Polymers

38 pages, 6304 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bonded CFRP/Steel Systems, Remedies of Bond Degradation and Behaviour of CFRP Repaired Steel: An Overview

by Daniel Borrie, Saad Al-Saadi, Xiao-Ling Zhao, R. K. Singh Raman and Yu Bai

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1533; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091533 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5656

This literature review has examined the use of FRP composite materials as a potential retrofitting technique for civil structures. Importantly, the various material properties, bond mechanisms, durability issues and fatigue resistance have been discussed. Studies exploring the performance of CFRP repaired steel have [...] Read more.

This literature review has examined the use of FRP composite materials as a potential retrofitting technique for civil structures. Importantly, the various material properties, bond mechanisms, durability issues and fatigue resistance have been discussed. Studies exploring the performance of CFRP repaired steel have strongly indicated its potential as a rehabilitation material. These systems offer many improvements over the current bulky and less chemically resistant methods of bolting or welding steel plate patches. This review has established and highlighted the factors that affect CFRP/steel bond durability, namely surface preparation, curing, corrosion, fatigue loading, temperature and moisture ingress through studies that focus on their effect. These studies, however, often focus on a single influencing factor or design criteria. Only limited studies have investigated multiple parameters applied simultaneously, even though they commonly occur together in industrial practice. This review aimed to summarise the numerous influencing parameters to give a clearer understanding of the relevance of CFRP repaired steel structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre Reinforced Polymers Degradation)

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18 pages, 8190 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kenaf Fiber/Pet Yarn Reinforced Epoxy Hybrid Polymer Composites: Morphological, Tensile, and Flammability Properties

by M. J. Suriani, Hasliana Asyikin Zainudin, R. A. Ilyas, Michal Petrů, S. M. Sapuan, C. M. Ruzaidi and Rohani Mustapha

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1532; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091532 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 53 | Viewed by 5010

Abstract

The application of natural fibers is rapidly growing in many sectors, such as construction, automobile, and furniture. Kenaf fiber (KF) is a natural fiber that is in demand owing to its eco-friendly and renewable nature. Nowadays, there are various new applications for kenaf, [...] Read more.

The application of natural fibers is rapidly growing in many sectors, such as construction, automobile, and furniture. Kenaf fiber (KF) is a natural fiber that is in demand owing to its eco-friendly and renewable nature. Nowadays, there are various new applications for kenaf, such as in absorbents and building materials. It also has commercial applications, such as in the automotive industry. Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂) is used as a fire retardant as it is low in cost and has good flame retardancy, while polyester yarn (PET) has high tensile strength. The aim of this study was to determine the horizontal burning rate, tensile strength, and surface morphology of kenaf fiber/PET yarn reinforced epoxy fire retardant composites. The composites were prepared by hybridized epoxy and Mg(OH)₂ PET with different amounts of KF content (0%, 20%, 35%, and 50%) using the cold press method. The specimen with 35% KF (epoxy/PET/KF-35) displayed better flammability properties and had the lowest average burning rate of 14.55 mm/min, while epoxy/PET/KF-50 with 50% KF had the highest tensile strength of all the samples. This was due to fewer defects being detected on the surface morphology of epoxy/PET/KF-35 compared to the other samples, which influenced the mechanical properties of the composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio and Synthetic Based Polymer Composite Materials)

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22 pages, 8955 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication and Characterization of Chitosan—Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide Composite Film for Transdermal Delivery of Protein/Peptide

by Rishabha Malviya, Anchal Tyagi, Shivkanya Fuloria, Vetriselvan Subramaniyan, Kathiresan Sathasivam, Sonali Sundram, Sundram Karupiah, Srikumar Chakravarthi, Dhanalekshmi Unnikrishnan Meenakshi, Nandan Gupta, Mahendran Sekar, Kalvatala Sudhakar and Neeraj Kumar Fuloria

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1531; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091531 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3821

Abstract

Transdermal drug delivery is used to deliver a drug by eliminating the first-pass metabolism, which increases the bioavailability of the drug. The present study aims to formulate the chitosan—tamarind seed polysaccharide composite films and evaluate for the delivery of protein/peptide molecules. Nine formulations [...] Read more.

Transdermal drug delivery is used to deliver a drug by eliminating the first-pass metabolism, which increases the bioavailability of the drug. The present study aims to formulate the chitosan—tamarind seed polysaccharide composite films and evaluate for the delivery of protein/peptide molecules. Nine formulations were prepared and evaluated by using different parameters, such as physical appearance, folding endurance, thickness of film, surface pH, weight variation, drug content, surface morphology, percentage moisture intake and uptake, drug release kinetics, and drug permeability. The film weight variance was observed between 0.34 ± 0.002 to 0.47 ± 0.003 g. The drug level of the prepared films was found to be between 96 ± 1.21 and 98 ± 1.33μg. Their intake of moisture ranged between 2.83 ± 0.002 and 3.76 ± 0.001 (%). The moisture absorption of the films ranged from 5.33 ± 0.22 to 10.02 ± 0.61 (%). SEM images revealed a smooth film surface, while minor cracks were found in the film after permeation tests. During the first 4 days, drug release was between 13.75 ± 1.64% and 22.54 ± 1.34% and from day 5 to day 6, it was between 72.67 ± 2.13% and 78.33 ± 3.13%. Drug permeation during the first 4 days was 15.78 ± 1.23 %. Drug permeation (%) during the first 4 days was between 15.78 ± 1.23 and 22.49 ± 1.29 and from day 5 to day 6, it was between 71.49 ± 3.21 and 77.93 ± 3.20. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionalized Biomaterials for Medical Applications)

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26 pages, 7740 KiB

Open AccessReview

UV-Curable Bio-Based Polymers Derived from Industrial Pulp and Paper Processes

by Lorenzo Pezzana, Eva Malmström, Mats Johansson and Marco Sangermano

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1530; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091530 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 9182

Abstract

Bio-based monomers represent the future market for polymer chemistry, since the political economics of different states promote green ventures toward more sustainable materials and processes. Industrial pulp and paper processing represent a large market that could advance the use of by-products to avoid [...] Read more.

