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17 pages, 3336 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Assessment of Supervisory Control Algorithms for a Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle

by Nikolaos Aletras, Stylianos Doulgeris, Zissis Samaras and Leonidas Ntziachristos

Energies 2023, 16(3), 1497; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031497 - 2 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1858

Abstract

The study examines alternative on-board energy management system (EMS) supervisory control algorithms for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The optimum fuel consumption was sought between an equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) algorithm and a back-engineered commercial rule-based (RB) one, under different operating conditions. The [...] Read more.

The study examines alternative on-board energy management system (EMS) supervisory control algorithms for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The optimum fuel consumption was sought between an equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) algorithm and a back-engineered commercial rule-based (RB) one, under different operating conditions. The RB algorithm was first validated with experimental data. A method to assess different algorithms under identical states of charge variations, vehicle distance travelled, and wheel power demand criteria is first demonstrated. Implementing this method to evaluate the two algorithms leads to fuel consumption corrections of up to 8%, compared to applying no correction. We argue that such a correction should always be used in relevant studies. Overall, results show that the ECMS algorithm leads to lower fuel consumption than the RB one in most driving conditions. The difference maximizes at low average speeds (<40 km/h), where the RB leads to more frequent low load engine operation. The two algorithms lead to fuel consumption differences of 3.4% over the WLTC, while the maximum difference of 24.2% was observed for a driving cycle with low average speed (18.4 km/h). Further to fuel consumption performance optimization, the ECMS algorithm also appears superior in terms of adaptability to different driving cycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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19 pages, 10736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research of Load Impact on Energy Consumption in an Electric Delivery Vehicle Based on Real Driving Conditions: Guidance for Electrification of Light-Duty Vehicle Fleet

by Wojciech Cieslik and Weronika Antczak

Energies 2023, 16(2), 775; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020775 - 9 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2393

Abstract

Electromobility is developing rapidly in all areas of transportation, starting with small personal vehicles and passenger cars through public transportation vehicles and ending with noticeable expansion in the area of urban transportation services. So far, however, there is a lack of research determining [...] Read more.

Electromobility is developing rapidly in all areas of transportation, starting with small personal vehicles and passenger cars through public transportation vehicles and ending with noticeable expansion in the area of urban transportation services. So far, however, there is a lack of research determining how the effect of load weight defines the energy intensity of a vehicle under real conditions, especially in the areas of urban, suburban and highway driving. Therefore, this paper presents an analysis of a representative delivery vehicle and its energy consumption in two transportation scenarios where cargo weight is a variable. A survey was also conducted to determine the actual demand and requirements placed on the electric vehicle by transportation companies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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12 pages, 4085 KiB

Open AccessArticle

CO₂ Emissions of Electric Scooters Used in Shared Mobility Systems

by Andrzej Kubik

Energies 2022, 15(21), 8188; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218188 - 2 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2384

Abstract

The development of the electric mobility market in cities is becoming more and more important every year. With this development, more and more electric scooters are appearing in cities. Currently, the restrictions that result from the upcoming trends are reducing the number of [...] Read more.

The development of the electric mobility market in cities is becoming more and more important every year. With this development, more and more electric scooters are appearing in cities. Currently, the restrictions that result from the upcoming trends are reducing the number of vehicles powered by combustion engines in favor of vehicles equipped with electric motors. Considering the number of electric vehicles, the dominant type is an electric scooter. The aim of this article is to determine the CO₂ that is emitted into the atmosphere by using this type of vehicle. The main suppliers of this type of vehicle in cities are shared mobility systems. To recognize the research gap, consisting of the lack of CO₂ emissions of an electric scooter type vehicle, studies were carried out on the energy consumption of an electric scooter and CO₂ emissions, which were calculated based on the CO₂ emission value needed to produce a given energy value kWh. The plan of the research performed was developed on the basis of the D-optimal plan of the experiment, thanks to which the results could be saved in the form of mathematical models based on formulas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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15 pages, 1164 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis during Selection of Vehicles for Car-Sharing Services—Regular Users’ Expectations

by Katarzyna Turoń

Energies 2022, 15(19), 7277; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15197277 - 4 Oct 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2386

Abstract

Car-sharing systems, i.e., automatic, short-time car rentals, are among the solutions of the new mobility concept, which in recent years has gained popularity around the world. With the growing interest in services in society, their demands for the services offered to them have [...] Read more.

