed to extract features from the spectra data. Finally, k-nearest neighbor (kNN) was applied to classify samples according to the concentration of lambda-cyhalothrin residue. The highest identification accuracy rates of FFST, FLDA, and FUDT were 100%, 97.22%, and 100%, respectively. FUDT performed the best considering the combination of accuracy rate and required computing time. We believe that mid-infrared spectroscopy combined with fuzzy uncorrelated discriminant analysis is an effective method to accurately and quickly conduct qualitative analyses of lambda-cyhalothrin residues on Chinese cabbages. This method may have applications in other crops and other pesticide residues. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Product Quality and Safety)
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18 pages, 6864 KiB  
Article
Multi-Feature Patch-Based Segmentation Technique in the Gray-Centered RGB Color Space for Improved Apple Target Recognition
by Pan Fan, Guodong Lang, Pengju Guo, Zhijie Liu, Fuzeng Yang, Bin Yan and Xiaoyan Lei
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030273 - 22 Mar 2021
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3987
Abstract
In the vision system of apple-picking robots, the main challenge is to rapidly and accurately identify the apple targets with varying halation and shadows on their surfaces. To solve this problem, this study proposes a novel, multi-feature, patch-based apple image segmentation technique using [...] Read more.
In the vision system of apple-picking robots, the main challenge is to rapidly and accurately identify the apple targets with varying halation and shadows on their surfaces. To solve this problem, this study proposes a novel, multi-feature, patch-based apple image segmentation technique using the gray-centered red-green-blue (RGB) color space. The developed method presents a multi-feature selection process, which eliminates the effect of halation and shadows in apple images. By exploring all the features of the image, including halation and shadows, in the gray-centered RGB color space, the proposed algorithm, which is a generalization of K-means clustering algorithm, provides an efficient target segmentation result. The proposed method is tested on 240 apple images. It offered an average accuracy rate of 98.79%, a recall rate of 99.91%, an F1 measure of 99.35%, a false positive rate of 0.04%, and a false negative rate of 1.18%. Compared with the classical segmentation methods and conventional clustering algorithms, as well as the popular deep-learning segmentation algorithms, the proposed method can perform with high efficiency and accuracy to guide robotic harvesting. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Image Analysis Techniques in Agriculture)
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16 pages, 1778 KiB  
Article
Temporal Changes in Sensitivity of Zymoseptoria tritici Field Populations to Different Fungicidal Modes of Action
by Tim Birr, Mario Hasler, Joseph-Alexander Verreet and Holger Klink
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030269 - 21 Mar 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5262
Abstract
Septoria tritici blotch (STB; Zymoseptoria tritici), one of the most important foliar diseases in wheat, is mainly controlled by the intensive use of fungicides during crop growth. Unfortunately, Z. tritici field populations have developed various extents of resistance to different groups of [...] Read more.
Septoria tritici blotch (STB; Zymoseptoria tritici), one of the most important foliar diseases in wheat, is mainly controlled by the intensive use of fungicides during crop growth. Unfortunately, Z. tritici field populations have developed various extents of resistance to different groups of fungicides. Due to the complete resistance to quinone outside inhibitors (QoIs), fungicidal control of STB relies mainly on demethylation inhibitors (DMIs) and succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors (SDHIs) as well as multi-site inhibitors. In this study, temporal changes in the sensitivity of Z. tritici to selected DMIs (tebuconazole, propiconazole, prothioconazole, prochloraz), SDHIs (boscalid, bixafen), and multi-site inhibitors (chlorothalonil, folpet) were determined in microtiter assays using Z. tritici field populations isolated in 1999, 2009, 2014, and 2020 in a high-disease-pressure and high-fungicide-input area in Northern Germany. For the four tested DMI fungicides, a significant shift towards decreasing sensitivity of Z. tritici field populations was observed between 1999 and 2009, whereby concentrations inhibiting fungal growth by 50% (EC50) increased differentially between the four DMIs. Since 2009, EC50 values of tebuconazole, propiconazole, and prochloraz remain stable, whereas for prothioconazole a slightly increased sensitivity shift was found. A shift in sensitivity of Z. tritici was also determined for both tested SDHI fungicides. In contrast to DMIs, EC50 values of boscalid and bixafen increased continuously between 1999 and 2020, but the increasing EC50 values were much smaller compared to those of the four tested DMIs. No changes in sensitivity of Z. tritici were observed for the multi-site inhibitors chlorothalonil and folpet over the last 21 years. The sensitivity adaptation of Z. tritici to both groups of single-site inhibitors (DMIs, SDHIs) mainly used for STB control represents a major challenge for future wheat cultivation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Protection, Diseases, Pests and Weeds)
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14 pages, 2779 KiB  
Article
Flavouring Extra-Virgin Olive Oil with Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Essential Oils Stabilizes Oleic Acid Composition during Photo-Oxidative Stress
by Salvatore Barreca, Salvatore La Bella, Antonella Maggio, Mario Licata, Silvestre Buscemi, Claudio Leto, Andrea Pace and Teresa Tuttolomondo
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030266 - 20 Mar 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7009
Abstract
Essential oils (EOs) from medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are well-known as natural antioxidants. Their addition to extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) can contribute to reducing fat oxidation. The main aim of this study was to improve both food shelf-life and aromatic flavour of [...] Read more.
