Sustainable and Smart Building

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Buildings buildings	3.1	3.4	2011	15.3 Days	CHF 2600	Submit
Energies energies	3.0	6.2	2008	16.8 Days	CHF 2600	Submit
Land land	3.2	4.9	2012	16.9 Days	CHF 2600	Submit
Smart Cities smartcities	7.0	11.2	2018	28.4 Days	CHF 2000	Submit
Sustainability sustainability	3.3	6.8	2009	19.7 Days	CHF 2400	Submit

36 pages, 3856 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Urban Building Energy Retrofitting Tool: An Open-Source Framework to Help Foster Building Retrofitting Using a Life Cycle Costing Perspective—First Results for Montréal

by Oriol Gavaldà-Torrellas, Pilar Monsalvete, Saeed Ranjbar and Ursula Eicker

Smart Cities 2025, 8(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities8010017 - 24 Jan 2025

Viewed by 708

Abstract

Building decarbonization is a major challenge for cities. Deciding which buildings to retrofit buildings, and when and how, is difficult, given the complex interaction between energy costs and investment requirements. Several tools have been developed in recent years to help public and private [...] Read more.

Building decarbonization is a major challenge for cities. Deciding which buildings to retrofit buildings, and when and how, is difficult, given the complex interaction between energy costs and investment requirements. Several tools have been developed in recent years to help public and private stakeholders with these decisions, but none cover aspects the authors think are fundamental. For this reason, an urban buildings retrofit tool was developed and is presented in this article. This new tool is based on a bottom-up approach, with all buildings simulated individually, considering aspects such as shading and adjacencies. As a second step, three scenarios with different levels of ambition were implemented in the tool, and the energy demand and emissions resulting from these scenarios were calculated. As a third step, the retrofitting scenarios’ initial investment and operational costs were implemented using a detailed Life Cycle Costing (LCC) approach. A robust and scalable structure was developed and applied to calculate the LCC of various retrofitting scenarios in Montréal, which will be described in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable and Smart Building)

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42 pages, 24077 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review and Recent Trends in Thermal Insulation Materials for Energy Conservation in Buildings

by Amir Ali, Anas Issa and Ahmed Elshaer

Sustainability 2024, 16(20), 8782; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16208782 - 11 Oct 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 11223

Abstract

In recent years, energy conservation became a strategic goal to preserve the environment, foster sustainability, and preserve valuable natural resources. The building sector is considered one of the largest energy consumers globally. Therefore, insulation plays a vital role in mitigating the energy consumption [...] Read more.

In recent years, energy conservation became a strategic goal to preserve the environment, foster sustainability, and preserve valuable natural resources. The building sector is considered one of the largest energy consumers globally. Therefore, insulation plays a vital role in mitigating the energy consumption of the building sector. This study provides an overview of various organic and inorganic insulation materials, recent trends in insulation systems, and their applications, advantages, and disadvantages, particularly those suitable for extreme climates. Moreover, natural and composite materials that can be used as a low-cost, thermally efficient, and sustainable option for thermal insulation are discussed along with their thermal properties-associated problems, and potential solutions that could be adopted to utilize natural and sustainable options. Finally, the paper highlights factors affecting thermal performance and essential considerations for choosing a particular insulation system for a particular region. It is concluded that the most commonly used insulation materials are found to have several associated problems and there is a strong need to utilize sustainable materials along with advanced materials such as aerogels to develop novel composite insulation materials to overcome these deficiencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable and Smart Building)

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16 pages, 4218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Drying of a Clayey Ceramic Flat Plate: Simulation Studies Using the Galerkin-Based Integral Method

by Ivonete B. Santos, João M. P. Q. Delgado, Márcia R. Luiz, Ricardo S. Gomez, Antonio G. B. Lima, Larissa S. S. Pinheiro, Elaine J. C. Silva, Luis E. A. Santos, Glauco R. F. Brito, Wagner C. P. B. Lima and Norton L. T. Rafael

Buildings 2024, 14(9), 2674; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092674 - 28 Aug 2024

Viewed by 714

Abstract

The ceramics sector is crucial to the global economy. This research is devoted to studying the drying process of ceramic parts with arbitrary shapes based on Fick’s second law of diffusion and energy conservation. Herein, the mathematical procedure to obtain the exact solutions [...] Read more.