Bio-based monomers represent the future market for polymer chemistry, since the political economics of different states promote green ventures toward more sustainable materials and processes. Industrial pulp and paper processing represent a large market that could advance the use of by-products to avoid waste production and reduce pollution. Lignin represents the most available side product that can be used to produce a bio-based monomer. This review is concentrated on the possibility of using bio-based monomer derivates from pulp and the paper industry for UV-curing processing. UV-curing represents the new frontier for thermoset production, allowing a fast reaction cure, less energy demand, and the elimination of solvent. The growing demand for new monomers increases research in the environmental field to substitute for petroleum-based products. This review provides an overview of the main monomers and relative families of compounds derived from industrial processes that are suitable for UV-curing. Particular focus is given to the developments reached in the last few years concerning lignin, rosin and terpenes and the related possible applications of these in UV-curing chemistry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)

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12 pages, 2509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Antibacterial Effect of Casein-AgNPs Combined with Tigecycline against Acinetobacter baumannii

by Yu-Hsuan Chen, Wei-Hsun Wang, Sheng-Hui Lin, Yuan-Ting Yang-Wang, Sung-Pin Tseng, Chi-Sheng Chien and Chi-Jen Shih

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1529; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091529 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2778

Abstract

Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii) is a common and challenging pathogen of nosocomial infections, due to its ability to survive on inanimate objects, desiccation tolerance, and resistance to disinfectants. In this study, we investigated an antibacterial strategy to combat A. baumannii [...] Read more.

Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii) is a common and challenging pathogen of nosocomial infections, due to its ability to survive on inanimate objects, desiccation tolerance, and resistance to disinfectants. In this study, we investigated an antibacterial strategy to combat A. baumannii via the combination of antibiotics and silver protein. This strategy used a functional platform consisting of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) resurrected from silver-based calcium thiophosphate (SSCP) through casein and arginine. Then, the silver protein was combined with tigecycline, the first drug in glycylcycline antibiotic, to synergistically inhibit the viability of A. baumannii. The synergistic antibacterial activity was confirmed by the 96-well checkerboard method to determine their minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and calculated for the combination index (CI). The MIC of the combination of silver protein and tigecycline (0.31 mg/mL, 0.16 µg/mL) was significantly lower than that of the individual MIC, and the CI was 0.59, which indicates a synergistic effect. Consequently, we integrated the detailed synergistic antibacterial properties when silver protein was combined with tigecycline. The result could make for a promising approach for the treatment of A. baumannii. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanomaterials Template for Organic or Composite Polymers in Biomedical Application)

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28 pages, 126923 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dual Graded Lattice Structures: Generation Framework and Mechanical Properties Characterization

by Khaled G. Mostafa, Guilherme A. Momesso, Xiuhui Li, David S. Nobes and Ahmed J. Qureshi

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1528; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091528 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7615

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) enables the production of complex structured parts with tailored properties. Instead of manufacturing parts as fully solid, they can be infilled with lattice structures to optimize mechanical, thermal, and other functional properties. A lattice structure is formed by the repetition [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing (AM) enables the production of complex structured parts with tailored properties. Instead of manufacturing parts as fully solid, they can be infilled with lattice structures to optimize mechanical, thermal, and other functional properties. A lattice structure is formed by the repetition of a particular unit cell based on a defined pattern. The unit cell’s geometry, relative density, and size dictate the lattice structure’s properties. Where certain domains of the part require denser infill compared to other domains, the functionally graded lattice structure allows for further part optimization. This manuscript consists of two main sections. In the first section, we discussed the dual graded lattice structure (DGLS) generation framework. This framework can grade both the size and the relative density or porosity of standard and custom unit cells simultaneously as a function of the structure spatial coordinates. Popular benchmark parts from different fields were used to test the framework’s efficiency against different unit cell types and grading equations. In the second part, we investigated the effect of lattice structure dual grading on mechanical properties. It was found that combining both relative density and size grading fine-tunes the compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, absorbed energy, and fracture behavior of the lattice structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Additive Manufacturing)

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18 pages, 4409 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis, Characterization, and Electrospinning of a Functionalizable, Polycaprolactone-Based Polyurethane for Soft Tissue Engineering

by Jin-Jia Hu, Chia-Chi Liu, Chih-Hsun Lin and Ho-Yi Tuan-Mu

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1527; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091527 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3814

Abstract

We synthesized a biodegradable, elastomeric, and functionalizable polyurethane (PU) that can be electrospun for use as a scaffold in soft tissue engineering. The PU was synthesized from polycaprolactone diol, hexamethylene diisocyanate, and dimethylolpropionic acid (DMPA) chain extender using two-step polymerization and designated as [...] Read more.

We synthesized a biodegradable, elastomeric, and functionalizable polyurethane (PU) that can be electrospun for use as a scaffold in soft tissue engineering. The PU was synthesized from polycaprolactone diol, hexamethylene diisocyanate, and dimethylolpropionic acid (DMPA) chain extender using two-step polymerization and designated as PU-DMPA. A control PU using 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BDO) as a chain extender was synthesized similarly and designated as PU-BDO. The chemical structure of the two PUs was verified by FT-IR and ¹H-NMR. The PU-DMPA had a lower molecular weight than the PU-BDO (~16,700 Da vs. ~78,600 Da). The melting enthalpy of the PU-DMPA was greater than that of the PU-BDO. Both the PUs exhibited elastomeric behaviors with a comparable elongation at break (

λ = L / L_{0} =

13.2). The PU-DMPA had a higher initial modulus (19.8 MPa vs. 8.7 MPa) and a lower linear modulus (0.7 MPa vs. 1.2 MPa) and ultimate strength (9.5 MPa vs. 13.8 MPa) than the PU-BDO. The PU-DMPA had better hydrophilicity than the PU-BDO. Both the PUs displayed no cytotoxicity, although the adhesion of human umbilical artery smooth muscle cells on the PU-DMPA surface was better. Bead free electrospun PU-DMPA membranes with a narrow fiber diameter distribution were successfully fabricated. As a demonstration of its functionalizability, gelatin was conjugated to the electrospun PU-DMPA membrane using carbodiimide chemistry. Moreover, hyaluronic acid was immobilized on the amino-functionalized PU-DMPA. In conclusion, the PU-DMPA has the potential to be used as a scaffold material for soft tissue engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrospinning of Biodegradable Nanofibers)

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13 pages, 2775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Engineering of Optimized Hydrogel Formulations for Cartilage Repair

by Yao Fu, Bram Zoetebier, Sanne Both, Pieter J. Dijkstra and Marcel Karperien

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1526; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091526 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3556

Abstract

The ideal scaffold for cartilage regeneration is expected to provide adequate mechanical strength, controlled degradability, adhesion, and integration with the surrounding native tissue. As it does this, it mimics natural ECMs functions, which allow for nutrient diffusion and promote cell survival and differentiation. [...] Read more.