Essential oils (EOs) from medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are well-known as natural antioxidants. Their addition to extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) can contribute to reducing fat oxidation. The main aim of this study was to improve both food shelf-life and aromatic flavour of EVOO, adding different EOs of Sicilian accessions of common sage, oregano, rosemary and thyme. The morphological and production characteristics of 40 accessions of MAPs were preliminarily assessed. EOs from the most promising accessions of MAPs were analysed by gas-chromatography and mass spectrometry. Photo-oxidative studies of the EOs were carried out and the determination of the EVOO fatty acids obtained from 4 Italian olive varieties was also made. EO content was on average 1.45% (v/w) for common sage, 3.97% for oregano, 1.42% for rosemary and 5.90% for thyme accessions. The highest average EO yield was found in thyme (172.70 kg ha−1) whilst the lowest (9.30 kg ha−1) in rosemary accessions. The chemical composition of EOs was very different in the four MAPs in the study. No significant change of oleic acid percentage was detected in the mixture of EVOO with EO samples. The results seem to highlight the presence of an antioxidant effect of EOs on EVOO. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Agricultural Research When Considering Criteria of Multifunctionality and Sustainability)
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15 pages, 1183 KiB  
Article
Assessing Seasonal Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Furrow-Irrigated Rice with Cover Crops
by Sandhya Karki, M. Arlene A. Adviento-Borbe, Joseph H. Massey and Michele L. Reba
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030261 - 19 Mar 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4688
Abstract
Improved irrigation management is identified as a potential mitigation option for methane (CH4) emissions from rice (Oryza sativa). Furrow-irrigated rice (FR), an alternative method to grow rice, is increasingly adopted in the Mid-South U.S. However, FR may provide a [...] Read more.
Improved irrigation management is identified as a potential mitigation option for methane (CH4) emissions from rice (Oryza sativa). Furrow-irrigated rice (FR), an alternative method to grow rice, is increasingly adopted in the Mid-South U.S. However, FR may provide a potential risk to yield performance and higher emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O). This study quantified the grain yields, CH4 and N2O emissions from three different water management practices in rice: multiple-inlet rice irrigation (MIRI), FR, and FR with cereal rye (Secale cereale) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) as preceding winter cover crops (FRCC). CH4 and N2O fluxes were measured from May to September 2019 using a static chamber technique. Grain yield from FR (11.8 Mg ha−1) and MIRI (12.0 Mg ha−1) was similar, and significantly higher than FRCC (8.5 Mg ha−1). FR and FRCC drastically reduced CH4 emissions compared to MIRI. Total seasonal CH4 emissions decreased in the order of 44 > 11 > 3 kg CH4-C ha−1 from MIRI, FR, and FRCC, respectively. Cumulative seasonal N2O emissions were low from MIRI (0.1 kg N2O-N ha−1) but significantly higher from FR (4.4 kg N2O-N ha−1) and FRCC (3.0 kg N2O-N ha−1). However, there was no net difference in global warming potential among FR, FRCC and MIRI. These results suggest that the increased N2O flux from furrow-irrigated rice may not greatly detract from the potential benefits that furrow-irrigation offers rice producers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)
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19 pages, 7912 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Link between Food Security and Food Price Dynamics: A Bibliometric Analysis
by Marwa Ben Abdallah, Maria Fekete-Farkas and Zoltan Lakner
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030263 - 19 Mar 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5300
Abstract
An evaluation of research studies is considered an important task to make future adjustments for securing and adjusting policies. This article presents the results of a study that explored the research that has been published with food security, price volatility, and price transmission [...] Read more.
An evaluation of research studies is considered an important task to make future adjustments for securing and adjusting policies. This article presents the results of a study that explored the research that has been published with food security, price volatility, and price transmission as keywords. The study involved a bibliometric evaluation of statistical outcomes from 899 scientific publications from 1979 to June 2020 related to the subject, registered in the Web of Science database. The collected articles were used to measure bibliometric indicators and evaluate the research work on food security and agricultural products’ price movement. An analysis of the development and the identification of the related topics of greatest interest on this subject was also carried out. The analysis results found that a rising number of studies have been registered over the years, emphasizing the following keywords: food security, climate change, agriculture, health, nutrition, consumption, and income. The analysis proves that the shift in scientific research trends associated with food security analysis is linked with health and food nutrition status. Furthermore, the word "impact" was significantly present in the analyzed papers, which reveals that econometric analysis should address the relationship between price movement and nutrient intake to achieve nutritional security. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Product Quality and Safety)
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17 pages, 4024 KiB  
Article
Impact of Rice Straw Mulch on Soil Physical Properties, Sunflower Root Distribution and Yield in a Salt-Affected Clay-Textured Soil
by Priya Lal Chandra Paul, Richard W Bell, Edward G. Barrett-Lennard and Enamul Kabir
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030264 - 19 Mar 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6940
Abstract
Puddling of clay soils for rice transplanting causes a loss of soil structure and vertical shrinkage cracks that are hypothesized to hamper sunflower root growth in the following dry season. To alleviate soil constraints for sunflower root growth and yield, we examined the [...] Read more.