The ceramics sector is crucial to the global economy. This research is devoted to studying the drying process of ceramic parts with arbitrary shapes based on Fick’s second law of diffusion and energy conservation. Herein, the mathematical procedure to obtain the exact solutions of the model equations using the Galerkin-based integral method is provided. In the mathematical modeling are considered constant properties and equilibrium conditions at the surface of the material. Emphasis is given to clay ceramic flat plate. Analytical results of the average moisture content, local temperature, and moisture content and temperature fields within the ceramic parts are presented, followed by an in-depth discussion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable and Smart Building)

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26 pages, 4788 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Compendium of Research, Tools, Structural Analysis, and Design for Bamboo Structures

by Nurwin Adam G. Muhammad, Jerson N. Orejudos and Mary Joanne C. Aniñon

Buildings 2024, 14(8), 2419; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082419 - 6 Aug 2024

Viewed by 4037

Abstract

Bamboo is known for its ability to grow at a high speed, with strong sustainability indicators and remarkable strength properties. However, despite these qualities, the practice of designing bamboo structures is still in its early stages in many regions. This paper aims to [...] Read more.

Bamboo is known for its ability to grow at a high speed, with strong sustainability indicators and remarkable strength properties. However, despite these qualities, the practice of designing bamboo structures is still in its early stages in many regions. This paper aims to review the current approaches to structural analysis and design for bamboo structures as found in the existing literature. Through this comprehensive review, this study seeks to identify existing research gaps and areas that require further exploration. The limited design philosophy for bamboo structures can be attributed to the scarcity of studies on the characteristics and mechanics of bamboo material. These findings highlight the necessity for more comprehensive guidelines and standards to enhance the structural analysis and design of bamboo structures. This study identifies gaps in the following areas: lack of consideration for bamboo fiber distribution, lack of guidelines for load parameters specific to bamboo structures, inadequate coverage of bamboo culm connections, inadequate coverage on connection stiffness, limited scope on connection types, and species-specific limitations in standards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable and Smart Building)

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19 pages, 3765 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Renewable Energy Solutions in Small-Scale Industrial Facilities

by Laila Zemite, Jevgenijs Kozadajevs, Leo Jansons, Ilmars Bode, Egils Dzelzitis and Karina Palkova

Energies 2024, 17(11), 2792; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112792 - 6 Jun 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1150

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to analyze the economical suitability of numerous on-site renewable electricity generation technologies which were intended to be used in a recently built industrial facility designed and utilized as a warehouse. The facility was located in the vicinity [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to analyze the economical suitability of numerous on-site renewable electricity generation technologies which were intended to be used in a recently built industrial facility designed and utilized as a warehouse. The facility was located in the vicinity of Riga, Latvia. Data were collected and calculations were performed within the scope of the project “Mitigating Energy Poverty through Innovative Solutions” as part of several planned activities to address the broad spectrum of energy poverty and self-reliance issues in both the residential sector and small-scale industrial facilities. During the project, evaluations of various renewable energy technologies, including PV installations, wind energy installations, battery storage solutions, and hybrid technologies, were carried out. The aim of these evaluations was to develop an electricity production–consumption model for efficient and cost-effective energy use and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the test facility. A model was created and subsequent research scenarios were developed based on a payback period instead of the net present value criterion. The project was carried out over several steps to develop a calculation methodology. The open access databases of energy resource providers were used to evaluate statistical data and make forecasts for the analysis of the electricity consumption of companies. MATLAB/Simulink 23/2 was used for the data analysis, and the H-TEC method was employed. This made it possible to modulate the required production capacity as the model allowed for the addition of new modules to modules already installed. The project results proved that despite high initial investment costs, renewable energy sources and efficient storage systems can provide cost-effective solutions and reduce dependence on fossil fuels in the long term. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable and Smart Building)

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24 pages, 1309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Always with the Best Intentions? Interrogating the Use of Sustainable Building Assessment Systems in Developing Countries: Kenya

by Faith Ng’eno Chelang’at and Ranald Lawrence

Sustainability 2024, 16(9), 3868; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16093868 - 5 May 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2725

Abstract

Assessment methodologies such as BREEAM and LEED allocate points based on prescribed interventions that promote design features or strategies considered to be more sustainable than others. A focus on accumulating numerical scores, however, often fails to address pertinent contextual issues, particularly within developing [...] Read more.

Assessment methodologies such as BREEAM and LEED allocate points based on prescribed interventions that promote design features or strategies considered to be more sustainable than others. A focus on accumulating numerical scores, however, often fails to address pertinent contextual issues, particularly within developing countries. This paper examines the use of four assessment systems in Kenya—two international systems, LEED-US and Green Star SA-Kenya; and two locally developed systems, Green Mark Kenya and the Safari Green Building Index. The paper compares the relative weighting of different categories under each system, and assesses their appropriateness to a Kenyan context, with reference to the suitability of active technology versus passive design approaches. The paper examines selected examples of ‘green’ buildings in Nairobi, reflecting on the influence of different methods of assessment on the adopted design approaches. The paper argues that international rating systems, such as LEED, often focus on a Western construct of sustainability featuring a systematic bias towards global rather than local perspectives, with an emphasis on physical environmental factors. In pursuit of objectivity, the measurement of non-contextual parameters untailored to local circumstances (e.g., energy performance) is prioritised at the expense of those contingent on local conditions or climate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable and Smart Building)

