Resources

19 pages, 2112 KiB

Open AccessReview

Electrochemical Direct Lithium Extraction: A Review of Electrodialysis and Capacitive Deionization Technologies

by Jeongbeen Park, Juwon Lee, In-Tae Shim, Eunju Kim, Sook-Hyun Nam, Jae-Wuk Koo and Tae-Mun Hwang

Resources 2025, 14(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020027 (registering DOI) - 3 Feb 2025

Abstract

The rapid expansion of lithium-ion battery (LIB) markets for electric vehicles and renewable energy storage has exponentially increased lithium demand, driving research into sustainable extraction methods. Traditional lithium recovery from brine using evaporation ponds is resource intensive, consuming vast amounts of water and [...] Read more.

The rapid expansion of lithium-ion battery (LIB) markets for electric vehicles and renewable energy storage has exponentially increased lithium demand, driving research into sustainable extraction methods. Traditional lithium recovery from brine using evaporation ponds is resource intensive, consuming vast amounts of water and causing severe environmental issues. In response, Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) technologies have emerged as more efficient, eco-friendly alternatives. This review explores two promising electrochemical DLE methods: Electrodialysis (ED) and Capacitive Deionization (CDI). ED employs ion-exchange membranes (IEMs), such as cation exchange membranes, to selectively transport lithium ions from sources like brine and seawater and achieves high recovery rates. IEMs utilize chemical and structural properties to enhance the selectivity of Li⁺ over competing ions like Mg²⁺ and Na⁺. However, ED faces challenges such as high energy consumption, membrane fouling, and reduced efficiency in ion-rich solutions. CDI uses electrostatic forces to adsorb lithium ions onto electrodes, offering low energy consumption and adaptability to varying lithium concentrations. Advanced variants, such as Membrane Capacitive Deionization (MCDI) and Flow Capacitive Deionization (FCDI), enhance ion selectivity and enable continuous operation. MCDI incorporates IEMs to reduce co-ion interference effects, while FCDI utilizes liquid electrodes to enhance scalability and operational flexibility. Advancements in electrode materials remain crucial to enhance selectivity and efficiency. Validating these methods at the pilot scale is crucial for assessing performance, scalability, and economic feasibility under real-world conditions. Future research should focus on reducing operational costs, developing more durable and selective electrodes, and creating integrated systems to enhance overall efficiency. By addressing these challenges, DLE technologies can provide sustainable solutions for lithium resource management, minimize environmental impact, and support a low-carbon future. Full article

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12 pages, 462 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Production of Coffee Husk Pellets: Applying Circular Economy in Waste Management and Renewable Energy Production

by Angélica de Cassia Oliveira Carneiro, Antonio José Vinha Zanuncio, Amélia Guimarães Carvalho, Júlia Almeida Cunha Guimarães Jorge, Raquel Julia Cipriano dos Santos, Iara Fontes Demuner, Letícia Costa Peres, Shoraia Germani Winter, Vinícius Resende de Castro, Monique Branco-Vieira and Solange de Oliveira Araújo

Resources 2025, 14(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020026 - 31 Jan 2025

Abstract

Improper waste disposal is one of the leading causes of environmental pollution, impacting soil, water, and air quality. In coffee plantations, each kilogram of beans produced generates an equal amount of husk, emphasizing the urgent need for sustainable practices to process this residual [...] Read more.

Improper waste disposal is one of the leading causes of environmental pollution, impacting soil, water, and air quality. In coffee plantations, each kilogram of beans produced generates an equal amount of husk, emphasizing the urgent need for sustainable practices to process this residual biomass into valued products. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of coffee husks for pellet production. Three coffee husk types were selected with distinct chemical compositions and granulometries: I (>5.3 mm), II (>2.6 mm and <5.3 mm), and III (<1.77 mm). The biomass was characterized for elemental, structural, and proximate composition. Pellets were produced with two knife heights (15 and 20 mm) and assessed for moisture content, density, length, and mechanical resistance, which were compared with the EN 14691-6 standard (DIN, 2012). Pelletizer productivity was also evaluated. Pellets from biomass III had an ash content of 12.09%, exceeding the <10% requirement. Other treatments met the ash content standard, category B. Pellets from biomass I (17.55%) and II (18.1%) at 15 mm length did not meet the <15% moisture content standard. The remaining pellets met category B standards. Only pellets from origin III (1.62%) met the nitrogen content requirement for international trade (<2%). Pelletizer productivity was higher with smaller granulometry biomass. Coffee husk has demonstrated its potential for pellet production, highlighting the valorization and use of this waste for clean energy generation, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions mitigation, and strengthening circular economy. Full article