Puddling of clay soils for rice transplanting causes a loss of soil structure and vertical shrinkage cracks that are hypothesized to hamper sunflower root growth in the following dry season. To alleviate soil constraints for sunflower root growth and yield, we examined the effects of three levels of mulch and two irrigation regimes in the dry season on a clay-textured soil in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. These treatments were no-mulch, rice straw mulch at 5 t ha−1 and 10 t ha−1, irrigation applied to the field capacity (I1) and a water supply double that of the I1 treatment (I2). The rice straw mulch significantly increased soil water content by 3–9% and decreased soil penetration resistance by 28–77% and crack volume by 84–91% at A 0–30 cm soil depth relative to the no-mulch treatment. The better root development with the rice straw mulch increased sunflower yield by 23%. No benefit or further reduction in soil penetration resistance or yield improvement was obtained from increasing the level of mulch from 5 to 10 t ha−1 or the volume of irrigation water. It is concluded that ameliorating soil constraints by mulch application led to better root growth in the upper root zone and the increased yield in the clay soil. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Water Management)
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13 pages, 2126 KiB  
Article
Impact of Tillage and Crop Residue Management on the Weed Community and Wheat Yield in a Wheat–Maize Double Cropping System
by Jin Zhang and Lan-Fang Wu
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030265 - 19 Mar 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4447
Abstract
Weeds are often harmful to crop growth due to the competition for space and resources. A field experiment containing four treatments with three replications in a complete randomized design was conducted at Yucheng Comprehensive Experiment Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences since 2008 to [...] Read more.
Weeds are often harmful to crop growth due to the competition for space and resources. A field experiment containing four treatments with three replications in a complete randomized design was conducted at Yucheng Comprehensive Experiment Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences since 2008 to assess the impact of shifting from conventional tillage to no-till with crop residue management on weeds and wheat production at the North China Plain. We found that both aboveground weed density and species richness were higher under continuous no-till (NT) than conventional tillage (CT) in the regrowth and stem elongation stage of wheat growth. On the other hand, aboveground weed density in the stage of flowering and filling decreased with crop residue mulching. The density of the soil seed bank in crop residue removal treatments was significantly higher than that of crop residue retention. Besides, either crop residue mulching or incorporating into the soil significantly increased the wheat yield compared with crop residue removal regardless of tillage management. In conclusion, crop residue retention could decrease the weed density and species richness both aboveground and in the soil seed bank and inhibit the growth of broadleaf weeds by the residue layer. Moreover, crop residue retention could improve the wheat yield. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Technological and Agronomic Practices for Sustainable Agriculture)
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26 pages, 3251 KiB  
Article
The Impact of RDP Measures on the Diversification of Agriculture and Rural Development—Seeking Additional Livelihoods: The Case of Poland
by Mirosław Biczkowski, Aleksandra Jezierska-Thöle and Roman Rudnicki
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030253 - 17 Mar 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5150
Abstract
The paper’s main aim is to assess the measures implemented within the Rural Development Program (RDP) 2007–2013 in Poland. This programme is dedicated to the diversification of business activities in rural areas and rural livelihood and, thus, the improvement of the multifunctionality of [...] Read more.
The paper’s main aim is to assess the measures implemented within the Rural Development Program (RDP) 2007–2013 in Poland. This programme is dedicated to the diversification of business activities in rural areas and rural livelihood and, thus, the improvement of the multifunctionality of rural areas. The analysis covered two measures from Axis 3, Improvement of the quality of life in rural areas and diversification of rural economy: M311, diversification into non-agricultural activities; and M312, Establishment and development of micro-enterprise. The study and the discussion are presented from a geographical perspective and, in a broader context, take into account several conditions (natural, urban, agricultural and historical) and the spatial diversity of the allocation of European Union (EU) funds. Models of a policy of multifunctional rural development, implemented after accession to the EU, are presented. The research’s spatial scope covers Poland’s territory on two spatial scales: the system of regions (16 NUTS2 units) and poviats (314 LAU level 1 units). The analysis covers all the projects implemented in Poland under the two measures of Axis 3 of the RDP 2007–2013. A set of conditions was prepared for all LAU1 units, forming the background for assessing the impact of the EU funds on the development of non-agricultural activities. To determine the relationship between the RDP measures and the selected groups of conditions, a synthetic index and a correlation index are used. They are also used to determine the mutual relations between the two analyzed activities in terms of the spatial scales used. Access to the EU funds (RDP) has considerably enlarged the opportunities for accelerating agricultural modernisation and restructuration towards multifunctional development, as well as the opportunities for implementing new development and work methods in the countryside in Poland. The attractiveness of the two studied RDP measures varied across regions. The beneficiaries’ activity depended on the local potential (resources), culture and tradition of the region, and size and potential of the farm. In the areas where agriculture is deeply rooted, beneficiaries were more willing to engage in ventures tapping into the resources available in their farms. Thus, they create additional livelihood of income and workplaces for household members. In turn, the beneficiaries from the areas where farms are smaller and economically weaker often undertake activities related to setting up a new business (outside farming). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Challenges of Agriculture and Rural Areas in the Context of Sustainable Development)
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18 pages, 3100 KiB  
Article
Grain Yield Stability of Cereal-Legume Intercrops Is Greater Than Sole Crops in More Productive Conditions
by Martin Weih, Alison J. Karley, Adrian C. Newton, Lars P. Kiær, Christoph Scherber, Diego Rubiales, Eveline Adam, James Ajal, Jana Brandmeier, Silvia Pappagallo, Angel Villegas-Fernández, Moritz Reckling and Stefano Tavoletti
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030255 - 17 Mar 2021
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6752
Abstract
The intercropping of two or more crop species on the same piece of land at a given time has been hypothesized to enhance crop yield stability. To address this hypothesis, we assessed the grain yield stability of various barley-pea and wheat-faba bean mixtures [...] Read more.
