Robotics

18 pages, 1984 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Semi-Autonomous Behaviour Tree-Based Framework for Sorting Electric Vehicle Batteries Components

by Alireza Rastegarpanah, Hector Cruz Gonzalez and Rustam Stolkin

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020082 - 17 Jun 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6406

The process of recycling electric vehicle (EV) batteries currently represents a significant challenge to the waste management automation industry. One example of it is the necessity of removing and sorting dismantled components from EV battery pack. This paper proposes a novel framework to [...] Read more.

The process of recycling electric vehicle (EV) batteries currently represents a significant challenge to the waste management automation industry. One example of it is the necessity of removing and sorting dismantled components from EV battery pack. This paper proposes a novel framework to semi-automate the process of removing and sorting different objects from an EV battery pack using a mobile manipulator. The work exploits the Behaviour Trees model for cognitive task execution and monitoring, which links different robot capabilities such as navigation, object tracking and motion planning in a modular fashion. The framework was tested in simulation, in both static and dynamic environments, and it was evaluated based on task time and the number of objects that the robot successfully placed in the respective containers. Results suggested that the robot’s success rate in accomplishing the task of sorting the battery components was 95% and 82% in static and dynamic environments, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Industrial Robots and Automation)

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21 pages, 2403 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

On the Modelling of Tethered Mobile Robots as Redundant Manipulators

by Matteo Caruso, Paolo Gallina and Stefano Seriani

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020081 - 12 Jun 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5250

Abstract

Controlling a chain of tethered mobile robots (TMRs) can be a challenging task. This kind of system can be considered kinematically as an open-chain robotic arm where the mobile robots are considered as a revolute joint and the tether is considered as a [...] Read more.

Controlling a chain of tethered mobile robots (TMRs) can be a challenging task. This kind of system can be considered kinematically as an open-chain robotic arm where the mobile robots are considered as a revolute joint and the tether is considered as a variable length link, using a prismatic joint. Thus, the TMRs problem is decoupled into two parallel problems: the equivalent robotic manipulator control and the tether shape computation. Kinematic redundancy is exploited in order to coordinate the motion of all mobile robots forming the chain, expressing the constraints acting on the mobile robots as secondary tasks for the equivalent robotic arm. Implementation in the Gazebo simulation environment shows that the methodology is capable of controlling the chain of TMRs in cluttered environments. Full article

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20 pages, 6282 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Method for Health Indicator Evaluation for Condition Monitoring of Industrial Robot Gears

by Corbinian Nentwich and Gunther Reinhart

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020080 - 9 Jun 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5726

Abstract

Condition monitoring of industrial robots has the potential to decrease downtimes in highly automated production systems. In this context, we propose a new method to evaluate health indicators for this application and suggest a new health indicator (HI) based on vibration data measurements, [...] Read more.

Condition monitoring of industrial robots has the potential to decrease downtimes in highly automated production systems. In this context, we propose a new method to evaluate health indicators for this application and suggest a new health indicator (HI) based on vibration data measurements, Short-time Fourier transform and Z-scores. By executing the method, we find that the proposed health indicator can detect varying faults better, has lower temperature sensitivity and works better in instationary velocity regimes compared to several state-of-the-art HIs. A discussion of the validity of the results concludes our contribution. Full article

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13 pages, 2689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Operation of UAV Propulsion Motors in the Presence of High External Magnetic Fields

by Mohammad Heggo, Anees Mohammed, Juan Melecio, Khristopher Kabbabe, Paul Tuohy, Simon Watson and Sinisa Durovic

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020079 - 9 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4398

Abstract

The operation and maintenance of converter stations (also known as valve halls) in high voltage DC (HVDC) grids is a key element in long-term, reliable and stable operation, especially in inherently adverse offshore environments. However, the nature of the electromagnetic field environment inside [...] Read more.