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49 pages, 53915 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Assessing the Relationship Between Production and Land Transformation for Chilean Copper Mines Using Satellite and Operational Data

by Junbin Xiao, Tim T. Werner, Takeshi Komai and Kazuyo Matsubae

Resources 2025, 14(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020025 - 30 Jan 2025

Abstract

Mining may cause devastating environmental impacts through large-scale land transformations. However, mining-induced land transformations are poorly understood relative to a mine’s productivity or life cycle. We integrated satellite imagery, geographic information systems (GISs), and mine site production data (ore, concentration, and waste) to [...] Read more.

Mining may cause devastating environmental impacts through large-scale land transformations. However, mining-induced land transformations are poorly understood relative to a mine’s productivity or life cycle. We integrated satellite imagery, geographic information systems (GISs), and mine site production data (ore, concentration, and waste) to conduct a detailed spatiotemporal analysis of 15 open-pit copper mines in Chile, distinguishing six types of features. Although the occupied area (9.90 to 149.61 km

^{2}

in 2020) and composition vary across mines, facilities for waste storage occupy the largest proportion (>50%) of the transformed land area, emphasizing the need for proper waste management. The analysis of land transformation factors (the transformed land area per unit production) showed high variation (0.006178 to 0.372798 m

^{2}

/kg-Cu) between mines over time. This reveals a significant problem in the historical practice of using averages from life cycle assessment (LCA) databases. This research reveals the significance of geospatial analyses in assessing mining-induced land transformation, and it provides geospatial data for land-related LCA. Mining companies are encouraged to disclose GIS information regarding land transformation to foster transparency and social responsibility, as well as to promote responsible and sustainable mining. Full article

33 pages, 23233 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Gravity and Magnetic Separation for Concentrating Critical Raw Materials from Granite Quarry Waste: A Case Study from Buddusò (Sardinia, Italy)

by Antonello Aquilano, Elena Marrocchino and Carmela Vaccaro

Resources 2025, 14(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020024 - 29 Jan 2025

Abstract

The Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA), enacted by the European Union (EU) in May 2024, represents a strategic framework that aims to address the growing demand for critical raw materials (CRMs) and reduce dependency on non-EU sources. The present study explores the potential [...] Read more.

The Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA), enacted by the European Union (EU) in May 2024, represents a strategic framework that aims to address the growing demand for critical raw materials (CRMs) and reduce dependency on non-EU sources. The present study explores the potential of CRM recovery from granite extractive waste (EW) at a granite quarry in Buddusò (Sardinia, Italy). A significant quantity of granite EW, stored in piles within designated disposal areas at the quarry under study, is estimated in terms of mass and volume using GISs and digital elevation models (DEMs). Analysis performed using a scanning electron microscope attached to an energy-dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS) reveals the presence of allanite, a rare-earth-bearing mineral with substantial light rare-earth elements (LREEs), which can potentially be exploited for LREE recovery. A combined working process including gravitational and magnetic separations yields CRM-enriched fractions with concentrations of REEs, Sc, and Ga, reaching levels of potential economic interest for different industrial applications. Despite promising concentrations, limited knowledge of allanite processing represents significant challenges for CRM recovery from this waste. Therefore, the present study was conducted to assess the efficiency of these gravitational and magnetic separation methods in order to concentrate CRMs from granite EW. Economic evaluations, including potential market value estimates, suggest that CRM recovery from granite EW can be very profitable under optimized processing conditions. Expanding studies to other quarries in the region can provide valuable insights into the feasibility of establishing a recycling hub, offering a sustainable supply chain solution for CRMs within the EU’s strategic framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Recycling and Reuse of Industrial By-Products or Waste from Geo-Resource Exploitation)

23 pages, 919 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recycled Glass Bottles for Craft-Beer Packaging: How to Make Them Sustainable? An Environmental Impact Assessment from the Combined Accounting of Cullet Content and Transport Distance

by Magdalena Wojnarowska, Magdalena Muradin, Annarita Paiano and Carlo Ingrao

Resources 2025, 14(2), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020023 - 29 Jan 2025

Abstract

Effective waste management plays a vital role in advancing sustainability goals across industries, with particular relevance to glass manufacturing—a sector that generates significant environmental challenges due to its resource-intensive production processes and high waste generation. The scale of production results in the accumulation [...] Read more.

