Agriculture

Editorial

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6 pages, 190 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture

by Sebastian Kujawa and Gniewko Niedbała

Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060497 - 27 May 2021

Cited by 82 | Viewed by 9827

Abstract

Artificial neural networks are one of the most important elements of machine learning and artificial intelligence. They are inspired by the human brain structure and function as if they are based on interconnected nodes in which simple processing operations take place. The spectrum [...] Read more.

Artificial neural networks are one of the most important elements of machine learning and artificial intelligence. They are inspired by the human brain structure and function as if they are based on interconnected nodes in which simple processing operations take place. The spectrum of neural networks application is very wide, and it also includes agriculture. Artificial neural networks are increasingly used by food producers at every stage of agricultural production and in efficient farm management. Examples of their applications include: forecasting of production effects in agriculture on the basis of a wide range of independent variables, verification of diseases and pests, intelligent weed control, and classification of the quality of harvested crops. Artificial intelligence methods support decision-making systems in agriculture, help optimize storage and transport processes, and make it possible to predict the costs incurred depending on the chosen direction of management. The inclusion of machine learning methods in the “life cycle of a farm” requires handling large amounts of data collected during the entire growing season and having the appropriate software. Currently, the visible development of precision farming and digital agriculture is causing more and more farms to turn to tools based on artificial intelligence. The purpose of this Special Issue was to publish high-quality research and review papers that cover the application of various types of artificial neural networks in solving relevant tasks and problems of widely defined agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

Research

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31 pages, 18130 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Plant and Weed Identifier Robot as an Agroecological Tool Using Artificial Neural Networks for Image Identification

by Tavseef Mairaj Shah, Durga Prasad Babu Nasika and Ralf Otterpohl

Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030222 - 8 Mar 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 10382

Abstract

Farming systems form the backbone of the world food system. The food system, in turn, is a critical component in sustainable development, with direct linkages to the social, economic, and ecological systems. Weeds are one of the major factors responsible for the crop [...] Read more.

Farming systems form the backbone of the world food system. The food system, in turn, is a critical component in sustainable development, with direct linkages to the social, economic, and ecological systems. Weeds are one of the major factors responsible for the crop yield gap in the different regions of the world. In this work, a plant and weed identifier tool was conceptualized, developed, and trained based on artificial deep neural networks to be used for the purpose of weeding the inter-row space in crop fields. A high-level design of the weeding robot is conceptualized and proposed as a solution to the problem of weed infestation in farming systems. The implementation process includes data collection, data pre-processing, training and optimizing a neural network model. A selective pre-trained neural network model was considered for implementing the task of plant and weed identification. The faster R-CNN (Region based Convolution Neural Network) method achieved an overall mean Average Precision (mAP) of around 31% while considering the learning rate hyperparameter of 0.0002. In the plant and weed prediction tests, prediction values in the range of 88–98% were observed in comparison to the ground truth. While as on a completely unknown dataset of plants and weeds, predictions were observed in the range of 67–95% for plants, and 84% to 99% in the case of weeds. In addition to that, a simple yet unique stem estimation technique for the identified weeds based on bounding box localization of the object inside the image frame is proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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16 pages, 8529 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Oil Palm Tree Detection and Health Classification on High-Resolution Imagery Using Deep Learning

by Kanitta Yarak, Apichon Witayangkurn, Kunnaree Kritiyutanont, Chomchanok Arunplod and Ryosuke Shibasaki

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020183 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 12646

Abstract

Combining modern technology and agriculture is an important consideration for the effective management of oil palm trees. In this study, an alternative method for oil palm tree management is proposed by applying high-resolution imagery, combined with Faster-RCNN, for automatic detection and health classification [...] Read more.