Car-sharing systems, i.e., automatic, short-time car rentals, are among the solutions of the new mobility concept, which in recent years has gained popularity around the world. With the growing interest in services in society, their demands for the services offered to them have also increased. Since cars play a key role in car-sharing services, the fleet of vehicles should be properly adapted to the needs of customers using the systems. Due to the literature gap related to the procedure of proper selection of vehicles for car sharing and the market need for car-sharing service operators, this work has been devoted to the selection of car models for car sharing from the perspective of users constantly using the systems (regular users). This paper considered the case of the Polish who are constantly using car-sharing service systems. Vehicle selection was classified as a multi-faceted, complex problem, which is why one of the ELECTRE III multi-criteria decision support methods was used for this study. This study focused on the classification of vehicles from the user’s perspective. Twelve modern and most popular car models in 2021 with internal combustion, electric and hybrid engines were considered. The results indicate that the best choice from the point of view of regular customers is large cars (representing vehicle classes C and D), with a large luggage compartment capacity, the highest possible ratio of engine power to vehicle weight, and the ratio of engine power to energy consumption. Importantly, small urban vehicles, which ideologically should be associated with car-sharing services due to occupying as little urban space as possible, were classified as the worst in the ranking. The results support car-sharing operators during the process of completing or upgrading their vehicle fleets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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24 pages, 4518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Reactive Power from Public Electric Vehicle Stations on Transformer Aging and Active Energy Losses

by Ana Pavlićević and Saša Mujović

Energies 2022, 15(19), 7085; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15197085 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2493

Abstract

Climate change at the global level has accelerated the energy transition around the world. With the aim of reducing CO₂ emissions, the paradigm of using electric vehicles (EVs) has been globally accepted. The impact of EVs and their integration into the energy [...] Read more.

Climate change at the global level has accelerated the energy transition around the world. With the aim of reducing CO₂ emissions, the paradigm of using electric vehicles (EVs) has been globally accepted. The impact of EVs and their integration into the energy system is vital for accepting the increasing number of EVs. Considering the way the modern energy system functions, the role of EVs in the system may vary. A methodology for analyzing the impact of reactive power from public electric vehicle charging stations (EVCSs) on two main indicators of the distribution system is proposed as follows: globally, referring to active power losses, and locally, referring to transformer aging. This paper indicates that there is an optimal value of reactive power coming from EV chargers at EVCSs by which active energy losses and transformer aging are reduced. The proposed methodology is based on relevant models for calculating power flows and transformer aging and appropriately takes into consideration the stochastic nature of EV charging demand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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15 pages, 956 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selection of Car Models with a Classic and Alternative Drive to the Car-Sharing Services from the System’s Rare Users Perspective

by Katarzyna Turoń

Energies 2022, 15(19), 6876; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15196876 - 20 Sep 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2021

Abstract

Short-term, automated car rental services, i.e., car sharing, are a solution that has been improving in urban transportation systems over the past few years. Due to the intensive expansion of the systems, service providers face increasing challenges in their competitiveness. One of them [...] Read more.