Effective waste management plays a vital role in advancing sustainability goals across industries, with particular relevance to glass manufacturing—a sector that generates significant environmental challenges due to its resource-intensive production processes and high waste generation. The scale of production results in the accumulation of substantial amounts of waste glass, which, if not efficiently managed, contributes to environmental degradation. In this context, craft-beer production, which increasingly relies on glass bottles for packaging, presents unique challenges and opportunities for implementing sustainable practices. The sector faces trade-offs between increasing the use of recycled glass (cullet) and addressing the environmental impacts associated with transporting materials over long distances. The combination of centralized waste processing systems and long-distance transport adds economic and environmental costs, with transportation contributing up to 60–80% of overall waste management expenses. Addressing these issues requires an integrated approach that evaluates critical variables, such as cullet content and transport logistics, to identify solutions that balance economic and environmental efficiency. This study addresses the pressing issue of optimizing the recycling of glass bottles for craft-beer packaging by examining the combined influence of cullet content and transport distance on environmental sustainability. The objective was to assess the environmental impacts associated with varying levels of cullet content (0%, 57%, and 90%) and transport distances (25 to 250 km) using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology aligned with ISO standards and the Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules (PEFCRs). The analysis demonstrated that increasing the proportion of recycled glass and reducing transport distances are key to improving environmental efficiency in bottle production. The most environmentally favorable scenario, S03 (90% cullet content), remains effective even at greater transport distances. In contrast, scenario S02 (57% cullet content) requires further distance reductions to maintain efficiency, particularly beyond 150 km. These findings highlight the importance of shorter supply chains and higher recycled material content as essential steps toward sustainable glass bottle production for the craft-beer industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis of Resource Recovery from Waste Management Systems in the Context of Circular Models of the Economy and the Bioeconomy)

18 pages, 4703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Cogeneration System for the Simultaneous Production of Power and Cooling Operating with Geothermal Energy: A Case Study in La Primavera, Jalisco, México

by Alejandro Pacheco-Reyes, Juliana Saucedo-Velázquez, Geydy Luz Gutiérrez-Urueta and Wilfrido Rivera

Resources 2025, 14(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020022 - 28 Jan 2025

Abstract

More efficient systems and renewable energies are determinants of reducing the negative impact on the environment. A novel cogeneration system is modeled for the simultaneous production of power and cooling driven by geothermal energy utilizing an ammonia–water mixture. The system can be used [...] Read more.

More efficient systems and renewable energies are determinants of reducing the negative impact on the environment. A novel cogeneration system is modeled for the simultaneous production of power and cooling driven by geothermal energy utilizing an ammonia–water mixture. The system can be used in rural communities by using renewable energies or in industries where waste heat is available. The system is a modification of a Goswami cycle in which a separator has been added to produce an extra amount of ammonia vapor to increase the cooling effect. Energy and exergy analyses are conducted as a function of the main operating temperatures. From the optimization, it is found that the maximum energy utilization factor is 0.54, and the exergy efficiency is 0.37, producing 81.45 kW of power and 1068 kW of cooling. A case study is also conducted for a rural community located in the estate of Jalisco, México. The proposed system is capable of preserving 3750 L of milk/day while simultaneously producing 12.53 kW of power when 230.6 kW of geothermal energy is supplied at 120 °C. Full article

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46 pages, 2401 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Concrete Mix Design of Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA): Analysis of Review Papers, Characteristics, Research Trends, and Underexplored Topics

by Lapyote Prasittisopin, Wiput Tuvayanond, Thomas H.-K. Kang and Sakdirat Kaewunruen

Resources 2025, 14(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020021 - 28 Jan 2025

Abstract

Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) has been widely adopted in construction and emerged as a sustainable alternative to conventional natural aggregates in the construction industry. However, the study of holistic perspectives in recent literature is lacking. This review paper aims to provide a comprehensive [...] Read more.

Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) has been widely adopted in construction and emerged as a sustainable alternative to conventional natural aggregates in the construction industry. However, the study of holistic perspectives in recent literature is lacking. This review paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of RCA, highlighting its properties, applications, and overall sustainability benefits to facilitate the comprehensive points of view of technology, ecology, and economics. This paper explores the manufacturing process of RCA, examines its mechanical and durability characteristics, and investigates its environmental impacts. Furthermore, it delves into the various applications of RCA, such as road construction materials, pavement bases, and concrete materials, considering their life cycle performance and economic considerations. This review reveals that there is a need for systemic data collection that could enable automated concrete mix design. The findings concerning various mix concrete designs suggest that increasing the 1% replacement level reduces the compressive strength by 0.1913% for coarse RCA and 0.2418% for fine RCA. The current critical research gaps are the durability of RCA concrete, feasibility analyses, and the implementation of treatment methods for RCA improvement. An effective life cycle assessment tool and digitalization technologies can be applied to enhance the circular economy, aligning with the United Nations’ sustainable development goals (UN-SDGs). The equivalent mortar volume method used to calculate the RCA concrete mix design, which can contain chemical additives, metakaolin, and fibers, needs further assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Recycling and Reuse of Industrial By-Products or Waste from Geo-Resource Exploitation)

34 pages, 7183 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond Energy Access: How Renewable Energy Fosters Resilience in Island Communities

by Ravita D. Prasad, Devesh A. Chand, Semaan S. S. L. Lata and Rayash S. Kumar

Resources 2025, 14(2), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020020 - 27 Jan 2025

Abstract

People, communities, and economies in small island developing states are extremely vulnerable to climate change, disasters, and other crises. Renewable energy can play an important part in building the resilience of these communities. Three case studies were conducted in Fiji (i.e., a grid-connected [...] Read more.

People, communities, and economies in small island developing states are extremely vulnerable to climate change, disasters, and other crises. Renewable energy can play an important part in building the resilience of these communities. Three case studies were conducted in Fiji (i.e., a grid-connected secondary school with roof-top solar PV and biogas, an off-grid community with solar home systems, and a farm that uses solar PV for irrigation) to demonstrate how renewable energy initiatives build community resilience. This study used the community resilience framework, RETScreen tool, information gathered from key informants’ interviews, and secondary data sources to conduct qualitative and quantitative analyses. It found that seven community assets, i.e., human, social, cultural, financial, natural, built, and political assets, are enhanced, leading to an increase in absorptive, adaptive, and transformative capacities for these communities. Furthermore, current research shows that human capital is one of the key instruments in the adoption of new innovative technologies. The results from this study can be used by decisionmakers to promote and implement similar technologies in communities, which not only provide clean electricity and clean cooking energy for climate change mitigation but also build community resilience. Full article

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21 pages, 1367 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Competitive Potential of Stable Biomass in Poland Compared to the European Union in the Aspect of Sustainability

by Rafał Wyszomierski, Piotr Bórawski, Lisa Holden, Aneta Bełdycka-Bórawska, Tomasz Rokicki and Andrzej Parzonko

Resources 2025, 14(2), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14020019 - 21 Jan 2025

Abstract

Biomass is the primary source of renewable energy in Poland. Its share in renewable energy production in Poland has decreased in recent years, but it still maintains a nearly 70% share. Poland has extensive forest and straw resources, such as pellets, which can [...] Read more.

Biomass is the primary source of renewable energy in Poland. Its share in renewable energy production in Poland has decreased in recent years, but it still maintains a nearly 70% share. Poland has extensive forest and straw resources, such as pellets, which can be used for stable biomass production. The main objective of this research was to understand the potential of plant biomass production for energy purposes in Poland and other European Union (EU) countries in terms of sustainable development. The period of analysis covered 2000–2022. Secondary data from Statistical Poland and Eurostat were used. The primary research method was the Augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) test, which aimed to check the stationarity of stable biomass. Moreover, we calculated the Vector Auto-Regressive (VAR) model, which was used to develop the forecast. The indigenous production of solid biomass in 2022 decreased to 363,195 TJ, while in 2018, it was 384,914 TJ. Our prognosis confirms that biomass will increase. The prognosis based on the VAR model shows an increase from 365,395 TJ in 2023 to 379,795 (TJ) in 2032. Such countries as France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Finland have a bigger potential for solid biomass production from forests because of their higher area. As a result, Poland’s biomass production competitiveness is varied when compared to other EU nations; it is lower for nations with a large forest share and greater for those with a low forest cover. The two main benefits of producing solid biomass are its easy storage and carbon dioxide (CO₂) neutrality. The main advantage is that solid biomass preserves biodiversity, maintains soil fertility, and improves soil quality while lowering greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollutants. The ability to leave added value locally and generate new jobs, particularly in troubled areas, is the largest social advantage of sustained biomass production. Full article

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29 pages, 1507 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining Priority Areas for the Technological Development of Oil Companies in Mexico

by Tatyana Semenova and Juan Yair Martínez Santoyo

Resources 2025, 14(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14010018 - 20 Jan 2025

Abstract

The technological development of oil companies in Mexico is essential for ensuring their economic sustainability. A mechanism for the effective management of the technological development of oil companies, and the industry as a whole, is to determine its priority areas. This article provides [...] Read more.