Combining modern technology and agriculture is an important consideration for the effective management of oil palm trees. In this study, an alternative method for oil palm tree management is proposed by applying high-resolution imagery, combined with Faster-RCNN, for automatic detection and health classification of oil palm trees. This study used a total of 4172 bounding boxes of healthy and unhealthy palm trees, constructed from 2000 pixel × 2000 pixel images. Of the total dataset, 90% was used for training and 10% was prepared for testing using Resnet-50 and VGG-16. Three techniques were used to assess the models’ performance: model training evaluation, evaluation using visual interpretation, and ground sampling inspections. The study identified three characteristics needed for detection and health classification: crown size, color, and density. The optimal altitude to capture images for detection and classification was determined to be 100 m, although the model showed satisfactory performance up to 140 m. For oil palm tree detection, healthy tree identification, and unhealthy tree identification, Resnet-50 obtained F1-scores of 95.09%, 92.07%, and 86.96%, respectively, with respect to visual interpretation ground truth and 97.67%, 95.30%, and 57.14%, respectively, with respect to ground sampling inspection ground truth. Resnet-50 yielded better F1-scores than VGG-16 in both evaluations. Therefore, the proposed method is well suited for the effective management of crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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14 pages, 2013 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Average Degree of Coverage and Coverage Unevenness Coefficient as Parameters for Spraying Quality Assessment

by Beata Cieniawska and Katarzyna Pentos

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020151 - 12 Feb 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2757

Abstract

The purpose of the research was to determine the influence of selected factors on the average degree of coverage and uniformity of liquid spray coverage using selected single and dual flat fan nozzles. The impact of nozzle type, spray pressure, driving speed, and [...] Read more.

The purpose of the research was to determine the influence of selected factors on the average degree of coverage and uniformity of liquid spray coverage using selected single and dual flat fan nozzles. The impact of nozzle type, spray pressure, driving speed, and spray angle on the average degree of coverage and coverage unevenness coefficient were studied. The research was conducted with special spray track machinery designed and constructed to control and change the boom height, spray angle, driving speed, and spray pressure. Based on the research results, it was found that the highest average coverage was obtained for single standard flat fan nozzles and dual anti-drift flat fan nozzles. At the same time, the highest values of unevenness were observed for these nozzles. Inverse relationships were obtained for air-induction nozzles. Maximization of coverage with simultaneous minimization of unevenness can be achieved by using a medium droplet size for single flat fan nozzles (volume median diameter (VMD) = 300 μm) and coarse droplet size for dual flat fan nozzles (VMD = 352 μm), with low driving speed (respectively 1.1 m∙s⁻¹ and 1.6 m∙s⁻¹) and angling of the nozzle by 20° in the opposite direction to the direction of travel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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12 pages, 22869 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of Convolutional Neural Networks’ Hyperparameters with Transfer Learning to Determine Sorting of Ripe Medjool Dates

by Blanca Dalila Pérez-Pérez, Juan Pablo García Vázquez and Ricardo Salomón-Torres

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020115 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6350

Abstract

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have proven their efficiency in various applications in agriculture. In crops such as date, they have been mainly used in the identification and sorting of ripe fruits. The aim of this study was the performance evaluation of eight different [...] Read more.

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have proven their efficiency in various applications in agriculture. In crops such as date, they have been mainly used in the identification and sorting of ripe fruits. The aim of this study was the performance evaluation of eight different CNNs, considering transfer learning for their training, as well as five hyperparameters. The CNN architectures evaluated were VGG-16, VGG-19, ResNet-50, ResNet-101, ResNet-152, AlexNet, Inception V3, and CNN from scratch. Likewise, the hyperparameters analyzed were the number of layers, the number of epochs, the batch size, optimizer, and learning rate. The accuracy and processing time were considered to determine the performance of CNN architectures, in the classification of mature dates’ cultivar Medjool. The model obtained from VGG-19 architecture with a batch of 128 and Adam optimizer with a learning rate of 0.01 presented the best performance with an accuracy of 99.32%. We concluded that the VGG-19 model can be used to build computer vision systems that help producers improve their sorting process to detect the Tamar stage of a Medjool date. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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11 pages, 1293 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Relationship between Soil Electrical Parameters and Compaction of Sandy Clay Loam Soil

by Katarzyna Pentoś, Krzysztof Pieczarka and Kamil Serwata

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020114 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4037

Abstract

Soil spatial variability mapping allows the delimitation of the number of soil samples investigated to describe agricultural areas; it is crucial in precision agriculture. Electrical soil parameters are promising factors for the delimitation of management zones. One of the soil parameters that affects [...] Read more.