Short-term, automated car rental services, i.e., car sharing, are a solution that has been improving in urban transportation systems over the past few years. Due to the intensive expansion of the systems, service providers face increasing challenges in their competitiveness. One of them is to meet the customer expectations for the fleet of vehicles offered in the system. Although this aspect is noted primarily in the literature review on fleet optimization and management, there is a gap in research on the appropriate selection of vehicle models. In response, the article aimed to identify the vehicles best suited for car-sharing systems from the customer’s point of view. The selection of suitable vehicles was treated as a multi-criteria decision-making issue; therefore, the study used ELECTRE III—one of the multi-criteria decision-making methods. The work focuses on researching the opinions of users who rarely use car-sharing services in Poland. The most popular car models in 2021, equipped with internal combustion, hybrid, and electric engines, were selected for the analysis. The results indicate that the best suited cars are relatively large, spacious, and equipped with electric drive and represent the D segment of vehicles in Europe. In addition, these vehicles are to be equipped with a powerful engine, a spacious boot, and a fast battery charging time. Interestingly, small city cars, so far associated with car sharing, ranked the worst in the classification method. In addition, factors such as the warranty period associated with the quality of the vehicles, or the number of car doors, are not very important to users. The results support car-sharing operators in the process of selecting or modernizing a fleet of vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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22 pages, 5966 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Linear Quadratic Regulator and Fuzzy Control for Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems

by Azamat Mukhatov, Nguyen Gia Minh Thao and Ton Duc Do

Energies 2022, 15(4), 1286; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15041286 - 10 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2601

Abstract

This work presents a control scheme to control a grid-connected single-phase photovoltaic (PV) system. The considered system has four 250 W solar panels, a non-inverting buck-boost DC-DC converter, and a DC-AC inverter with an inductor-capacitor-inductor (LCL) filter. The control system aims to track [...] Read more.

This work presents a control scheme to control a grid-connected single-phase photovoltaic (PV) system. The considered system has four 250 W solar panels, a non-inverting buck-boost DC-DC converter, and a DC-AC inverter with an inductor-capacitor-inductor (LCL) filter. The control system aims to track and operate at the maximum power point (MPP) of the PV panels, regulate the voltage of the DC link, and supply the grid with a unity power factor. To achieve these goals, the proposed control system consists of three parts: an MPP tracking controller module with a fuzzy-based modified incremental conductance (INC) algorithm, a DC-link voltage regulator with a hybrid fuzzy proportional-integral (PI) controller, and a current controller module using a linear quadratic regulator (LQR) for grid-connected power. Based on fuzzy control and an LQR, this work introduces a full control solution for grid-connected single-phase PV systems. The key novelty of this research is to analyze and prove that the newly proposed method is more successful in numerous aspects by comparing and evaluating previous and present control methods. The designed control system settles quickly, which is critical for output stability. In addition, as compared to the backstepping approach used in our past study, the LQR technique is more resistant to sudden changes and disturbances. Furthermore, the backstepping method produces a larger overshoot, which has a detrimental impact on efficiency. Simulation findings under various weather conditions were compared to theoretical ones to indicate that the system can deal with variations in weather parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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17 pages, 3924 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Description of Acid Battery Operating Parameters

by Józef Pszczółkowski

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7212; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217212 - 2 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1496

Abstract

In this paper, the operating principles of the acid battery and its features are discussed. The results of voltage tests containing the measurements conducted at the terminals of a loaded battery under constant load conditions, and dependent on time, are presented. The article [...] Read more.

In this paper, the operating principles of the acid battery and its features are discussed. The results of voltage tests containing the measurements conducted at the terminals of a loaded battery under constant load conditions, and dependent on time, are presented. The article depicts the principles of the development of electric models of acid batteries and their various descriptions. The principles for processing the results for the purpose of the determination and description of the battery model are characterized. The characteristics under stationary and non-stationary conditions are specified using glued functions and linear combinations of exponential functions, and the electrical parameters of the battery are determined as the components of the circuit, i.e., its electromotive force, resistance, and capacity. The dynamic characteristic of the battery in the form of transmittance was determined, using the Laplace transform. Possible uses of the crankshaft driving signals as diagnostic signals of the battery, electric starter, and internal combustion engine are also indicated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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15 pages, 3911 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Scenarios for the Insertion of Electric Vehicles in Conjunction with a Solar Carport in the City of Curitiba, Paraná—Brazil

by Ana Carolina Kulik, Édwin Augusto Tonolo, Alberto Kisner Scortegagna, Jardel Eugênio da Silva and Jair Urbanetz Junior

Energies 2021, 14(16), 5027; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14165027 - 16 Aug 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2464

Abstract

The growing environmental impact and rising emission of greenhouse gases have accelerated the research toward renewable energy sources and electric vehicles since one of the main sources of pollution is the CO₂ emissions produced by conventional combustion vehicles. This article presents the [...] Read more.