The technological development of oil companies in Mexico is essential for ensuring their economic sustainability. A mechanism for the effective management of the technological development of oil companies, and the industry as a whole, is to determine its priority areas. This article provides a calculation for the choice of planning directions for the development of the oil sector in Mexico and related studies. Currently, the most promising technologies are offshore drilling and production. To achieve the study goals, we analyzed the patent activity of the oil sector. The results showed an unfavorable trend: the number of private and public patents in Mexico is decreasing. For example, from 2017 to 2023, the number of patents for offshore technologies decreased by more than 10 times. This dynamic significantly hinders the development of the oil industry. Despite the general measures taken within the framework of energy policy, the volume of oil production is constantly declining. Thus, in order to ensure the continued reproduction potential of the oil sector, it is necessary to take into account the importance of research and development. The innovation rating of the Mexican Petroleum Institute, a state-funded research center for the hydrocarbon sector, has been declining, having fallen by more than 50% from 102 international patents in 2014 to 40 in 2024. Today, the Mexican Institute of Petroleum is in the 48th percentile in terms of research performance among research institutes. The present authors’ approach considers that the intensification of technological development, which is costly, should not be an end in itself but rather an important means of increasing the efficiency of the integrated activities of oil companies. To integrate the patent-technological component of the strategic planning of oil companies, the concept of sub-potentials is proposed. The potential for the functioning and development of an oil enterprise from the point of view of the systems approach is decomposed into the sub-potentials of reproduction, defense, management, and reserve, which, under adverse conditions, can transition to the sub-potentials of threat and containment. An important task is to determine these transition points. The patent-technological component is taken into account in the sub-potential of reproduction. The remaining components of company development are taken into account within the framework of other sub-potentials, which are not discussed in detail in this article. At the same time, due to the unified conceptual approach, the integration of goals and objectives for technological development into a single economic and socio-ecological strategy for oil enterprises is ensured, which is the most effective approach to ensure their sustainable development. The dynamics of patent generation are an important factor in assessing the technological component and, in general, the effectiveness of projects in the energy sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Optimization of Energy Efficiency)

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31 pages, 12289 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Dynamic Evaluation of the Use of Natural Resources in Crop Rotation in Family Farming Production Units

by Dayhanna Stephania Vargas, Juan Carlos Osorio and Juan José Bravo

Resources 2025, 14(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14010017 - 20 Jan 2025

Abstract

A total of 35.4% of the earth’s surface is used for agriculture, and 32.7% of it for crops. Agricultural activity uses 70% of the world’s freshwater, and due to the intensive use of agrochemical inputs and energy, a high percentage of greenhouse gas [...] Read more.

A total of 35.4% of the earth’s surface is used for agriculture, and 32.7% of it for crops. Agricultural activity uses 70% of the world’s freshwater, and due to the intensive use of agrochemical inputs and energy, a high percentage of greenhouse gas emissions, pollution, and waste are generated. With the increase in population and fluctuating consumption trends, it is necessary to increase crop production and productivity to meet present and future demands. A relevant factor for the analysis of the production of agricultural goods is the size of the productive unit since about 84% is less than 2 ha in size and distributed over 12% of arable land; however, it is important to highlight other factors, such as the availability of family labour, crop diversification and the development of other agricultural activities that have a lower use of insecticides, pesticides, and chemical fertilisers compared to industrial crops. Therefore, food is produced, providing social and ecological benefits. Thus, a dynamic simulation is presented to evaluate the use of natural resources in developing different rotations of transient and permanent crops in a municipality in Colombia. This study assesses the impact on land use, soil degradation due to crop development, and the total water footprint associated with each rotation. Full article

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19 pages, 5364 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Pulsed Electric Field on the Cations Removal from Salt-Affected Soils to Optimize Energy Use Efficiency in Reclamation

by Ahmed Abou-Shady

Resources 2025, 14(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14010016 - 20 Jan 2025

Abstract

In arid and semi-arid zones, reclaiming/restoring salt-affected soil is considered a significant challenge because of the limited amount of water available for soil washing. The reclaimed salt-affected soil is regarded as a valuable resource for increasing the production of food and feed. In [...] Read more.