The intercropping of two or more crop species on the same piece of land at a given time has been hypothesized to enhance crop yield stability. To address this hypothesis, we assessed the grain yield stability of various barley-pea and wheat-faba bean mixtures grown in seven experimental field trials (locations) across Europe during two years with contrasting weather (2017 and 2018). Three different yield stability measures were used, all based on the expected yield variability of the mixture components grown as sole crops, and the corresponding observed yield variability of the same components grown in 50:50 mixtures in a replacement design. Stability indices were calculated as ratios between the expected and observed variabilities, with values > 1 indicating greater stability of the intercrops. Mean grain yields tended to be higher in intercrops than sole crops. However, in contrast to our hypothesis, the observed (intercrop) yield stability was similar or lower than the expected (sole crop) stability in most locations except one. Furthermore, yield stability significantly increased with increasing mean yields when assessed across differentially productive locations. The results are relevant for the designing of intercropping systems as a means to increase yield stability and the resilience of cropping systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intercropping Systems for Sustainable Agriculture)
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21 pages, 1060 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Crop Diversification on the Economic Efficiency of Small Farms in Poland
by Agnieszka Kurdyś-Kujawska, Agnieszka Strzelecka and Danuta Zawadzka
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030250 - 16 Mar 2021
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 12755
Abstract
Crop diversification finds an important place in the strategy of dealing with risk and uncertainty related to climate change. It helps to increase the resilience of farmers, significantly improving their income stability, but at the same time, it can lower the economic efficiency [...] Read more.
Crop diversification finds an important place in the strategy of dealing with risk and uncertainty related to climate change. It helps to increase the resilience of farmers, significantly improving their income stability, but at the same time, it can lower the economic efficiency of small farms. The aim of the article is to identify the determinants of crop diversification and the impact of crop diversification on the economic efficiency of small farms in Poland. This article first provides a critical review of the literature on crop diversification, its role in stabilizing agricultural income and its impact on economic efficiency in small farms. Secondly, the level of crop diversification was determined and empirical research was conducted considering the economic, social and agronomic characteristics of farms. Thirdly, the economic efficiency of farms diversifying crops was compared with farms focused on one type of production. The research material consisted of small farms participating in the Polish system of collecting and using farm accountancy data (FADN) in 2018. The level of diversification was determined using the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index. The factors influencing crop diversification were identified using the logit regression model. The Mann–Whitney U rank sum test was used to assess the significance of the differences in distributions. The research results indicate an average level of crop diversification in small farms in Poland and its regional differentiation. In addition, a statistically significant positive impact on the probability of crop diversification in small farms in Poland was found of variables such as the level of exposure of agricultural production to atmospheric and agricultural drought and the location of the farm in the frost hardiness zone and a statistically significant negative impact of the variable: value of fixed assets. The existence of significant differences in the level of economic efficiency of farms diversifying crops and farms focused on one profile of agricultural production was proved. The study is an important voice in the discussion on increasing measures to strengthen support for small farms that diversify crops so as to ensure their greater stability and economic efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Diversification)
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17 pages, 4123 KiB  
Article
Quality Assessment of Raw Honey Issued from Eastern Romania
by Aida Albu, Cristina-Gabriela Radu-Rusu, Ioan Mircea Pop, Gabriela Frunza and Gherasim Nacu
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030247 - 14 Mar 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6648
Abstract
Romania is known among the main European honey producers, due to the variety of landforms as well as the diversity of the flora. Thirty-four honey samples of the acacia, linden and multifloral types, produced in eastern Romania and collected during 2013–2018, were physico-chemically [...] Read more.