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26 pages, 6190 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Connection Techniques for Raw Bamboo Structures—A Review

by Mary Joanne C. Aniñon and Lessandro Estelito O. Garciano

Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1126; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041126 - 17 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4393

Abstract

While bamboo’s sustainability and impressive mechanical properties make it suitable for structural use, its application is hindered by challenges in connection systems. Bamboo’s hollow, thin-walled nature, dimensional variations, and anisotropic properties complicate connection design. Despite numerous studies and proposed connection types, a consensus [...] Read more.

While bamboo’s sustainability and impressive mechanical properties make it suitable for structural use, its application is hindered by challenges in connection systems. Bamboo’s hollow, thin-walled nature, dimensional variations, and anisotropic properties complicate connection design. Despite numerous studies and proposed connection types, a consensus on preferred bamboo connections remains elusive. Ideal connections for raw bamboo structures should be robust, economical, practical, simple, and easy to assemble. This paper reviews 62 scientific papers from the Scopus database published between 2003 and 2024, along with additional relevant references. It identifies research gaps, recommending further studies on bamboo connections considering factors like species, harvest age, treatment type, and node location. The analysis of failure modes and long-term behavior is essential to anticipate and mitigate risks associated with bamboo connections, ensuring durability, and minimizing maintenance needs. Lastly, developing universally accepted standards and codes for bamboo and bamboo connections is crucial for enabling their widespread adoption in the construction industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable and Smart Building)

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15 pages, 2843 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smarter Window Selection for Smarter Energy Consumption: The Case of the United Arab Emirates

by Amin H. Almasri

Buildings 2024, 14(4), 876; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14040876 - 24 Mar 2024

Viewed by 2161

Abstract

The energy consumption levels of buildings in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) are among the highest in the world. One of the main reasons for this energy consumption is the need to cool buildings due to the hot climate of the UAE. As [...] Read more.

The energy consumption levels of buildings in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) are among the highest in the world. One of the main reasons for this energy consumption is the need to cool buildings due to the hot climate of the UAE. As a large part of the heat accumulated inside buildings comes from windows, in this study, the effects of window size and direction in a typical building in the UAE on energy consumption and thermal performance are investigated through numerical modeling. The modeling process includes thermal conductivity, thermal convection, and solar radiation simulation. The energy performance of any building at any location can be obtained based on local weather data and the computational thermal characteristics of the building elements, such as its walls, roofs, windows, and doors. The study covered all different seasons of the year and different orientations for the windows, allowing the daily and yearly energy consumption associated with the windows to be obtained. Furthermore, the energy consumption was obtained for solar radiation and heat gain separately for both single- and double-glazed windows. It was found that north-facing windows consume significantly less annual energy (36% less), when compared with windows facing in the other three directions. Furthermore, the east- and west-facing windows consumed about 41% and 35% more daily cooling energy in August, when compared to north- and south-facing windows, respectively. The use of a window with a height equal to that of the wall can cause a clear greenhouse effect; hence, it is recommended to limit the window’s height to two-thirds of the wall height, which can save about one-third of the associated yearly cooling energy. This study should be considered as a general guideline, as the thermal performance of any specific building will be affected by its own thermal characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable and Smart Building)

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25 pages, 13693 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Settlement Analysis of Concrete-Walled Buildings Using Soil–Structure Interactions and Finite Element Modeling

by Jonny D. Patrício, Alexandre D. Gusmão, Sílvio R. M. Ferreira, Fernando A. N. Silva, Hassan Jafarian Kafshgarkolaei, António C. Azevedo and João M. P. Q. Delgado

Buildings 2024, 14(3), 746; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14030746 - 10 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1659

Abstract

This study examines the performance of mat foundations in 13 blocks of eight-story concrete-walled residential buildings. Topographic monitoring bolts were used to monitor the slab’s construction, which was 0.35 m thick and comprised an area of 225 m². Using the collected [...] Read more.