In arid and semi-arid zones, reclaiming/restoring salt-affected soil is considered a significant challenge because of the limited amount of water available for soil washing. The reclaimed salt-affected soil is regarded as a valuable resource for increasing the production of food and feed. In the current study, soil electrokinetics (SEK) under pulsed-mode electric field operation was used to evaluate and optimize energy use efficiency for reclaiming salt-affected soils, which is one of the electro-agric technology branches that was suggested in 2021 to address the water crisis in arid and semi-arid regions. Under a fixed applied voltage of 5 V, or 1 V/cm, the calcareous, highly salinized soil under investigation was reclaimed. A 25% reduction in applied voltages with time OFF set at 15, 30, 60, and 120 min and a 50% reduction with time OFF set at 15, 30, 60, and 120 min were the two pulsed electric field techniques that were examined. The findings demonstrated that the removal of Na⁺ surpasses half (50%) in the majority of pulsed-mode studies. By decreasing the removed K⁺, which is crucial for plant growth, the pulsed modes of electric fields 25 and 50% showed an economic advantage over the control experiment, which operated with a continuous electric field. Throughout the control experiment, very little Ca²⁺ was removed. However, the amount of Ca²⁺ removed rose when the electric field’s pulsed mode was applied, and the removal percentages were higher for the pulsed 50% strategy than the pulsed 25% strategy. In nearly every segment of every experiment (control, pulsed 25%, and pulsed 50%), the pH levels exceeded the initial value of 8.05. The pulsed 25% strategy of the OFF time showed an improvement in current passing at the longest interval of 120 min; the pulsed 50% strategy of the OFF time showed an improvement in current passing at the shorter and longer intervals of 15, 60, and 120 min; however, the interval of 30 min had a negative effect. The cumulative EO flow at the time OFF interval of 60 min was improved by the pulsed 25% strategy throughout the first seven days of operation, and by the end of the trial, the control experiment exhibited high values. The highest values, however, were displayed by the pulsed 50% field at the time OFF interval of 60 min. The anolyte pH decreased for the majority of the time OFF intervals over the first seven days of the trial for both the 25% and 50% pulsed strategies. Lastly, in order to minimize the overall energy consumption, it is strongly advised that the pulsed mode of the electric field be used while reclaiming salt-affected soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Optimization of Energy Efficiency)

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14 pages, 3445 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Fruit Preservation Using Algae-Based Bioactive Coatings on Textile Packaging

by Zoha Shabbir, Kashif Javed, Imran Ahmad Khan, Asfandyar Khan and Muhammad Junaid Saleem

Resources 2025, 14(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14010015 - 16 Jan 2025

Abstract

This study explores the potential of using natural textile packaging infused with algae-based coatings as an eco-friendly alternative to traditional plastic packaging for extending fruit shelf life. Traditional plastic packaging is known to release harmful chemicals into both food and the environment, which [...] Read more.

This study explores the potential of using natural textile packaging infused with algae-based coatings as an eco-friendly alternative to traditional plastic packaging for extending fruit shelf life. Traditional plastic packaging is known to release harmful chemicals into both food and the environment, which underscores the need for safer, more sustainable alternatives. This study investigates algae from three distinct groups—green, red, and brown algae—renowned for their rich bioactive compounds that exhibit natural preservative properties. Algae powders were prepared via immersion in purified water, boiling, and mixing with gum arabic to form a gelatinous coating solution. The algae coating was applied to knitted fabric, which was then crafted into bags for storing fruits such as tomatoes and apples. Over 21 days, the texture, weight loss, and juice content of the fruits stored in algae-coated bags were monitored and compared to those stored in uncoated packaging. The results showed that fruits in algae-coated packaging demonstrated significantly less weight loss and retained better texture. In terms of weight, the combination of red, green, and brown algae-coated packaging demonstrated the lowest reduction in weight for tomatoes (4.2%) and apples (3.8%) after 21 days, outperforming uncoated packaging, which exhibited reductions of 11.2% and 10.8%, respectively. These findings support the potential of algae-coated textile packaging to reduce reliance on conventional plastics while maintaining fruit quality during storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Use of Biological Resources)

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7 pages, 463 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Theoretical and Practical Approaches in Watershed Management Across Different Environmental Contexts

by Demetrio Antonio Zema and Manuel Esteban Lucas-Borja

Resources 2025, 14(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14010014 - 15 Jan 2025