The ideal scaffold for cartilage regeneration is expected to provide adequate mechanical strength, controlled degradability, adhesion, and integration with the surrounding native tissue. As it does this, it mimics natural ECMs functions, which allow for nutrient diffusion and promote cell survival and differentiation. Injectable hydrogels based on tyramine (TA)-functionalized hyaluronic acid (HA) and dextran (Dex) are a promising approach for cartilage regeneration. The properties of the hydrogels used in this study were adjusted by varying polymer concentrations and ratios. To investigate the changes in properties and their effects on cellular behavior and cartilage matrix formation, different ratios of HA- and dextran-based hybrid hydrogels at both 5 and 10% w/v were prepared using a designed mold to control generation. The results indicated that the incorporation of chondrocytes in the hydrogels decreased their mechanical properties. However, rheological and compression analysis indicated that 5% w/v hydrogels laden with cells exhibit a significant increase in mechanical properties after 21 days when the constructs are cultured in a chondrogenic differentiation medium. Moreover, compared to the 10% w/v hydrogels, the 5% w/v hybrid hydrogels increased the deposition of the cartilage matrix, especially in constructs with a higher Dex–TA content. These results indicated that 5% w/v hybrid hydrogels with 25% HA–TA and 75% Dex–TA have a high potential as injectable scaffolds for cartilage tissue regeneration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymeric Scaffolds for Stem Cell Engineering and Regenerative Medicine)

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14 pages, 5008 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tailored Adhesion Properties of Acrylate Adhesives on Al Alloys by the Addition of Mn-Al–LDH

by Natasa Z. Tomić, Mohamed Nasr Saleh, Marija M. Vuksanović, Adela Egelja, Vera Obradović, Aleksandar Marinković and Radmila Jančić Heinemann

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1525; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091525 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2955

Abstract

The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of the structure of Mn-Al layered double hydroxide (LDH) on the adhesion behavior of composite adhesives on two Al alloys (L3005 and L8079). The composite adhesives were made out of the UV-curing Bisphenol [...] Read more.

The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of the structure of Mn-Al layered double hydroxide (LDH) on the adhesion behavior of composite adhesives on two Al alloys (L3005 and L8079). The composite adhesives were made out of the UV-curing Bisphenol A glycidylmethacrylate/triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (BT) as polymer matrix and the addition of 1, 3, and 5 wt. % of Mn-Al LDH as adhesion enhancers. Adhesion was evaluated by using the micro Vickers hardness testing procedure. The wetting angle of composite adhesives to the Al substrates was measured and compared to the adhesion parameter b obtained from the microhardness tests. The highest increase in adhesion was observed for BT with 5 wt. % of Mn-Al LDH on L3005 substrate, which was more than 15 times higher than the adhesion for the neat BT. The morphological segregation of composite adhesives after the contact with Al substrates was examined by optical microscopy and a higher compatibility of Mn-Al LDH particles with L3005 substrate was found. The methods used for the adhesion properties assessment suggested that the Mn-Al LDH was the best adhesion enhancer of the BT matrix for L3005 substrate containing a higher content of Mn and surface hydroxyl groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adhesive Properties of Polymeric Composites)

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20 pages, 7106 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Dynamics of Janus Nanodimers Dispersed in Lamellar Phases of a Block Copolymer

by J. Javier Burgos-Mármol and Alessandro Patti

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1524; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091524 - 9 May 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3155

Abstract

We investigate structural and dynamical properties of Janus nanodimers (NDs) dispersed in lamellar phases of a diblock copolymer. By performing molecular dynamics simulations, we show that an accurate tuning of the interactions between NDs and copolymer blocks can lead to a close control [...] Read more.

We investigate structural and dynamical properties of Janus nanodimers (NDs) dispersed in lamellar phases of a diblock copolymer. By performing molecular dynamics simulations, we show that an accurate tuning of the interactions between NDs and copolymer blocks can lead to a close control of NDs’ space distribution and orientation. In particular, NDs are preferentially found within the lamellae if enthalpy-driven forces offset their entropic counterpart. By contrast, when enthalpy-driven forces are not significant, the distribution of NDs, preferentially observed within the inter-lamellar spacing, is mostly driven by excluded-volume effects. Not only does the degree of affinity between host and guest species drive the NDs’ distribution in the polymer matrix, but it also determines their space orientation. In turn, these key structural properties influence the long-time dynamics and the ability of NDs to diffuse through the polymer matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Polymer Nanocomposites)

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19 pages, 1135 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Embracing Additive Manufacturing Technology through Fused Filament Fabrication for Antimicrobial with Enhanced Formulated Materials

by Waleed Ahmed, Sidra Siraj and Ali H. Al-Marzouqi

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1523; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091523 - 9 May 2021

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 3880

Abstract

Antimicrobial materials produced by 3D Printing technology are very beneficial, especially for biomedical applications. Antimicrobial surfaces specifically with enhanced antibacterial property have been prepared using several quaternary salt-based agents, such as quaternary ammonium salts and metallic nanoparticles (NPs), such as copper and zinc, [...] Read more.

Antimicrobial materials produced by 3D Printing technology are very beneficial, especially for biomedical applications. Antimicrobial surfaces specifically with enhanced antibacterial property have been prepared using several quaternary salt-based agents, such as quaternary ammonium salts and metallic nanoparticles (NPs), such as copper and zinc, which are incorporated into a polymeric matrix mainly through copolymerization grafting and ionic exchange. This review compared different materials for their effectiveness in providing antimicrobial properties on surfaces. This study will help researchers choose the most suitable method of developing antimicrobial surfaces with the highest efficiency, which can be applied to develop products compatible with 3D Printing Technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Bio and Synthetic Polymers)

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2 pages, 157 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Biofabrication for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine Applications

by Marco Domingos and Sam Moxon

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1522; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091522 - 9 May 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1888

Abstract

Biofabrication strategies continue to gain considerable interest in the efforts to develop methods for better replicating in vitro models of human tissues [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biofabrication for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine Applications)

13 pages, 16045 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Endochondral Ossification Induced by Cell Transplantation of Endothelial Cells and Bone Marrow Stromal Cells with Copolymer Scaffold Using a Rat Calvarial Defect Model

by Zhe Xing, Xiaofeng Jiang, Qingzong Si, Anna Finne-Wistrand, Bin Liu, Ying Xue and Kamal Mustafa

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1521; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091521 - 9 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3091

Abstract

It has been recently reported that, in a rat calvarial defect model, adding endothelial cells (ECs) to a culture of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) significantly enhanced bone formation. The aim of this study is to further investigate the ossification process of newly [...] Read more.