Romania is known among the main European honey producers, due to the variety of landforms as well as the diversity of the flora. Thirty-four honey samples of the acacia, linden and multifloral types, produced in eastern Romania and collected during 2013–2018, were physico-chemically analyzed using methods provided by the national and EU standards. The results of water-insoluble solids, color and refractive index were found to be 0.023–0.131%, 0.3–76.4 mm Pfund and 1.485–1.499, respectively. The moisture content ranged between 15.20% and 20.77%, solid substances content ranged between 79.23% and 84.80% and total soluble substances content ranged between 77.83 °Brix and 83.26 °Brix. The obtained values of specific gravity were from 1.414 to 1.450 g/cm3, pH ranged from 3.673 to 5.503 and free acidity ranged between 2.4 meq and 50 meq kg−1. The ash content and the electrical conductivity varied between 0.030 and 0.543% and 130 and 679 µS cm−1, respectively. Pearsonʹs correlation analysis showed an intense association of the ash content with electrical conductivity (r = 0.81). Our findings reveal the qualitative level of Romanian honey and the variation in quality parameters due to factors such as geographical region, climatic conditions, botanical origin and handling or storage conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from 2020 XIV International Conference of Food Physicists)
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17 pages, 2826 KiB  
Article
Structural Optimization and Performance Evaluation of Blocking Wheel-Type Screw Fertilizer Distributor
by Xiantao Zha, Guozhong Zhang, Yuhang Han, Abouelnadar Elsayed Salem, Jianwei Fu and Yong Zhou
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030248 - 14 Mar 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3937
Abstract
In order to solve the problem where the amount of screw fertilizer distributor can only be adjusted by rotating speed and poor fertilization uniformity at low rotational speeds, a blocking wheel-type screw fertilizer distributor was designed. Single factor and L9(34 [...] Read more.
In order to solve the problem where the amount of screw fertilizer distributor can only be adjusted by rotating speed and poor fertilization uniformity at low rotational speeds, a blocking wheel-type screw fertilizer distributor was designed. Single factor and L9(34) orthogonal simulation tests based on EDEM software were carried out to optimize the distributor variables at a speed of 20 r/min. The bench verification test was built under the same conditions as the simulation tests to verify the results of the simulation. Finally, the bench performance tests were carried out to evaluate distributor performance. The results of simulation tests revealed that the minimum coefficient of variation of fertilization uniformity (CVFU) was 19.27%, with the structural parameter combination of the inner diameter (17 mm), pitch (45 mm), outlet distance (40 mm), and number of screw heads (1). The verification test results showed that the changing trend and values of the CVFU were almost the same as the simulation tests. The results of the performance test revealed that when the opening width of the blocking wheel was 10–30 mm and the rotation speed was 20–60 r/min, the amount of fertilizer per lap (FAPL) was in the range of 27.74–38.15 g/r; the maximum CVFU and the coefficient of variation of fertilization stability (CVFS) were 29.43% and 2.18%, respectively, which met the requirements of the industry standard. This research provides a good reference for optimizing the screw fertilizer distribution and for researchers in the field of precision fertilization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Structures and Mechanization)
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19 pages, 2659 KiB  
Article
Evaluating the Financial Health of Agricultural Enterprises in the Conditions of the Slovak Republic Using Bankruptcy Models
by Roman Vavrek, Ivana Kravčáková Vozárová and Rastislav Kotulič
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030242 - 12 Mar 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3809
Abstract
Under the influence of the change in the overall economic environment, the problem of measuring the performance of a company and its financial health is also changing. At present, every agricultural company is exposed to a number of internal as well as external [...] Read more.
Under the influence of the change in the overall economic environment, the problem of measuring the performance of a company and its financial health is also changing. At present, every agricultural company is exposed to a number of internal as well as external risks, the failure of which can lead to potential bankruptcy. It is a known fact that the risks in agriculture are significantly greater than those in other sectors of the national economy. Proper diagnosis of critical aspects and measuring the development of individual financial indicators of agricultural holdings are basic prerequisites for eliminating these risks and maintaining, as well as increasing, their competitiveness. Among the key tools for measuring the financial situation of a company are bankruptcy models, three of which have been used (Altman model, Taffler model, and Bonity index). The aim of this study was to identify the comprehensive financial health of 469 agricultural enterprises in the Slovak Republic using the three above-mentioned bankruptcy models in 2016. The obtained results were verified using the Kruskal–Wallis test, Levene test, or Moran index. Altman’s model indicated potential future problems of businesses and agricultural cooperatives. Using the Bonity index, the neutral situation was assessed (the financial health could be regarded as neither insufficient nor optimal). Taffler model offered contradicted results and does not expect the occurrence of problems soon. In the study, we also verified the assumption of the dependence of financial health of companies on the legal form and territorial division, which was confirmed to be insignificant. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Food Marketing, Economics and Policies)
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18 pages, 720 KiB  
Review
Relationship between Plant Roots, Rhizosphere Microorganisms, and Nitrogen and Its Special Focus on Rice
by Qiangqiang Xiong, Jinlong Hu, Haiyan Wei, Hongcheng Zhang and Jinyan Zhu
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030234 - 11 Mar 2021
Cited by 83 | Viewed by 11953
Abstract
Fertilization is an important practical measure in agricultural production. As an important nutrient element of plants, nitrogen (N) has a significant impact on the plant productivity and microbial function. Rhizosphere microorganisms affect plant growth and development, nitrogen uptake and utilization, and ecological adaptability. [...] Read more.