Abstract

A watershed is defined as ‘a topographically delineated area that is drained by a stream system’ [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Theoretical and Practical Approaches in Watershed Management across Different Environmental Contexts)

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21 pages, 1900 KiB

Open AccessReview

Plants from Arid Zones of Mexico: Bioactive Compounds and Potential Use for Food Production

by Isabel Márquez-Rangel, Mario Cruz, Alberto A. Neira-Vielma, Sonia N. Ramírez-Barrón, Pedro Aguilar-Zarate and Ruth Belmares

Resources 2025, 14(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14010013 - 9 Jan 2025

Abstract

(1) Background: Climate change has several consequences; one of them is increasing the severity of droughts. This has led to an opportunity to study arid zone plants as food sources that have potential biological activities and improve consumer health. (2) Methods: In this [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Climate change has several consequences; one of them is increasing the severity of droughts. This has led to an opportunity to study arid zone plants as food sources that have potential biological activities and improve consumer health. (2) Methods: In this work, we review recent research focused on the traditional use and importance of arid zone plants, their nutritional contribution, and their beneficial effects on health when they are consumed; these effects are primarily because of their antioxidant activity, which inhibits free radicals and contributes to improved nutrition and benefits consumer health. (3) Results: Several plant-based functional food studies have shown that the consumption of bioactive compounds is a complement to drugs for preventing some chronic degenerative diseases, such as gastrointestinal diseases, diabetes, and obesity. (4) Conclusions: Given all of the previously mentioned factors, plants from arid zones are potential sources for obtaining bioactive compounds with low water requirements. Full article

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25 pages, 8142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Life Cycle Assessment of Methanol Production from Municipal Solid Waste: Environmental Comparison with Landfilling and Incineration

by Cristiano Queiroz Cerqueira, Electo Eduardo Silva Lora, Lidiane La Picirelli de Souza, Márcio Montagnana Vicente Leme, Regina Mambeli Barros and Osvaldo José Venturini

Resources 2025, 14(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14010012 - 9 Jan 2025

Abstract

Inadequate waste management strategies play a significant role in exacerbating environmental challenges, such as increased greenhouse gas emissions, resource depletion, and other adverse ecological impacts. These issues are aggravated by the global rise in municipal solid waste (MSW) generation, surpassing the rate of [...] Read more.

Inadequate waste management strategies play a significant role in exacerbating environmental challenges, such as increased greenhouse gas emissions, resource depletion, and other adverse ecological impacts. These issues are aggravated by the global rise in municipal solid waste (MSW) generation, surpassing the rate of population growth. Simultaneously, there is an urgent demand for sustainable energy solutions to combat climate change and its wide-ranging impacts. In response, this study addresses a critical question: is methanol production from MSW, a waste-to-chemical (WtC) alternative based on circular economy principles, a more environmentally sustainable approach compared to traditional waste-to-energy (WtE) methods like landfilling with biogas recovery and incineration? To answer this, this study evaluates the environmental performance of MSW-to-methanol technologies using life cycle assessment (LCA), focusing on key indicators such as global warming potential, resource depletion, and impacts on human health and ecosystem quality. The results reveal that methanol production from MSW significantly reduces global warming potential (GWP) by 87% compared to landfilling and 56% compared to incineration. Additionally, the process demonstrates high energy efficiency in electricity generation, achieving 80% of the output of incineration. These findings position MSW-to-methanol as a promising alternative for advancing sustainable waste management and renewable energy transitions. While the technology is still in its developmental stages, this research highlights the need for further advancements and policy support to enhance feasibility and scalability. By providing a comparative environmental analysis, this study contributes to identifying innovative pathways for addressing pressing waste management and energy sustainability challenges. Full article

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26 pages, 6563 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strategic Approaches to Define the Production Rate in Conceptual Projects of Critical Raw Materials

by Lucas Zucchi Silva and Anna Luiza Marques Ayres da Silva

Resources 2025, 14(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14010011 - 8 Jan 2025

Abstract

Mining projects are intricate, requiring significant time and investment for feasibility studies, despite a low likelihood of reaching execution. Accurate project factors can optimize costs across the study, execution, and operation phases. This work proposes a strategic approach to define the production rate [...] Read more.