It has been recently reported that, in a rat calvarial defect model, adding endothelial cells (ECs) to a culture of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) significantly enhanced bone formation. The aim of this study is to further investigate the ossification process of newly formed osteoid and host response to the poly(L-lactide-co-1,5-dioxepan-2-one) [poly(LLA-co-DXO)] scaffolds based on previous research. Several different histological methods and a PCR Array were applied to evaluate newly formed osteoid after 8 weeks after implantation. Histological results showed osteoid formed in rat calvarial defects and endochondral ossification-related genes, such as dentin matrix acidic phosphoprotein 1 (Dmp1) and collagen type II, and alpha 1 (Col2a1) exhibited greater expression in the CO (implantation with BMSC/EC/Scaffold constructs) than the BMSC group (implantation with BMSC/Scaffold constructs) as demonstrated by PCR Array. It was important to notice that cartilage-like tissue formed in the pores of the copolymer scaffolds. In addition, multinucleated giant cells (MNGCs) were observed surrounding the scaffold fragments. It was concluded that the mechanism of ossification might be an endochondral ossification process when the copolymer scaffolds loaded with co-cultured ECs/BMSCs were implanted into rat calvarial defects. MNGCs were induced by the poly(LLA-co-DXO) scaffolds after implantation, and more specific in vivo studies are needed to gain a better understanding of host response to copolymer scaffolds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Bone Tissue Engineering)

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20 pages, 3618 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of Heat-Treated Wood Coating Performance Using Atmospheric Plasma Treatment and Design of Experiments Method

by Ender Hazir

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1520; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091520 - 9 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2569

Abstract

The aim of this work is to improve the heat-treated wood coating performance using experimental design methodology and air–plasma treatment. Firstly, two different heat treatment processes were applied to the wood samples. In the second stage of the study, air–atmospheric plasma treatment was [...] Read more.

The aim of this work is to improve the heat-treated wood coating performance using experimental design methodology and air–plasma treatment. Firstly, two different heat treatment processes were applied to the wood samples. In the second stage of the study, air–atmospheric plasma treatment was applied to heat-treated samples. These samples were coated with water-based varnish. Adhesion strength and colour change values of these samples before and after the artificial weathering test were measured. The design of experiments method was used to investigate the significant factors. The heat treatment process (212 °C—1 h and 212 °C—2 h) and atmospheric plasma treatment parameters (pressure, distance, and feed) were selected as independent variables, while adhesion strength and colour change were determined as dependent variables. The factors affecting the surface coating performance before and after the artificial weathering test were evaluated by analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Pareto plot. In addition, the factor levels that maximise the adhesion strength value and minimise the colour change were found using the multiobjective optimisation technique. According to the multiobjective optimisation method, results of treatment feed, working distance, and pressure of 60 mm/s, 7.69 mm, and 1 bar were considered as optimum plasma treatment conditions, respectively, for heat treatment process A. Corresponding values for the heat treatment process B were 60 mm/s, 10 mm, and 2 bar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability and Modification of Wood Surfaces)

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14 pages, 1729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Antimicrobial Activities of Thai Household Essential Oils in Chitosan Film

by Juthamas Tantala, Pornchai Rachtanapun and Chitsiri Rachtanapun

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1519; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091519 - 9 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3503

Abstract

Foodborne pathogens mostly contaminate ready-to-eat (RTE) meat products by post-process contamination and cause foodborne disease outbreaks. Preventing post-process contamination and controlling microbial growth during storage by packing the RTE meats with active antimicrobial film from chitosan combined with the synergism of Thai household [...] Read more.

Foodborne pathogens mostly contaminate ready-to-eat (RTE) meat products by post-process contamination and cause foodborne disease outbreaks. Preventing post-process contamination and controlling microbial growth during storage by packing the RTE meats with active antimicrobial film from chitosan combined with the synergism of Thai household essential oils was investigated. Here, we analyzed antimicrobial activity and mechanical properties of chitosan films incorporated with essential oil of fingerroot (EOF) and holy basil (EOH) based on their fractional inhibitory concentration and isobolograms. We showed that antimicrobial activities of chitosan film and chitosan films formulated with EOF:EOH displayed a dramatical reduction of Listeria monocytogenes Scott A concentration by 7 Log in 12 h. Chitosan film incorporated with EOF:EOH at ratio 0.04:0.04% v/v/w strongly retarded growth of total viable count of L. monocytogenes on vacuum-packed bologna slices during seven days of storage at 4 and 10 °C. Combined EOF and EOH added to chitosan films did not alter thickness, elongation (%) and colors (L*, a* and b*) of the chitosan film, but it increased water vapor transmission rate and decreased film tensile strength. Results suggested that chitosan film had strong antibacterial properties. Its effectiveness in inhibiting foodborne pathogenic bacteria in ready-to-eat meat products was enhanced by adding a combination of EOF:EOH. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Antibacterial Activity of Polymeric Materials)

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11 pages, 4395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermoelectric Generator Using Polyaniline-Coated Sb₂Se₃/β-Cu₂Se Flexible Thermoelectric Films

by Minsu Kim, Dabin Park and Jooheon Kim

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1518; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091518 - 9 May 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3920

Abstract

Herein, Sb₂Se₃ and β-Cu₂Se nanowires are synthesized via hydrothermal reaction and water evaporation-induced self-assembly methods, respectively. The successful syntheses and morphologies of the Sb₂Se₃ and β-Cu₂Se nanowires are confirmed via X-ray powder diffraction [...] Read more.