Soil spatial variability mapping allows the delimitation of the number of soil samples investigated to describe agricultural areas; it is crucial in precision agriculture. Electrical soil parameters are promising factors for the delimitation of management zones. One of the soil parameters that affects yield is soil compaction. The objective of this work was to indicate electrical parameters useful for the delimitation of management zones connected with soil compaction. For this purpose, the measurement of apparent soil electrical conductivity and magnetic susceptibility was conducted at two depths: 0.5 and 1 m. Soil compaction was measured for a soil layer at 0–0.5 m. Relationships between electrical soil parameters and soil compaction were modelled with the use of two types of neural networks—multilayer perceptron (MLP) and radial basis function (RBF). Better prediction quality was observed for RBF models. It can be stated that in the mathematical model, the apparent soil electrical conductivity affects soil compaction significantly more than magnetic susceptibility. However, magnetic susceptibility gives additional information about soil properties, and therefore, both electrical parameters should be used simultaneously for the delimitation of management zones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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19 pages, 3607 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping Paddy Rice Using Weakly Supervised Long Short-Term Memory Network with Time Series Sentinel Optical and SAR Images

by Mo Wang, Jing Wang and Li Chen

Agriculture 2020, 10(10), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10100483 - 19 Oct 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4129

Abstract

Rice is one of the most important staple food sources worldwide. Effective and cheap monitoring of rice planting areas is demanded by many developing countries. This study proposed a weakly supervised paddy rice mapping approach based on long short-term memory (LSTM) network and [...] Read more.

Rice is one of the most important staple food sources worldwide. Effective and cheap monitoring of rice planting areas is demanded by many developing countries. This study proposed a weakly supervised paddy rice mapping approach based on long short-term memory (LSTM) network and dynamic time warping (DTW) distance. First, standard temporal synthetic aperture radar (SAR) backscatter profiles for each land cover type were constructed on the basis of a small number of field samples. Weak samples were then labeled on the basis of their DTW distances to the standard temporal profiles. A time series feature set was then created that combined multi-spectral Sentinel-2 bands and Sentinel-1 SAR vertical received (VV) band. With different combinations of training and testing datasets, we trained a specifically designed LSTM classifier and validated the performance of weakly supervised learning. Experiments showed that weakly supervised learning outperformed supervised learning in paddy rice identification when field samples were insufficient. With only 10% of field samples, weakly supervised learning achieved better results in producer’s accuracy (0.981 to 0.904) and user’s accuracy (0.961 to 0.917) for paddy rice. Training with 50% of field samples also presented improvement with weakly supervised learning, although not as prominent. Finally, a paddy rice map was generated with the weakly supervised approach trained on field samples and DTW-labeled samples. The proposed data labeling approach based on DTW distance can reduce field sampling cost since it requires fewer field samples. Meanwhile, validation results indicated that the proposed LSTM classifier is suitable for paddy rice mapping where variance exists in planting and harvesting schedules. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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18 pages, 1766 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Time Series Prediction with Artificial Neural Networks: An Analysis Using Brazilian Soybean Production

by Emerson Rodolfo Abraham, João Gilberto Mendes dos Reis, Oduvaldo Vendrametto, Pedro Luiz de Oliveira Costa Neto, Rodrigo Carlo Toloi, Aguinaldo Eduardo de Souza and Marcos de Oliveira Morais

Agriculture 2020, 10(10), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10100475 - 15 Oct 2020

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5974

Abstract

Food production to meet human demand has been a challenge to society. Nowadays, one of the main sources of feeding is soybean. Considering agriculture food crops, soybean is sixth by production volume and the fourth by both production area and economic value. The [...] Read more.

Food production to meet human demand has been a challenge to society. Nowadays, one of the main sources of feeding is soybean. Considering agriculture food crops, soybean is sixth by production volume and the fourth by both production area and economic value. The grain can be used directly to human consumption, but it is highly used as a source of protein for animal production that corresponds 75% of the total, or as oil and derived food products. Brazil and the US are the most important players responsible for more than 70% of world production. Therefore, a reliable forecasting is essential for decision-makers to plan adequate policies to this important commodity and to establish the necessary logistical resources. In this sense, this study aims to predict soybean harvest area, yield, and production using Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and compare with classical methods of Time Series Analysis. To this end, we collected data from a time series (1961–2016) regarding soybean production in Brazil. The results reveal that ANN is the best approach to predict soybean harvest area and production while classical linear function remains more effective to predict soybean yield. Moreover, ANN presents as a reliable model to predict time series and can help the stakeholders to anticipate the world soybean offer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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27 pages, 6175 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Hybrid CFS Filter and RF-RFE Wrapper-Based Feature Extraction for Enhanced Agricultural Crop Yield Prediction Modeling

by Dhivya Elavarasan, Durai Raj Vincent P M, Kathiravan Srinivasan and Chuan-Yu Chang

Agriculture 2020, 10(9), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10090400 - 11 Sep 2020

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 5641

Abstract

The innovation in science and technical knowledge has prompted an enormous amount of information for the agrarian sector. Machine learning has risen with massive processing techniques to perceive new contingencies in agricultural development. Machine learning is a novel onset for the investigation and [...] Read more.