This study examines the performance of mat foundations in 13 blocks of eight-story concrete-walled residential buildings. Topographic monitoring bolts were used to monitor the slab’s construction, which was 0.35 m thick and comprised an area of 225 m². Using the collected data, a retro-analysis of the modulus of elasticity was conducted to obtain the geotechnical parameters for forecasting the settlement using the elasticity theory. A nonlinear approach for construction modeling and soil–structure interactions showed that the earthworks at the start of construction had a significant role in settling. Blocks in landfills settled faster than those in land-cut zones. The partial execution of building levels was found to be critical in terms of angular distortions and stresses in the concrete slab. The partial lifting of the foundation plate was confirmed in blocks with partial building floor execution, demonstrating the importance of assessing the foundation’s behavior at this stage. The modulus of elasticity dropped as construction progressed, with landfill parts being particularly vulnerable. Creep settlements contributed significantly, accounting for about 20% of the total settlements in some blocks. The numerical staged construction model accurately replicated the behaviors observed in the monitoring data, confirming the hypothesis of the partial raising of the foundation during the building process, which resulted in higher angular distortions. Based on the results obtained, the authors strongly recommend that the simultaneous consideration of soil–structure interactions and construction effects be commonly used in foundation designs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable and Smart Building)

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19 pages, 3651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adhesion Analysis of Adhesive Mortar Joints in Ceramic Tiles under Static Loading

by Janaina Salustio da Silva, Sandro M. Torres, Ângelo J. Costa e Silva, Fernando A. N. Silva, António C. Azevedo and João M. P. Q. Delgado

Buildings 2024, 14(3), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14030670 - 2 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1485

Abstract

Ceramic detachment is a serious problem that persists in modern building constructions despite technological advances and updated regulatory documents. Most of these detachments occur at the interface between the adhesive mortar and the ceramic tile, due to the action of simultaneous tensile and [...] Read more.

Ceramic detachment is a serious problem that persists in modern building constructions despite technological advances and updated regulatory documents. Most of these detachments occur at the interface between the adhesive mortar and the ceramic tile, due to the action of simultaneous tensile and shearing efforts. However, despite this understanding, experimental studies that evaluate the integrity of the adhesion of façades covering materials subjected to simultaneous stress are scarce. In this sense, this study proposes to evaluate the integrity of adhesive mortar joints using the mixed-mode flexure (MMF) crack propagation test. Force and elastic and dissipated energy data were used in this analysis. Prismatic specimens, with a size of 160 × 40 mm² and a thickness of 6 mm, were produced consisting of two ceramic plates joined by a layer of adhesive mortar at 5 ± 0.5 mm. An acetate film was inserted into one of the mortar–ceramic interfaces in order to simulate the presence of a previous crack, and different crack sizes were used. The results showed the high stress-concentrating effect that the existence of flaws in the interface region has on fracture resistance, as well as the importance of effective contact between the materials. The energy parameters confirmed the analyses carried out based on the load values. The elastic energy of the system fell in the cracked samples, showing that there is a close relationship between the interface energy and the adhesive strength of the material. An energy release of the order of 0.053 ± 0.031 J was required for a 15 mm crack to propagate, creating a fracture surface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable and Smart Building)

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31 pages, 2728 KiB

Open AccessReview

Climate Change Mitigation through Modular Construction

by Zeerak Waryam Sajid, Fahim Ullah, Siddra Qayyum and Rehan Masood

Smart Cities 2024, 7(1), 566-596; https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7010023 - 8 Feb 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4194

Abstract

Modular construction (MC) is a promising concept with the potential to revolutionize the construction industry (CI). The sustainability aspects of MC, among its other encouraging facets, have garnered escalated interest and acclaim among the research community, especially in the context of climate change [...] Read more.

Modular construction (MC) is a promising concept with the potential to revolutionize the construction industry (CI). The sustainability aspects of MC, among its other encouraging facets, have garnered escalated interest and acclaim among the research community, especially in the context of climate change (CC) mitigation efforts. Despite numerous scholarly studies contributing to the understanding of MC, a holistic review of the prevailing literature that systematically documents the impact of utilizing MC on CC mitigation remains scarce. The study conducts a systematic literature review (SLR) of the pertinent literature retrieved from the Scopus repository to explore the relationship between MC and CC mitigation. Employing the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol, the SLR was conducted on 31 shortlisted articles published between 2010 and 2023. The findings of the study reveal that MC can mitigate the climate crisis by reducing GHG emissions, curtailing resource intensiveness by enabling a circular economy (CE), fomenting energy efficiency, and fostering resourceful land use and management in the CI. A conceptual framework based on the findings of the previous literature is proposed in this study, which outlines several strategies for CC mitigation that can be implemented by the adoption of MC in the CI. The current study is a humble effort to review various offerings of MC to help mitigate CC in the era of striving for global sustainability. For industry practitioners and policymakers, this study highlights the viability of leveraging MC for CC mitigation, aiming to inspire better decision making for sustainable development in the CI. Similarly, for researchers, it presents MC as a potential tool for CC mitigation that can be further explored in terms of its associated factors, and focused frameworks can be developed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable and Smart Building)

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