Herein, Sb₂Se₃ and β-Cu₂Se nanowires are synthesized via hydrothermal reaction and water evaporation-induced self-assembly methods, respectively. The successful syntheses and morphologies of the Sb₂Se₃ and β-Cu₂Se nanowires are confirmed via X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Raman spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and field emission transmission electron microscopy (FE-TEM). Sb₂Se₃ materials have low electrical conductivity which limits application to the thermoelectric generator. To improve the electrical conductivity of the Sb₂Se₃ and β-Cu₂Se nanowires, polyaniline (PANI) is coated onto the surface and confirmed via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), FE-TEM, and XPS analysis. After coating PANI, the electrical conductivities of Sb₂Se₃/β-Cu₂Se/PANI composites were increased. The thermoelectric performance of the flexible Sb₂Se₃/β-Cu₂Se/PANI films is then measured, and the 70%-Sb₂Se₃/30%-β-Cu₂Se/PANI film is shown to provide the highest power factor of 181.61 μW/m·K² at 473 K. In addition, a thermoelectric generator consisting of five legs of the 70%-Sb₂Se₃/30%-β-Cu₂Se/PANI film is constructed and shown to provide an open-circuit voltage of 7.9 mV and an output power of 80.1 nW at ΔT = 30 K. This study demonstrates that the combination of inorganic thermoelectric materials and flexible polymers can generate power in wearable or portable devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing-Structure-Properties Relationships in Polymers II)

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33 pages, 2142 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Critical Review of the Time-Dependent Performance of Polymeric Pipeline Coatings: Focus on Hydration of Epoxy-Based Coatings

by Hossein Zargarnezhad, Edouard Asselin, Dennis Wong and C. N. Catherine Lam

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1517; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091517 - 9 May 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5087

Abstract

The barrier performance of organic coatings is a direct function of mass transport and long-term stability of the polymeric structure. A predictive assessment of the protective coating cannot be conducted a priori of degradation effects on transport. Epoxy-based powder coatings are an attractive [...] Read more.

The barrier performance of organic coatings is a direct function of mass transport and long-term stability of the polymeric structure. A predictive assessment of the protective coating cannot be conducted a priori of degradation effects on transport. Epoxy-based powder coatings are an attractive class of coatings for pipelines and other structures because application processing times are low and residual stresses between polymer layers are reduced. However, water ingress into the polymeric network of these coatings is of particular interest due to associated competitive sorption and plasticization effects. This review examines common analytical techniques for identifying parameters involved in transport in wet environments and underscores the gaps in the literature for the evaluation of the long-term performance of such coating systems. Studies have shown that the extent of polymer hydration has a major impact on gas and ion permeability/selectivity. Thus, transport analyses based only on micropore filling (i.e., adsorption) by water molecules are inadequate. Combinatorial entropy of the glassy epoxy and water vapor mixture not only affects the mechanism of membrane plasticization, but also changes the sorption kinetics of gas permeation and causes a partial gas immobility in the system. However, diffusivity, defined as the product of a kinetic mobility parameter and a concentration-dependent thermodynamic parameter, can eventually become favorable for gas transport at elevated temperatures, meaning that increasing gas pressure can decrease selectivity of the membrane for gas permeation. On the other hand, reverse osmosis membranes have shown that salt permeation is sensitive to, among other variables, water content in the polymer and a fundamental attribute in ionic diffusion is the effective size of hydrated ions. In addition, external electron sources—e.g., cathodic protection potentials for pipeline structures—can alter the kinetics of this transport as the tendency of ions to dissociate increases due to electrostatic forces. Focusing primarily on epoxy-based powder coatings, this review demonstrates that service parameters such as humidity, temperature, and concentration of aggressive species can dynamically develop different transport mechanisms, each at the expense of others. Although multilayered coating systems decrease moisture ingress and the consequences of environmental exposure, this survey shows that demands for extreme operating conditions can pose new challenges for coating materials and sparse data on transport properties would limit analysis of the remaining life of the system. This knowledge gap impedes the prediction of the likelihood of coating and, consequently, infrastructure failures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Membranes: Fabrication, Characterization, and Application)

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14 pages, 6209 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dissipative Particle Dynamics Study on Interfacial Properties of Symmetric Ternary Polymeric Blends

by Dongmei Liu, Kai Gong, Ye Lin, Tao Liu, Yu Liu and Xiaozheng Duan

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1516; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091516 - 8 May 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2685

Abstract

We investigated the interfacial properties of symmetric ternary A_n/A_mB_m/B_n and A_n/A_m/2B_mA_m/2/B_n polymeric blends by means of dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulations. We systematically [...] Read more.

We investigated the interfacial properties of symmetric ternary A_n/A_mB_m/B_n and A_n/A_m/2B_mA_m/2/B_n polymeric blends by means of dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulations. We systematically analyzed the effects of composition, chain length, and concentration of the copolymers on the interfacial tensions, interfacial widths, and the structures of each polymer component in the blends. Our simulations show that: (i) the efficiency of the copolymers in reducing the interfacial tension is highly dependent on their compositions. The triblock copolymers are more effective in reducing the interfacial tension compared to that of the diblock copolymers at the same chain length and concentration; (ii) the interfacial tension of the blends increases with increases in the triblock copolymer chain length, which indicates that the triblock copolymers with a shorter chain length exhibit a better performance as the compatibilizers compared to that of their counterparts with longer chain lengths; and (iii) elevating the triblock copolymer concentration can promote copolymer enrichment at the center of the interface, which enlarges the width of the phase interfaces and reduces the interfacial tension. These findings illustrate the correlations between the efficiency of copolymer compatibilizers and their detailed molecular parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Simulations for Structure-Property Relationships in Novel Polymeric Materials)

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17 pages, 4540 KiB

Open AccessArticle

pH and Reduction Dual-Responsive Bi-Drugs Conjugated Dextran Assemblies for Combination Chemotherapy and In Vitro Evaluation

by Xiukun Xue, Yanjuan Wu, Xiao Xu, Ben Xu, Zhaowei Chen and Tianduo Li

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1515; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091515 - 8 May 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3348

Abstract

Polymeric prodrugs, synthesized by conjugating chemotherapeutic agents to functional polymers, have been extensively investigated and employed for safer and more efficacious cancer therapy. By rational design, a pH and reduction dual-sensitive dextran-di-drugs conjugate (oDex-g-Pt+DOX) was synthesized by the covalent conjugation of Pt (IV) [...] Read more.