The innovation in science and technical knowledge has prompted an enormous amount of information for the agrarian sector. Machine learning has risen with massive processing techniques to perceive new contingencies in agricultural development. Machine learning is a novel onset for the investigation and determination of unpredictable agrarian issues. Machine learning models actualize the need for scaling the learning model’s performance. Feature selection can impact a machine learning model’s performance by defining a significant feature subset for increasing the performance and identifying the variability. This paper explains a novel hybrid feature extraction procedure, which is an aggregation of the correlation-based filter (CFS) and random forest recursive feature elimination (RFRFE) wrapper framework. The proposed feature extraction approach aims to identify an optimal subclass of features from a collection of climate, soil, and groundwater characteristics for constructing a crop-yield forecasting machine learning model with better performance and accuracy. The model’s precision and effectiveness are estimated (i) with all the features in the dataset, (ii) with essential features obtained using the learning algorithm’s inbuilt ‘feature_importances’ method, and (iii) with the significant features obtained through the proposed hybrid feature extraction technique. The validation of the hybrid CFS and RFRFE feature extraction approach in terms of evaluation metrics, predictive accuracies, and diagnostic plot performance analysis in comparison with random forest, decision tree, and gradient boosting machine learning algorithms are found to be profoundly satisfying. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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16 pages, 5729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crop Growth Stage GPP-Driven Spectral Model for Evaluation of Cultivated Land Quality Using GA-BPNN

by Mingbang Zhu, Shanshan Liu, Ziqing Xia, Guangxing Wang, Yueming Hu and Zhenhua Liu

Agriculture 2020, 10(8), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10080318 - 1 Aug 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3458

Abstract

Rapid and accurate evaluation of cultivated land quality (CLQ) using remotely sensed images plays an important role for national food security and social stability. Current approaches for evaluating CLQ do not consider spectral response relationships between CLQ and spectral indicators based on crop [...] Read more.

Rapid and accurate evaluation of cultivated land quality (CLQ) using remotely sensed images plays an important role for national food security and social stability. Current approaches for evaluating CLQ do not consider spectral response relationships between CLQ and spectral indicators based on crop growth stages. This study aimed to propose an accurate spectral model to evaluate CLQ based on late rice phenology. In order to increase the accuracy of evaluation, the Empirical Bayes Kriging (EBK) interpolation was first performed to scale down gross primary production (GPP) products from a 500 m spatial resolution to 30 m. As an indicator, the ability of MODIS-GPPs from critical growth stages (tillering, jointing, heading, and maturity stages) was then investigated by combining Pearson correlation analysis and variance inflation factor (VIF) to select the phases of CLQ evaluation. Finally, a linear Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) and two nonlinear models, including Support Vector Regression (SVR) and Genetic Algorithm-Based Back Propagation Neural Network (GA-BPNN), were driven to develop an accurate spectral model of evaluating CLQ based on MODIS-GPPs. The models were tested and compared in the Conghua and Zengcheng districts of Guangzhou City, Guangdong, China. The results showed that based on field measured GPP data, the validation accuracy of 30 m spatial resolution MODIS GPP products with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 7.43 and normalized RMSE (NRMSE) of 1.59% was higher than that of the 500 m MODIS GPP products, indicating that the downscaled 30 m MODIS GPP products by EBK were more appropriate than the 500 m products. Compared with PLSR (R² = 0.38 and RMSE = 87.97) and SVR (R² = 0.64 and RMSE = 64.38), the GA-BPNN model (R² = 0.69 and RMSE = 60.12) was more accurate to evaluate CLQ, implying a non-linear relationship of CLQ with the GPP spectral indicator. This is the first study to improve the accuracy of estimating CLQ using the rice growth stage GPP-driven spectral model by GA-BPNN and can thus advance the literature in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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24 pages, 5976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Corn Grain Yield Estimation from Vegetation Indices, Canopy Cover, Plant Density, and a Neural Network Using Multispectral and RGB Images Acquired with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

by Héctor García-Martínez, Héctor Flores-Magdaleno, Roberto Ascencio-Hernández, Abdul Khalil-Gardezi, Leonardo Tijerina-Chávez, Oscar R. Mancilla-Villa and Mario A. Vázquez-Peña