The growing environmental impact and rising emission of greenhouse gases have accelerated the research toward renewable energy sources and electric vehicles since one of the main sources of pollution is the CO₂ emissions produced by conventional combustion vehicles. This article presents the analysis of the energy balance between a photovoltaic carport with 4.89 kWp installed capacity and an EV, model Renault Fluence ZE DYN, driven in real conditions. The driving tests were performed during the winter season in the city of Curitiba, the capital of the state of Paraná, Brazil, with approximately 1.7 million inhabitants and 1.1 million vehicles. During the test period, we attempt to reproduce the citizen’s daily routes through the city, presenting an average consumption of 15.75 kWh/100 km. The carport PV module’s energy generation and in-plane incident irradiation were acquired to calculate the performance ratio, making a comparison after cleaning maintenance possible. The solar carport system has 4.89 kWp and has generated an average of 465.37 kWh during its 24 months of operation. The analysis scenarios consist of replacing part of the city’s combustion vehicle fleet with the EVs (the same as used in the study) and thus determining how many replicas of the presented photovoltaic systems might be needed, as well as the area required for the installations. In a simulation with 15% of the fleet’s replacement, it would be necessary to generate 17,151.8 MWh, which requires the construction of 36,856 carports, covering an area of approximately 1,105,685 m². Finally, an economic comparison between an internal combustion vehicle and the EV determined that the expenditures involving electric energy to charge the batteries are 3.3 times lower than buying gasoline, assuming the same driving routines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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17 pages, 26678 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) Energy Flow Analysis in Real Driving Conditions (RDC)

by Andrzej Szałek, Ireneusz Pielecha and Wojciech Cieslik

Energies 2021, 14(16), 5018; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14165018 - 16 Aug 2021

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 7222

Abstract

The search for fossil fuels substitutes forces the use of new propulsion technologies applied to means of transportation. Already widespread, hybrid vehicles are beginning to share the market with hydrogen-powered propulsion systems. These systems are fuel cells or internal combustion engines powered by [...] Read more.

The search for fossil fuels substitutes forces the use of new propulsion technologies applied to means of transportation. Already widespread, hybrid vehicles are beginning to share the market with hydrogen-powered propulsion systems. These systems are fuel cells or internal combustion engines powered by hydrogen fuel. In this context, road tests of a hydrogen fuel cell drive were conducted under typical traffic conditions according to the requirements of the RDE test. As a result of the carried-out work, energy flow conditions were presented for three driving phases (urban, rural and motorway). The different contributions to the vehicle propulsion of the hydrogen system and the electric system in each phase of the driving route are indicated. The characteristic interaction of power train components during varying driving conditions was presented. A wide variation in the contribution of the fuel cell and the battery to the vehicle’s propulsion was identified. In urban conditions, the share of the fuel cell in the vehicle’s propulsion is more than three times that contributed by the battery, suburban—7 times, highway—28 times. In the entire test, the ratio of FC/BATT use was more than seven, while the energy consumption was more than 22 kWh/100 km. The amounts of battery energy used and recovered were found to be very close to each other under RDE test conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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25 pages, 5600 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plug-in Hybrid Ecological Category in Real Driving Emissions

by Kinga Skobiej and Jacek Pielecha

Energies 2021, 14(8), 2340; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082340 - 20 Apr 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2133

Abstract

Transportation, as one of the most growing industries, is problematic due to environmental pollution. A solution to reduce the environmental burden is stricter emission standards and homologation tests that correspond to the actual conditions of vehicle use. Another solution is the widespread introduction [...] Read more.