Polymeric prodrugs, synthesized by conjugating chemotherapeutic agents to functional polymers, have been extensively investigated and employed for safer and more efficacious cancer therapy. By rational design, a pH and reduction dual-sensitive dextran-di-drugs conjugate (oDex-g-Pt+DOX) was synthesized by the covalent conjugation of Pt (IV) prodrug and doxorubicin (DOX) to an oxidized dextran (oDex). Pt (IV) prodrug and DOX were linked by the versatile efficient esterification reactions and Schiff base reaction, respectively. oDex-g-Pt+DOX could self-assemble into nanoparticles with an average diameter at around 180 nm. The acidic and reductive (GSH) environment induced degradation and drug release behavior of the resulting nanoparticles (oDex-g-Pt+DOX NPs) were systematically investigated by optical experiment, DLS analysis, TEM measurement, and in vitro drugs release experiment. Effective cellular uptake of the oDex-g-Pt+DOX NPs was identified by the human cervical carcinoma HeLa cells via confocal laser scanning microscopy. Furthermore, oDex-g-Pt+DOX NPs displayed a comparable antiproliferative activity than the simple combination of free cisplatin and DOX (Cis+DOX) as the extension of time. More importantly, oDex-g-Pt+DOX NPs exhibited remarkable reversal ability of tumor resistance compared to the cisplatin in cisplatin-resistant lung carcinoma A549 cells. Take advantage of the acidic and reductive microenvironment of tumors, this smart polymer-dual-drugs conjugate could serve as a promising and effective nanomedicine for combination chemotherapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymers for Biomedical Applications)

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12 pages, 3104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Evaluation of Rifampicin Loaded Alginate–Gelatin Biocomposite Microfibers

by Ameya Sharma, Vivek Puri, Pradeep Kumar, Inderbir Singh and Kampanart Huanbutta

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1514; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091514 - 8 May 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3040

Abstract

Various systematic phases such as inflammation, tissue proliferation, and phases of remodeling characterize the process of wound healing. The natural matrix system is suggested to maintain and escalate these phases, and for that, microfibers were fabricated employing naturally occurring polymers (biopolymers) such as [...] Read more.

Various systematic phases such as inflammation, tissue proliferation, and phases of remodeling characterize the process of wound healing. The natural matrix system is suggested to maintain and escalate these phases, and for that, microfibers were fabricated employing naturally occurring polymers (biopolymers) such as sodium alginate, gelatin and xanthan gum, and reinforcing material such as nanoclay was selected. The fabrication of fibers was executed with the aid of extrusion-gelation method. Rifampicin, an antibiotic, has been incorporated into a biopolymeric solution. RF1, RF2, RF3, RF4 and RF5 were coded as various formulation batches of microfibers. The microfibers were further characterized by different techniques such as SEM, DSC, XRD, and FTIR. Mechanical properties and physical evaluations such as entrapment efficiency, water uptake and in vitro release were also carried out to explain the comparative understanding of the formulation developed. The antimicrobial activity and whole blood clotting of fabricated fibers were additionally executed, hence they showed significant results, having excellent antimicrobial properties; they could be prominent carriers for wound healing applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymers for Tissue Engineering)

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21 pages, 9921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of a New Phosphonate-Based Sorbent and Characterization of Its Interactions with Lanthanum (III) and Terbium (III)

by Yuezhou Wei, Khalid A. M. Salih, Mohammed F. Hamza, Toyohisa Fujita, Enrique Rodríguez-Castellón and Eric Guibal

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1513; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091513 - 8 May 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3238

Abstract

High-tech applications require increasing amounts of rare earth elements (REE). Their recovery from low-grade minerals and their recycling from secondary sources (as waste materials) are of critical importance. There is increasing attention paid to the development of new sorbents for REE recovery from [...] Read more.

High-tech applications require increasing amounts of rare earth elements (REE). Their recovery from low-grade minerals and their recycling from secondary sources (as waste materials) are of critical importance. There is increasing attention paid to the development of new sorbents for REE recovery from dilute solutions. A new generation of composite sorbents based on brown algal biomass (alginate) and polyethylenimine (PEI) was recently developed (A_LPEI hydrogel beads). The phosphorylation of the beads strongly improves the affinity of the sorbents for REEs (such as La and Tb): by 4.5 to 6.9 times compared with raw beads. The synthesis procedure (epicholorhydrin-activation, phosphorylation and de-esterification) is investigated by XPS and FTIR for characterizing the grafting route but also for interpreting the binding mechanism (contribution of N-bearing from PEI, O-bearing from alginate and P-bearing groups). Metal ions can be readily eluted using an acidic calcium chloride solution, which regenerates the sorbent: the FTIR spectra are hardly changed after five successive cycles of sorption and desorption. The materials are also characterized by elemental, textural and thermogravimetric analyses. The phosphorylation of A_LPEI beads by this new method opens promising perspectives for the recovery of these strategic metals from mild acid solutions (i.e., pH ~ 4). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Alginate-Based Composites)

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15 pages, 5438 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular-Level Investigation of Cycloaliphatic Epoxidised Ionic Liquids as a New Generation of Monomers for Versatile Poly(Ionic Liquids)

by Baris Demir, Gabriel Perli, Kit-Ying Chan, Jannick Duchet-Rumeau and Sébastien Livi

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1512; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091512 - 7 May 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2640

Abstract

Recently, a new generation of polymerised ionic liquids with high thermal stability and good mechanical performances has been designed through novel and versatile cycloaliphatic epoxy-functionalised ionic liquids (CEILs). From these first promising results and unexplored chemical structures in terms of final properties of [...] Read more.

Recently, a new generation of polymerised ionic liquids with high thermal stability and good mechanical performances has been designed through novel and versatile cycloaliphatic epoxy-functionalised ionic liquids (CEILs). From these first promising results and unexplored chemical structures in terms of final properties of the PILs, a computational approach based on molecular dynamics simulations has been developed to generate polymer models and predict the thermo–mechanical properties (e.g., glass transition temperature and Young’s modulus) of experimentally investigated CEILs for producing multi-functional polymer materials. Here, a completely reproducible and reliable computational protocol is provided to design, test and tune poly(ionic liquids) based on epoxidised ionic liquid monomers for future multi-functional thermoset polymers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Simulations for Structure-Property Relationships in Novel Polymeric Materials)

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15 pages, 7003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis and Characterization of Block Copolymers of Poly(silylene diethynylbenzen) and Poly(silylene dipropargyl aryl ether)

by Man Gao, Chengyuan Shang, Jixian Li, Gang Han, Junkun Tang, Qiaolong Yuan and Farong Huang

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1511; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091511 - 7 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2402

Abstract

Poly(silylene diethynylbenzene)–b–poly(silylene dipropargyloxy diphenyl propane) copolymer (ABA-A), poly(silylene diethynylbenzene)–b–poly(silylene dipropargyloxy diphenyl ether) copolymer (ABA-O), and a contrast poly(silylene diethynylbenzene) with equivalent polymerization degree were synthesized through Grignard reactions. The structures and properties of the copolymers were investigated via hydrogen [...] Read more.