Agriculture 2020, 10(7), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10070277 - 8 Jul 2020

Cited by 106 | Viewed by 9845

Abstract

Corn yields vary spatially and temporally in the plots as a result of weather, altitude, variety, plant density, available water, nutrients, and planting date; these are the main factors that influence crop yield. In this study, different multispectral and red-green-blue (RGB) vegetation indices [...] Read more.

Corn yields vary spatially and temporally in the plots as a result of weather, altitude, variety, plant density, available water, nutrients, and planting date; these are the main factors that influence crop yield. In this study, different multispectral and red-green-blue (RGB) vegetation indices were analyzed, as well as the digitally estimated canopy cover and plant density, in order to estimate corn grain yield using a neural network model. The relative importance of the predictor variables was also analyzed. An experiment was established with five levels of nitrogen fertilization (140, 200, 260, 320, and 380 kg/ha) and four replicates, in a completely randomized block design, resulting in 20 experimental polygons. Crop information was captured using two sensors (Parrot Sequoia_4.9, and DJI FC6310_8.8) mounted on an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) for two flight dates at 47 and 79 days after sowing (DAS). The correlation coefficient between the plant density, obtained through the digital count of corn plants, and the corn grain yield was 0.94; this variable was the one with the highest relative importance in the yield estimation according to Garson’s algorithm. The canopy cover, digitally estimated, showed a correlation coefficient of 0.77 with respect to the corn grain yield, while the relative importance of this variable in the yield estimation was 0.080 and 0.093 for 47 and 79 DAS, respectively. The wide dynamic range vegetation index (WDRVI), plant density, and canopy cover showed the highest correlation coefficient and the smallest errors (R = 0.99, mean absolute error (MAE) = 0.028 t ha⁻¹, root mean square error (RMSE) = 0.125 t ha⁻¹) in the corn grain yield estimation at 47 DAS, with the WDRVI index and the density being the variables with the highest relative importance for this crop development date. For the 79 DAS flight, the combination of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), normalized difference red edge (NDRE), WDRVI, excess green (EXG), triangular greenness index (TGI), and visible atmospherically resistant index (VARI), as well as plant density and canopy cover, generated the highest correlation coefficient and the smallest errors (R = 0.97, MAE = 0.249 t ha⁻¹, RMSE = 0.425 t ha⁻¹) in the corn grain yield estimation, where the density and the NDVI were the variables with the highest relative importance, with values of 0.295 and 0.184, respectively. However, the WDRVI, plant density, and canopy cover estimated the corn grain yield with acceptable precision (R = 0.96, MAE = 0.209 t ha⁻¹, RMSE = 0.449 t ha⁻¹). The generated neural network models provided a high correlation coefficient between the estimated and the observed corn grain yield, and also showed acceptable errors in the yield estimation. The spectral information registered through remote sensors mounted on unmanned aerial vehicles and its processing in vegetation indices, canopy cover, and plant density allowed the characterization and estimation of corn grain yield. Such information is very useful for decision-making and agricultural activities planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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14 pages, 3437 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling the Dynamic Response of Plant Growth to Root Zone Temperature in Hydroponic Chili Pepper Plant Using Neural Networks

by Galih Kusuma Aji, Kenji Hatou and Tetsuo Morimoto

Agriculture 2020, 10(6), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10060234 - 17 Jun 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7342

Abstract

One of the essential factors in the root zone environment that affects plant growth is temperature. Determining the optimal root zone temperature condition in a hydroponic system during cultivation could lead to an improvement in plant growth. An optimal control strategy can be [...] Read more.