Fertilization is an important practical measure in agricultural production. As an important nutrient element of plants, nitrogen (N) has a significant impact on the plant productivity and microbial function. Rhizosphere microorganisms affect plant growth and development, nitrogen uptake and utilization, and ecological adaptability. The interaction mechanism between plant and rhizosphere microorganisms is one of the hotspots in life science research and the key program of agricultural microorganism utilization. In this article, the relationship among plant root morphology and physiology, rhizosphere microorganisms, and nitrogen is reviewed, summarized, and prospected. Full article
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17 pages, 5033 KiB  
Article
Climate Change Effects on Temperate Grassland and Its Implication for Forage Production: A Case Study from Northern Germany
by Iraj Emadodin, Daniel Ernesto Flores Corral, Thorsten Reinsch, Christof Kluß and Friedhelm Taube
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030232 - 10 Mar 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7587
Abstract
The effects of climate change on agricultural ecosystems are increasing, and droughts affect many regions. Drought has substantial ecological, social, and economic consequences for the sustainability of agricultural land. Many regions of the northern hemisphere have not experienced a high frequency of meteorological [...] Read more.
The effects of climate change on agricultural ecosystems are increasing, and droughts affect many regions. Drought has substantial ecological, social, and economic consequences for the sustainability of agricultural land. Many regions of the northern hemisphere have not experienced a high frequency of meteorological droughts in the past. For understanding the implications of climate change on grassland, analysis of the long-term climate data provides key information relevant for improved grassland management strategies. Using weather data and grassland production data from a long-term permanent grassland site, our aims were (i) to detect the most important drought periods that affected the region and (ii) to assess whether climate changes and variability significantly affected forage production in the last decade. For this purpose, long-term daily weather data (1961–2019) and the standardized precipitation index (SPI), De Martonne index (IDM), water deficit (WD), dryness index (DI), yield anomaly index (YAI), and annual yield loss index (YL) were used to provide a scientific estimation. The results show that, despite a positive trend in DI and a negative trend in WD and precipitation, the time-series trends of precipitation, WD, and DI indices for 1961–2019 were not significant. Extreme dry conditions were also identified with SPI values less than −2. The measured annual forage yield (2007–2018) harvested in a four-cut silage system (with and without organic N-fertilization) showed a strong correlation with WD (R = 0.64; p ˂ 0. 05). The main yield losses were indicated for the years 2008 and 2018. The results of this study could provide a perspective for drought monitoring, as well as drought warning, in grassland in northwest Europe. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture)
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20 pages, 389 KiB  
Review
A Review of Representative Methods Used in Wine Authentication
by Andreea Popîrdă, Camelia Elena Luchian, Valeriu V. Cotea, Lucia Cintia Colibaba, Elena Cristina Scutarașu and Ana Maria Toader
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030225 - 9 Mar 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5334
Abstract
Authenticity and the methods for determining fraud are two of the most important issues in the field of quality control and food safety. In the winemaking field, the study of authenticity is all the more necessary, with wine being one of the most [...] Read more.
Authenticity and the methods for determining fraud are two of the most important issues in the field of quality control and food safety. In the winemaking field, the study of authenticity is all the more necessary, with wine being one of the most adulterated foods, as the monthly reports of the European Commission show. This results in a two-fold problem: consumer expectations are not met and there is a disloyal competition among wine producers in the field. Authenticity has been a priority research direction worldwide for centuries. Today, researchers are working on improving already existing methods of authenticity monitoring, but also on creating new ones. The intention is to have results that are as accurate, fast and inexpensive as possible for confirmation or rejection of the hypothesis. The bibliographic study of the literature undertaken for the development of this article aims to identify the classical methods of establishing authenticity, describe them and establish their degree of efficiency. Moreover, a review of the current research trends is presented in this work. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from 2020 XIV International Conference of Food Physicists)
31 pages, 18130 KiB  
Article
Plant and Weed Identifier Robot as an Agroecological Tool Using Artificial Neural Networks for Image Identification
by Tavseef Mairaj Shah, Durga Prasad Babu Nasika and Ralf Otterpohl
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030222 - 8 Mar 2021
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 10861
Abstract
Farming systems form the backbone of the world food system. The food system, in turn, is a critical component in sustainable development, with direct linkages to the social, economic, and ecological systems. Weeds are one of the major factors responsible for the crop [...] Read more.