Mining projects are intricate, requiring significant time and investment for feasibility studies, despite a low likelihood of reaching execution. Accurate project factors can optimize costs across the study, execution, and operation phases. This work proposes a strategic approach to define the production rate in conceptual projects of critical raw materials, based on well-established formulae from Taylor, Long, and Singer, focusing on copper, zinc, and lead. Copper and zinc are crucial for renewable energy systems and low-carbon technologies, while lead supports energy storage applications. A dataset containing mine production and mineral resources from several mine projects, gathered from a specialized global company, was used to create a production rate equation and then compared using an adherence indicator to validate the formulae. The best adherence indicator from earlier studies was 59%. Copper projects did not show good adherence to the new formulae. Zinc and lead projects showed very good results, generating three formulae with good adherence numbers (above 70%), and they can be taken as a reference to calculate the production rate of new open-pit and underground mining projects. These findings offer a reliable strategic approach for estimating production rates in early-stage zinc and lead projects, enhancing the efficiency of the conceptual study phase in mining. Full article

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21 pages, 4146 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

How Reducing Fossil-Based Plastic Use Can Help the Overall Sustainability of Oyster Farming: The Case of the Gulf of La Spezia

by Daniela Summa, Elena Tamisari, Mattia Lanzoni, Giuseppe Castaldelli and Elena Tamburini

Resources 2025, 14(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14010010 - 8 Jan 2025

Abstract

Oyster farming plays a crucial role in sustainable food production due to its high nutritional value and relatively low environmental impact. However, in a scenario of increasing production, it is necessary to consider the issue of plastic use as a limitation to be [...] Read more.

Oyster farming plays a crucial role in sustainable food production due to its high nutritional value and relatively low environmental impact. However, in a scenario of increasing production, it is necessary to consider the issue of plastic use as a limitation to be addressed. A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted on oyster farming in La Spezia (Italy) as a case study, utilizing 1 kg of packaged oysters as the functional unit. Fossil-based plastics and wooden packaging were identified as the primary environmental concerns. To analyze potential strategies for reducing the environmental impact of oyster farming, alternative scenarios were considered wherein fossil-based materials were replaced with bio-based materials. Specifically, this study examined the substitution of the current packaging, consisting of a wooden box and a polypropylene (PP) film, with a fully recyclable PP net. Additionally, polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), and bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) were proposed as alternatives to virgin high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and PP for buoys, oyster bags, and boxes. Among the scenarios analyzed, the sole effective strategy to reduce the impact of plastics on the process is to replace them with PHA. In the other cases, the high energy consumption of their non-optimized production renders them disadvantageous options. However, the assessment must include the effects of degradation that traditional plastics can have in the marine environment, an aspect that potentially renders natural fibers more advantageous. The use of PP net packaging has demonstrated high efficacy in reducing impacts and provides a foundation for considering the need to combine sustainability and marketing with current legislation regarding food packaging. Full article

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20 pages, 6169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Green Mussel Shells (Perna viridis) and Chitosan Extracted from Milkfish (Chanos chanos) Scales on the Compressive Strength of Mortar and Concrete

by Bernardo Lejano, Kenneth Jae Elevado, Lorenzo Martin Chua, Simon Rohi Cuartero, Vince Philip Fabian and Alyanna Ysabel Rase

Resources 2025, 14(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14010009 - 31 Dec 2024

Abstract

It is estimated that in the construction industry, cement production contributes to 7% of global CO₂ emissions. Because of this, alternative materials, including biological resources and wastes, are being explored to determine their viability as substitutes for conventional concrete aggregates. This study [...] Read more.

It is estimated that in the construction industry, cement production contributes to 7% of global CO₂ emissions. Because of this, alternative materials, including biological resources and wastes, are being explored to determine their viability as substitutes for conventional concrete aggregates. This study investigates the feasibility of using green mussel shells (GMSs) as a partial cement replacement and chitosan derived from milkfish scales as an additive in concrete. Addressing environmental concerns tied to cement production, the research evaluates the potential of GMSs and chitosan to enhance mortar and concrete properties. This study was conducted in two phases: phase one focused on mortar with varying percentages of GMSs (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) and chitosan (0%, 0.25%, 0.50%, 0.75%, and 1%), while phase two applied the phase one results that resulted in the highest compressive strength of concrete. The results indicate that 10% GMS and 0.25% chitosan improved mortar strength by 38.74%, although high GMS levels reduced workability. In concrete, 10% GMS without chitosan decreased compressive strength by up to 47% due to magnesium impurities in GMSs, verified by FTIR analysis. This study highlights GMSs’ and chitosan’s potential but emphasizes impurity management for its application feasibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Use of Biological Resources)

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