One of the essential factors in the root zone environment that affects plant growth is temperature. Determining the optimal root zone temperature condition in a hydroponic system during cultivation could lead to an improvement in plant growth. An optimal control strategy can be determined by identifying the eco-physiological process using a dynamic model. However, it is difficult to develop a dynamic model of the responses of plant growth to root zone temperature because the eco-physiological processes of plants are quite complicated. We propose an intelligent approach that can deal with this complex system. Non-linear autoregressive with exogenous input (NARX) neural networks were used to develop a dynamic model of the responses of plant growth to root zone temperature. The responses of chili pepper plant growth as affected by root zone temperature were measured during 60 days of cultivation inside a growth chamber using a non-destructive and continuous system based on a load cell. Five datasets of dynamic responses of plant growth were obtained for system identification. The results suggest that the application of a neural network is useful for modeling the dynamic response of plant growth to root zone temperature in hydroponic cultivation, with promising performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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15 pages, 6560 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ANN-Based Continual Classification in Agriculture

by Yang Li and Xuewei Chao

Agriculture 2020, 10(5), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10050178 - 18 May 2020

Cited by 71 | Viewed by 6896

Abstract

In the area of plant protection and precision farming, timely detection and classification of plant diseases and crop pests play crucial roles in the management and decision-making. Recently, there have been many artificial neural network (ANN) methods used in agricultural classification tasks, which [...] Read more.

In the area of plant protection and precision farming, timely detection and classification of plant diseases and crop pests play crucial roles in the management and decision-making. Recently, there have been many artificial neural network (ANN) methods used in agricultural classification tasks, which are task specific and require big datasets. These two characteristics are quite different from how humans learn intelligently. Undoubtedly, it would be exciting if the models can accumulate knowledge to handle continual tasks. Towards this goal, we propose an ANN-based continual classification method via memory storage and retrieval, with two clear advantages: Few data and high flexibility. This proposed ANN-based model combines a convolutional neural network (CNN) and generative adversarial network (GAN). Through learning of the similarity between input paired data, the CNN part only requires few raw data to achieve a good performance, suitable for a classification task. The GAN part is used to extract important information from old tasks and generate abstracted images as memory for the future task. Experimental results show that the regular CNN model performs poorly on the continual tasks (pest and plant classification), due to the forgetting problem. However, our proposed method can distinguish all the categories from new and old tasks with good performance, owing to its ability of accumulating knowledge and alleviating forgetting. There are so many possible applications of this proposed approach in the agricultural field, for instance, the intelligent fruit picking robots, which can recognize and pick different kinds of fruits; the plant protection is achieved by automatic identification of diseases and pests, which can continuously improve the detection range. Thus, this work also provides a reference for other studies towards more intelligent and flexible applications in agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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12 pages, 1073 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Artificial Neural Networks to Analyze the Concentration of Ferulic Acid, Deoxynivalenol, and Nivalenol in Winter Wheat Grain

by Gniewko Niedbała, Danuta Kurasiak-Popowska, Kinga Stuper-Szablewska and Jerzy Nawracała

Agriculture 2020, 10(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10040127 - 14 Apr 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4338

Abstract

Biotic stress, which includes infection by pathogenic fungi, causes losses of wheat yield in terms of quantity and quality. Ear Fusarium is caused by strains of F. graminearum and F. culmorum, which can produce mycotoxins—deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV). One of the [...] Read more.

Biotic stress, which includes infection by pathogenic fungi, causes losses of wheat yield in terms of quantity and quality. Ear Fusarium is caused by strains of F. graminearum and F. culmorum, which can produce mycotoxins—deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV). One of the wheat’s defense mechanisms against stressors is the activation of biosynthesis pathways of antioxidant compounds, including ferulic acid. The aim of the study was to conduct pilot studies on the basis of which neural models were created that would examine the impact of the variety and weather conditions on the concentration of ferulic acid, and link its content with the concentration of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol. The plant material was 23 winter wheat genotypes with different Fusarium resistance. The field experiment was conducted in 2011–2013 in Poland in three experimental combinations, namely: with full chemical protection; without chemical protection, but infested with natural disease (control); and in the absence of fungicidal protection, with artificial inoculation by genus Fusarium fungi. As a result of the pilot studies, three neural models—FERUANN analytical models (ferulic acid content), DONANN (deoxynivalenol content) and NIVANN (nivalenol content)—were produced. Each model was based on 14 independent features, 12 of which were in the form of quantitative data, and the other two were presented as qualitative data. The structure of the created models was based on an artificial neural network (ANN) of the multilayer perceptron (MLP) with two hidden layers. The sensitivity analysis of the neural network showed the two most important features determining the concentration of ferulic acid, deoxynivalenol, and nivalenol in winter wheat seeds. These are the experiment variant (VAR) and winter wheat variety (VOW). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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9 pages, 1092 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neural Visual Detection of Grain Weevil (Sitophilus granarius L.)