Transportation, as one of the most growing industries, is problematic due to environmental pollution. A solution to reduce the environmental burden is stricter emission standards and homologation tests that correspond to the actual conditions of vehicle use. Another solution is the widespread introduction of hybrid vehicles—especially the plug-in type. Due to exhaust emission tests in RDE (real driving emissions) tests, it is possible to determine the real ecological aspects of these vehicles. The authors of this paper used RDE testing of the exhaust emissions of plug-in hybrid vehicles and on this basis evaluated various hybrid vehicles from an ecological point of view. An innovative solution proposed by the authors is to define classes of plug-in hybrid vehicles (classes from A to C) due to exhaust emissions. An innovative way is to determine the extreme results of exhaust gas emission within the range of acceptable scatter of the obtained results. By valuating vehicles, it will be possible in the future to determine the guidelines useful in designing more environmentally friendly power units in plug-in hybrid vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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21 pages, 8052 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Analysis of Residential Photovoltaic (PV) and Electric Vehicle (EV) Systems in Terms of Annual Energy Utilization

by Wojciech Cieslik, Filip Szwajca, Wojciech Golimowski and Andrew Berger

Energies 2021, 14(4), 1085; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041085 - 19 Feb 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3871

Abstract

Electrification of powertrain systems offers numerous advantages in the global trend in vehicular applications. A wide range of energy sources and zero-emission propulsion in the tank to wheel significantly add to electric vehicles’ (EV) attractiveness. This paper presents analyses of the energy balance [...] Read more.

Electrification of powertrain systems offers numerous advantages in the global trend in vehicular applications. A wide range of energy sources and zero-emission propulsion in the tank to wheel significantly add to electric vehicles’ (EV) attractiveness. This paper presents analyses of the energy balance between micro-photovoltaic (PV) installation and small electric vehicle in real conditions. It is based on monitoring PV panel’s energy production and car electricity consumption. The methodology included energy data from real household PV installation (the most common renewable energy source in Poland), electric vehicle energy consumption during real driving conditions, and drivetrain operating parameters, all collected over a period of one year by indirect measuring. A correlation between energy produced by the micro-PV installation and small electric car energy consumption was described. In the Winter, small electric car energy consumption amounted to 14.9 kWh per 100 km and was 14% greater than summer, based on test requirements of real driving conditions. The 4.48 kW PV installation located in Poznań produced 4101 kWh energy in 258 days. The calculation indicated 1406 kWh energy was available for EV charging after household electricity consumption subtraction. The zero-emission daily distance analysis was done by the simplified method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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Jump to: Research

47 pages, 4265 KiB

Open AccessReview

Challenges and Barriers of Wireless Charging Technologies for Electric Vehicles

by Geetha Palani, Usha Sengamalai, Pradeep Vishnuram and Benedetto Nastasi

Energies 2023, 16(5), 2138; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052138 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 15124

Abstract

Electric vehicles could be a significant aid in lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Even though extensive study has been done on the features and traits of electric vehicles and the nature of their charging infrastructure, network modeling for electric vehicle manufacturing has been limited [...] Read more.

Electric vehicles could be a significant aid in lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Even though extensive study has been done on the features and traits of electric vehicles and the nature of their charging infrastructure, network modeling for electric vehicle manufacturing has been limited and unchanging. The necessity of wireless electric vehicle charging, based on magnetic resonance coupling, drove the primary aims for this review work. Herein, we examined the basic theoretical framework for wireless power transmission systems for EV charging and performed a software-in-the-loop analysis, in addition to carrying out a performance analysis of an EV charging system based on magnetic resonance. This study also covered power pad designs and created workable remedies for the following issues: (i) how power pad positioning affected the function of wireless charging systems and (ii) how to develop strategies to keep power efficiency at its highest level. Moreover, safety features of wireless charging systems, owing to interruption from foreign objects and/or living objects, were analyzed, and solutions were proposed to ensure such systems would operate as safely and optimally as possible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transfer in Alternative Vehicles)

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