Poly(silylene diethynylbenzene)–b–poly(silylene dipropargyloxy diphenyl propane) copolymer (ABA-A), poly(silylene diethynylbenzene)–b–poly(silylene dipropargyloxy diphenyl ether) copolymer (ABA-O), and a contrast poly(silylene diethynylbenzene) with equivalent polymerization degree were synthesized through Grignard reactions. The structures and properties of the copolymers were investigated via hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Haake torque rheometer, differential scanning calorimetry, dynamic mechanical analysis, thermogravimetric analysis and mechanical tests. The results show that the block copolymers possess comprehensive properties, especially good processability and good mechanical properties. The processing windows of these copolymers are wider than 58 °C. The flexural strength of the cured ABA-A copolymer reaches as high as 40.2 MPa. The degradation temperatures at 5% weight loss (T_d5) of the cured copolymers in nitrogen are all above 560 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Chemistry)

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11 pages, 2555 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rheometer Evidences for the Co-Curing Effect of a Bismaleimide in Conjunction with the Accelerated Sulfur on Natural Rubber/Chloroprene Rubber Blends

by Marek Pöschl, Shibulal Gopi Sathi, Radek Stoček and Ondřej Kratina

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1510; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091510 - 7 May 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4541

Abstract

The rheometer curing curves of neat natural rubber (NR) and neat chloroprene rubber (CR) with maleide F (MF) exhibit considerable crosslinking torque at 180 °C. This indicates that MF can crosslink both these rubbers via Alder-ene reactions. Based on this knowledge, MF has [...] Read more.

The rheometer curing curves of neat natural rubber (NR) and neat chloroprene rubber (CR) with maleide F (MF) exhibit considerable crosslinking torque at 180 °C. This indicates that MF can crosslink both these rubbers via Alder-ene reactions. Based on this knowledge, MF has been introduced as a co-crosslinking agent for a 50/50 blend of NR and CR in conjunction with accelerated sulfur. The delta (Δ) torque obtained from the curing curves of a blend with the addition of 1 phr MF was around 62% higher than those without MF. As the content of MF increased to 3 phr, the Δ torque was further raised to 236%. Moreover, the mechanical properties, particularly the tensile strength of the blend with the addition of 1 phr MF in conjunction with the accelerated sulfur, was around 201% higher than the blend without MF. The overall tensile properties of the blends cured with MF were almost retained even after ageing the samples at 70 °C for 72 h. This significant improvement in the curing torque and the tensile properties of the blends indicates that MF can co-crosslink between NR and CR via the Diels–Alder reaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Testing of Soft Polymer Materials)

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12 pages, 27753 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of the Presence of Choline Chloride on the Classical Mechanism of “Gelatinization” of Starch

by Doina Crucean, Bruno Pontoire, Gervaise Debucquet, Alain Le-Bail and Patricia Le-Bail

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1509; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091509 - 7 May 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2643

Abstract

The aim of this research is to contribute to a better understanding the destructuration of three native starches and a wheat flour in mixtures of water and choline chloride. Model systems have thus been defined to allow a better approach to hydrothermic transformations [...] Read more.

The aim of this research is to contribute to a better understanding the destructuration of three native starches and a wheat flour in mixtures of water and choline chloride. Model systems have thus been defined to allow a better approach to hydrothermic transformations related to the interactions between choline chloride and starch. We have observed that choline chloride has an impact on the gelatinization of starch which corresponds to the stabilizing salts phenomenon. The depolymerization and dissolution of the starch have also been demonstrated and can there dominate the gelatinization. However, the results obtained in X-ray diffraction by heating cell have shown that the exotherm which appeared was not only related to the depolymerization of the starch, but that a stage of crystalline rearrangement of the starch coexisted with this phenomenon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymers from Natural Resources)

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18 pages, 6412 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Structural Performance of Recycled Aggregate Concrete Columns with Glass Fiber-Reinforced Composite Bars and Hoops

by Ali Raza, Ahmad Rashedi, Umer Rafique, Nazia Hossain, Banjo Akinyemi and Jesuarockiam Naveen

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1508; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091508 - 7 May 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2861

Abstract

Structural members comprising geopolymer recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) reinforced with glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars have not been investigated appropriately for axial compressive loading cases. The present study addresses this knowledge gap by evaluating the structural efficiency of GFRP-reinforced geopolymer recycled aggregate concrete [...] Read more.

Structural members comprising geopolymer recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) reinforced with glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars have not been investigated appropriately for axial compressive loading cases. The present study addresses this knowledge gap by evaluating the structural efficiency of GFRP-reinforced geopolymer recycled aggregate concrete (GGRAC)-based members subjected to axial compressive loading. A total of nine compressive members (250 mm in cross-section and 1150 mm in height) were constructed to examine the effect of the number of longitudinal GFRP bars and the vertical spacing of transverse GFRP hoops/ties. The experimental results portrayed that the ductility of GGRAC compressive members improved with the reduction in the pitch of GFRP hoops. The axial load-carrying capacity (LCC) of GGRAC compressive members increased by increasing the number of GFRP bars up to eight (corresponding to a reinforcement ratio of 2.11%) while it decreased by using ten longitudinal GFRP bars (corresponding to a reinforcement ratio of 2.65%). Additionally, an empirical model was suggested to predict the axial LCC of GGRAC compressive members based on a large amount of experimental data of similar members. The experimental results and related theoretical predictions substantially prove the applicability and accuracy of the proposed model. The proposed column represents a feasible structural member in terms of material availability and environmental sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites: Processing and Properties)

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17 pages, 20458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Deterpenated Origanum majorana L. Essential Oil on the Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Chitosan/β-Chitin Nanofibers Nanocomposite Films

by Rut Fernández-Marín, Muhammad Mujtaba, Demet Cansaran-Duman, Ghada Ben Salha, Mª Ángeles Andrés Sánchez, Jalel Labidi and Susana C. M. Fernandes

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1507; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091507 - 7 May 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4248

Abstract

Herein, the effect of three deterpenated fractions from Origanum majorana L. essential oil on the physicochemical, mechanical and biological properties of chitosan/β-chitin nanofibers-based nanocomposite films were investigated. In general, the incorporation of Origanum majorana L. original essential oil or its deterpenated fractions increases [...] Read more.