by Piotr Boniecki, Krzysztof Koszela, Krzysztof Świerczyński, Jacek Skwarcz, Maciej Zaborowicz and Jacek Przybył

Agriculture 2020, 10(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10010025 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5197

Abstract

A significant part of cereal production is intended for agri-food processing, which implies a necessity to search for and implement modern storage systems for this product. Stored grain is exposed to many unfavorable factors, particularly caryopsis macro-damage caused mainly by grain weevil ( [...] Read more.

A significant part of cereal production is intended for agri-food processing, which implies a necessity to search for and implement modern storage systems for this product. Stored grain is exposed to many unfavorable factors, particularly caryopsis macro-damage caused mainly by grain weevil (Sitophilus granarius L.). This triggers a substantial decrease in the value of the stored material, thus resulting in serious economic losses. Due to this fact, it is necessary to take steps to effectively detect this pest’s presence when grain is delivered to storage facilities. The purpose of this work was to identify the representative physical characteristics of wheat caryopsis affected by grain weevil. An automated visual system was developed to ease the detection of damaged kernels and adult weevils. In order to obtain the empirical data, a decision was made to take advance of SKCS 4100 (the Perten Single Kernel Characterization System). The measurements obtained were used to build the training sets necessary in the process of ANN (artificial neural network) learning with digital neural classifiers. Next, a set of identifying neural models was created and verified, and then the optimal topology was selected. The utilitarian goal of the research was to support the decision-making process taking place during grain storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

23 pages, 1286 KiB

Open AccessReview

Machine Learning for Plant Breeding and Biotechnology

by Mohsen Niazian and Gniewko Niedbała

Agriculture 2020, 10(10), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10100436 - 27 Sep 2020

Cited by 117 | Viewed by 20008

Abstract

Classical univariate and multivariate statistics are the most common methods used for data analysis in plant breeding and biotechnology studies. Evaluation of genetic diversity, classification of plant genotypes, analysis of yield components, yield stability analysis, assessment of biotic and abiotic stresses, prediction of [...] Read more.

Classical univariate and multivariate statistics are the most common methods used for data analysis in plant breeding and biotechnology studies. Evaluation of genetic diversity, classification of plant genotypes, analysis of yield components, yield stability analysis, assessment of biotic and abiotic stresses, prediction of parental combinations in hybrid breeding programs, and analysis of in vitro-based biotechnological experiments are mainly performed by classical statistical methods. Despite successful applications, these classical statistical methods have low efficiency in analyzing data obtained from plant studies, as the genotype, environment, and their interaction (G × E) result in nondeterministic and nonlinear nature of plant characteristics. Large-scale data flow, including phenomics, metabolomics, genomics, and big data, must be analyzed for efficient interpretation of results affected by G × E. Nonlinear nonparametric machine learning techniques are more efficient than classical statistical models in handling large amounts of complex and nondeterministic information with “multiple-independent variables versus multiple-dependent variables” nature. Neural networks, partial least square regression, random forest, and support vector machines are some of the most fascinating machine learning models that have been widely applied to analyze nonlinear and complex data in both classical plant breeding and in vitro-based biotechnological studies. High interpretive power of machine learning algorithms has made them popular in the analysis of plant complex multifactorial characteristics. The classification of different plant genotypes with morphological and molecular markers, modeling and predicting important quantitative characteristics of plants, the interpretation of complex and nonlinear relationships of plant characteristics, and predicting and optimizing of in vitro breeding methods are the examples of applications of machine learning in conventional plant breeding and in vitro-based biotechnological studies. Precision agriculture is possible through accurate measurement of plant characteristics using imaging techniques and then efficient analysis of reliable extracted data using machine learning algorithms. Perfect interpretation of high-throughput phenotyping data is applicable through coupled machine learning-image processing. Some applied and potentially applicable capabilities of machine learning techniques in conventional and in vitro-based plant breeding studies have been discussed in this overview. Discussions are of great value for future studies and could inspire researchers to apply machine learning in new layers of plant breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

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