Farming systems form the backbone of the world food system. The food system, in turn, is a critical component in sustainable development, with direct linkages to the social, economic, and ecological systems. Weeds are one of the major factors responsible for the crop yield gap in the different regions of the world. In this work, a plant and weed identifier tool was conceptualized, developed, and trained based on artificial deep neural networks to be used for the purpose of weeding the inter-row space in crop fields. A high-level design of the weeding robot is conceptualized and proposed as a solution to the problem of weed infestation in farming systems. The implementation process includes data collection, data pre-processing, training and optimizing a neural network model. A selective pre-trained neural network model was considered for implementing the task of plant and weed identification. The faster R-CNN (Region based Convolution Neural Network) method achieved an overall mean Average Precision (mAP) of around 31% while considering the learning rate hyperparameter of 0.0002. In the plant and weed prediction tests, prediction values in the range of 88–98% were observed in comparison to the ground truth. While as on a completely unknown dataset of plants and weeds, predictions were observed in the range of 67–95% for plants, and 84% to 99% in the case of weeds. In addition to that, a simple yet unique stem estimation technique for the identified weeds based on bounding box localization of the object inside the image frame is proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)
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12 pages, 2338 KiB  
Review
Bibliometric Analysis of Soil Nutrient Research between 1992 and 2020
by Xiaoyan Pan, Jialong Lv, Miles Dyck and Hailong He
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030223 - 8 Mar 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5786
Abstract
Soil nutrient balance is related to the interaction mechanism between soil fertilizer, soil water, climate change, and plant capability. This paper provides a perspective from bibliometric analysis based on data from the Web of Science core collection with software tools, including Vosviewer, HistCite [...] Read more.
Soil nutrient balance is related to the interaction mechanism between soil fertilizer, soil water, climate change, and plant capability. This paper provides a perspective from bibliometric analysis based on data from the Web of Science core collection with software tools, including Vosviewer, HistCite Pro, and Citespace, in order to reveal the evolution of research trends in soil nutrients. The results show that publication outputs have increased exponentially from 1992 to 2020. The synthetic parameter of the sum of normalized data (SND), calculated from the default indicators of the bibliometric software tools, was used to rank the overall contribution of journal/authors/institutions/countries. The results demonstrate that Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment, Soil Biology & Biochemistry and Science of the Total Environment are the leading journals in the soil nutrient field. The Chinese Academy of Sciences had the highest total citations and collaborated most closely with other organizations, followed by United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and Agr& Agri Food Canada. In addition, USA, China, and UK are the top three research centers for this topic. Moreover, Ken E Giller, Qirong Shen, and Rattan Lal were the top three authors, while Andrew Sharpley ranked the first depending on citations per publication. In terms of co-occurrence of keyword analysis, the results indicate that nitrogen fertilizer, green manure, and soil population have gained close attention from scholars, while soil amendment of biochar have evolved as a hot topic in recent years. Perspectives on future studies are also given. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fertilizer Use, Soil Health and Agricultural Sustainability)
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19 pages, 636 KiB  
Article
German Farmers’ Attitudes on Adopting Autonomous Field Robots: An Empirical Survey
by Friedrich Rübcke von Veltheim and Heinke Heise
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030216 - 6 Mar 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5652
Abstract
Agricultural production methods in Europe are increasingly subject to public criticism from which many farmers suffer. This applies, among other areas, to the widespread use of pesticides. Autonomous field robots (AFR), as the next stage of agricultural automation, have the potential to farm [...] Read more.
Agricultural production methods in Europe are increasingly subject to public criticism from which many farmers suffer. This applies, among other areas, to the widespread use of pesticides. Autonomous field robots (AFR), as the next stage of agricultural automation, have the potential to farm more intensively and, at the same time, in a more environmentally friendly way. However, a certain skepticism towards autonomous systems is suspected among farmers. Whether farmers adopt a technology depends largely on their uncertainty about the consequences of its use and the resulting attitude on the adoption. In order to quantify the attitude on adopting AFR in Germany and to identify possible group differences within the population, 490 German farmers were surveyed using an online questionnaire, which is based on an extended version of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). In the subsequent cluster analysis, the statements inquiring the intention to use AFR served as cluster-forming variables. As a result, three groups (“open-minded AFR supporters”, “convinced AFR adopters”, “reserved AFR interested”) could be identified according to their response behavior. Despite existing group differences, an overall attitude in favor of autonomous field robots was observed. The results complement the existing research with a further empirical study and provide interesting starting points for further analysis, field robot manufacturers, and political decision makers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Advances for Smart and Sustainable Agriculture)
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15 pages, 335 KiB  
Review
Quantifying Root-Soil Interactions in Cover Crop Systems: A Review
by Cameron M. Ogilvie, Waqar Ashiq, Hiteshkumar B. Vasava and Asim Biswas
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030218 - 6 Mar 2021
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 6079
Abstract
Plant roots are an integral part of soil ecosystems and contribute to various services, including carbon and nutrient cycling, weathering, and soil formation. They also modify soil physical properties (e.g., soil water content, pore size distribution, and bulk density) and impact subsequent crops’ [...] Read more.