Herein, the effect of three deterpenated fractions from Origanum majorana L. essential oil on the physicochemical, mechanical and biological properties of chitosan/β-chitin nanofibers-based nanocomposite films were investigated. In general, the incorporation of Origanum majorana L. original essential oil or its deterpenated fractions increases the opacity of the nanocomposite films and gives them a yellowish color. The water solubility decreases from 58% for chitosan/β-chitin nanofibers nanocomposite film to around 32% for the nanocomposite films modified with original essential oil or its deterpenated fractions. Regarding the thermal stability, no major changes were observed, and the mechanical properties decreased. Interestingly, data show differences on the biological properties of the materials depending on the incorporated deterpenated fraction of Origanum majorana L. essential oil. The nanocomposite films prepared with the deterpenated fractions with a high concentration of oxygenated terpene derivatives show the best antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger, with fungal growth inhibition of around 85.90%. Nonetheless, the only nanocomposite film that does not present cytotoxicity on the viability of L929 fibroblast cells after 48 and 72 h is the one prepared with the fraction presenting the higher terpenic hydrocarbon content (87.92%). These results suggest that the composition of the deterpenated fraction plays an important role in determining the biological properties of the nanocomposite films. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances on Biopolymers from Marine Biomass: A Valorization Perspective)

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19 pages, 7640 KiB

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Films Based on Mater-Bi^® Compatibilized with Pine Resin Derivatives: Optical, Barrier, and Disintegration Properties

by Miguel Aldas, Cristina Pavon, José Miguel Ferri, Marina Patricia Arrieta and Juan López-Martínez

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1506; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091506 - 7 May 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3662

Abstract

Mater-Bi^® NF866 (MB) was blended with gum rosin and two pentaerythritol esters of gum rosin (labeled as LF and UT), as additives, to produce biobased and compostable films for food packaging or agricultural mulch films. The films were prepared by blending MB [...] Read more.

Mater-Bi^® NF866 (MB) was blended with gum rosin and two pentaerythritol esters of gum rosin (labeled as LF and UT), as additives, to produce biobased and compostable films for food packaging or agricultural mulch films. The films were prepared by blending MB with 5, 10, and 15 wt.% of each additive. The obtained films were characterized by optical, colorimetric, wettability, and oxygen barrier properties. Moreover, the additives and the MB-based films were disintegrated under composting conditions and the effect of each additive on the biodegradation rate was studied. All films were homogeneous and optically transparent. The color of the films tended to yellow tones due to the addition of pine resin derivatives. All the formulated films presented a complete UV-transmittance blocking effect in the UVA and UVB region, and those with 5 wt.% of pine resin derivatives increased the MB hydrophobicity. Low amounts of resins tend to maintain the oxygen transmission rate (OTR) values of the neat MB, due to its good solubilizing and compatibilizing effects. The disintegration under composting conditions test revealed that gum rosin completely disintegrates in about 90 days, while UT degrades 80% and LF degrades 5%, over 180 days of incubation. As expected, the same tendency was obtained for the disintegration of the studied films, although Mater-Bi^® reach 28% of disintegrability over the 180 days of the composting test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Modification of Bio-Based Polymers, Blends and Composites)

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10 pages, 2981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Focused Patterning of Electrospun Nanofibers Using a Dielectric Guide Structure

by Byeongjun Lee, Younghyeon Song, Chan Park, Jungmin Kim, Jeongbeom Kang, Haran Lee, Jongwon Yoon and Seongjin Cho

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1505; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091505 - 7 May 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2612

Abstract

The patterning of electrospun fibers is a key technology applicable to various fields. This study reports a novel focused patterning method for electrospun nanofibers that uses a cylindrical dielectric guide. The finite elements method (FEM) was used to analyze the electric field focusing [...] Read more.

The patterning of electrospun fibers is a key technology applicable to various fields. This study reports a novel focused patterning method for electrospun nanofibers that uses a cylindrical dielectric guide. The finite elements method (FEM) was used to analyze the electric field focusing phenomenon and ground its explanation in established theory. The horizontal and vertical electric field strengths in the simulation are shown to be key factors in determining the spatial distribution of nanofibers. The experimental results demonstrate a relationship between the size of the cylindrical dielectric guide and that of the electrospun area accumulated in the collector. By concentrating the electric field, we were able to fabricate a pattern of less than 6 mm. The demonstration of continuous line and square patterning shows that the electrospun area can be well controlled. This novel patterning method can be used in a variety of applications, such as sensors, biomedical devices, batteries, and composites. Full article

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22 pages, 2932 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Production of Cyclic Anhydride-Modified Starches

by Ryan C. Amos, Julien Mesnager, Michael Kuska and Mario Gauthier

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1504; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091504 - 7 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3510

Abstract

Modified starches offer a biodegradable, readily available, and cost-effective alternative to petroleum-based products. The reaction of alkenylsuccinic anhydrides (ASAs), in particular, is an efficient method to produce amphiphilic starches with numerous applications in different areas. While ASAs are typically derived from petroleum sources, [...] Read more.

Modified starches offer a biodegradable, readily available, and cost-effective alternative to petroleum-based products. The reaction of alkenylsuccinic anhydrides (ASAs), in particular, is an efficient method to produce amphiphilic starches with numerous applications in different areas. While ASAs are typically derived from petroleum sources, maleated soybean oil can also be used in an effort to produce materials from renewable sources. The reaction of gelatinized waxy maize starch with octenylsuccinic anhydride (OSA), dodecenylsuccinic anhydride (DDSA), a maleated fatty acid (TENAX 2010), phthalic anhydride (PA), 1,2,4-benzenetricarboxylic acid anhydride (trimellitic anhydride, TMA), and three maleated soybean oil samples, was investigated under different conditions. To minimize the reaction time and the amount of water required, the outcome of the esterification reaction was compared for starch dispersions in benchtop dispersed reactions, for starch melts in a heated torque rheometer, and for reactive extrusion in a pilot plant scale twin-screw extruder. The extent of reaction was quantified by ¹H NMR analysis, and changes in molecular weight and diameter were monitored by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) analysis. The outcome of the reactions varied markedly in terms of reaction efficiency (RE), molecular weight distribution, and average hydrodynamic diameter, for the products derived from the different maleated reagents used, as well as for the different reaction protocols. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical and Physical Properties of Polysaccharides and Their Derivatives)

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