Plant roots are an integral part of soil ecosystems and contribute to various services, including carbon and nutrient cycling, weathering, and soil formation. They also modify soil physical properties (e.g., soil water content, pore size distribution, and bulk density) and impact subsequent crops’ growth. Cover crops have been reported to improve soil and environmental quality by reducing nutrient losses, improving soil water content, and increasing soil organic matter. Understanding the complex interactions between cover crop roots and soil (RS) is of utmost importance. However, cover crop RS interactions have not been critically reviewed. In this article, we investigated the nature of cover crop physical RS interactions and explored the emerging technologies for their study. We also assessed technologies that may be readily applied to the study of physical RS interactions in cover crop systems and discussed ways to improve related research in the future. Full article
12 pages, 7094 KiB  
Article
Linking Long-Term Changes in Soil Salinity to Paddy Land Abandonment in Jaffna Peninsula, Sri Lanka
by Tharani Gopalakrishnan and Lalit Kumar
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030211 - 5 Mar 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4486
Abstract
Soil salinity is a serious threat to coastal agriculture and has resulted in a significant reduction in agricultural output in many regions. Jaffna Peninsula, a semi-arid region located in the northern-most part of Sri Lanka, is also a victim of the adverse effects [...] Read more.
Soil salinity is a serious threat to coastal agriculture and has resulted in a significant reduction in agricultural output in many regions. Jaffna Peninsula, a semi-arid region located in the northern-most part of Sri Lanka, is also a victim of the adverse effects of coastal salinity. This study investigated long-term soil salinity changes and their link with agricultural land use changes, especially paddy land. Two Landsat images from 1988 and 2019 were used to map soil salinity distribution and changes. Another set of images was analyzed at four temporal periods to map abandoned paddy lands. A comparison of changes in soil salinity with abandoned paddy lands showed that abandoned paddy lands had significantly higher salinity than active paddy lands, confirming that increasing salts owing to the high levels of sea water intrusion in the soils, as well as higher water salinity in wells used for irrigation, could be the major drivers of degradation of paddy lands. The results also showed that there was a dramatic increase in soil salinity (1.4-fold) in the coastal lowlands of Jaffna Peninsula. 64.6% of the salinity-affected land was identified as being in the extreme saline category. In addition to reducing net arable lands, soil salinization has serious implications for food security and the livelihoods of farmers, potentially impacting the regional and national economy. Full article
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24 pages, 4501 KiB  
Review
Anthocyanins: Biosynthesis, Distribution, Ecological Role, and Use of Biostimulants to Increase Their Content in Plant Foods—A Review
by Giuseppe Mannino, Carla Gentile, Andrea Ertani, Graziella Serio and Cinzia Margherita Bertea
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030212 - 5 Mar 2021
Cited by 72 | Viewed by 9369
Abstract
In the past century, plant biostimulants have been increasingly used in agriculture as innovative and sustainable practice. Plant biostimulants have been mainly investigated as potential agents able to mitigate abiotic stress. However, few information is available about their ability to influence fruit quality [...] Read more.
In the past century, plant biostimulants have been increasingly used in agriculture as innovative and sustainable practice. Plant biostimulants have been mainly investigated as potential agents able to mitigate abiotic stress. However, few information is available about their ability to influence fruit quality or change fruit phytochemical composition. In particular, very little is known about their effects on anthocyanin synthesis and accumulation. Due to the increasing demand of consumers for healthier foods with high nutraceutical values, this review tries to fill the gap between anthocyanin content and biostimulant application. Here, we elucidate the chemical structure, biosynthetic pathway, plant distribution, and physiological role of anthocyanins in plants. Moreover, we discuss the potential implications for human health derived from the consumption of foods rich in these molecules. Finally, we report on literature data concerning the changes in anthocyanin content and profile after the application of biostimulant products on the most common anthocyanin-containing foods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Biostimulants on Crops)
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15 pages, 606 KiB  
Article
Organic Farming Increases the Technical Efficiency of Olive Farms in Italy
by Maria Raimondo, Francesco Caracciolo, Concetta Nazzaro and Giuseppe Marotta
Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030209 - 4 Mar 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3525
Abstract
While there is growing recognition of the positive role played by organic farming in the reduction of the negative externalities due to conventional agriculture, there is uncertainty about the effect of the latter on the economic performance of the farms. In this scenario, [...] Read more.
While there is growing recognition of the positive role played by organic farming in the reduction of the negative externalities due to conventional agriculture, there is uncertainty about the effect of the latter on the economic performance of the farms. In this scenario, the present paper aims at investigating the effect of organic farming on technical efficiency in Italian olive farms. A cross-section dataset was analyzed through the stochastic frontier function, where the adoption of organic farming was explicitly modeled. Then, to obtain an unbiased estimate of the impact of organic farming on technical efficiency, a propensity score matching method was implemented. The findings reveal that organic farming increases technical efficiency in Italian olive farms by approximately 10%. The highest impact of organic farming is observed in small farms. As for the propensity to become organic, we found that the production and the direct sales of a higher quality of gross marketable output, as well as the intensity of labor and machines, increase the probability to adopt organic farming. Conversely, farm localization, the availability of family labor, and financial capital discourage conversion to the organic farming system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)
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