The operation and maintenance of converter stations (also known as valve halls) in high voltage DC (HVDC) grids is a key element in long-term, reliable and stable operation, especially in inherently adverse offshore environments. However, the nature of the electromagnetic field environment inside HVDC valve halls presents a challenge for the operation of traditional off-shelf inspection robots. In this paper, the impact of the external magnetic field on the operation of an inspection UAV’s propulsion motors is assessed. An experimental method is proposed to simulate the maximum magnetic field interference to off-shelf UAV motors, which can be used to identify their suitability for use in HVDC valve halls inspection robots. The paper’s experimental results compare the performance of direct torque control and field-oriented control algorithms for propulsion motors under the influence of external magnetic flux. Under the influence of a 177 mT external magnetic field, it was found that using direct torque control, the motor rotational velocity steady-state error was up to 55%. With field-oriented control, the steady-state error was 0%, however the peak-to-peak current draw increased by up to 567%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Robots for Hazardous Environments in the UK)

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15 pages, 10947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Robotic Exploration of an Unknown Nuclear Environment Using Radiation Informed Autonomous Navigation

by Keir Groves, Emili Hernandez, Andrew West, Thomas Wright and Barry Lennox

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020078 - 24 May 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 9298

Abstract

This paper describes a novel autonomous ground vehicle that is designed for exploring unknown environments which contain sources of ionising radiation, such as might be found in a nuclear disaster site or a legacy nuclear facility. While exploring the environment, it is important [...] Read more.

This paper describes a novel autonomous ground vehicle that is designed for exploring unknown environments which contain sources of ionising radiation, such as might be found in a nuclear disaster site or a legacy nuclear facility. While exploring the environment, it is important that the robot avoids radiation hot spots to minimise breakdowns. Broken down robots present a real problem: they not only cause the mission to fail but they can block access routes for future missions. Until now, such robots have had no autonomous gamma radiation avoidance capabilities. New software algorithms are presented that allow radiation measurements to be converted into a format in which they can be integrated into the robot’s navigation system so that it can actively avoid receiving a high radiation dose during a mission. An unmanned ground vehicle was fitted with a gamma radiation detector and an autonomous navigation package that included the new radiation avoidance software. The full system was evaluated experimentally in a complex semi-structured environment that contained two radiation sources. In the experiment, the robot successfully identified both sources and avoided areas that were found to have high levels of radiation while navigating between user defined waypoints. This advancement in the state-of-the-art has the potential to deliver real benefit to the nuclear industry, in terms of both increased chance of mission success and reduction of the reliance on human operatives to perform tasks in dangerous radiation environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Robots for Hazardous Environments in the UK)

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13 pages, 53887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trajectory Extrapolation for Manual Robot Remote Welding

by Lucas Christoph Ebel, Jochen Maaß, Patrick Zuther and Shahram Sheikhi

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020077 - 23 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4641

Abstract

This article describes an algorithm for the online extrapolation of hand-motion during remote welding. The aim is to overcome the spatial limitations of the human welder’s arms in order to cover a larger workspace with a continuous weld seam and to substantially relieve [...] Read more.

This article describes an algorithm for the online extrapolation of hand-motion during remote welding. The aim is to overcome the spatial limitations of the human welder’s arms in order to cover a larger workspace with a continuous weld seam and to substantially relieve the welder from strain and fatigue. Depending on the sampled hand-motion data, an extrapolation of the given motion patterns is achieved by decomposing the input signals in a linear direction and a periodic motion component. An approach to efficiently determine the periodicity using a sampled autocorrelation function and the subsequent application of parameter identification using a spline function are presented in this paper. The proposed approach is able to resemble all practically relevant motion patterns and has been validated successfully on a remote welding system with limited input space and audio-visual feedback by an experienced welder. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Motion Planning and Control for Robotics)

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13 pages, 3544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonlinear Robust Control of a New Reconfigurable Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

by Saddam Hocine Derrouaoui, Yasser Bouzid and Mohamed Guiatni

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020076 - 23 May 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5957

Abstract

In this paper, a nonlinear robust Fast Terminal Sliding Mode Controller (FTSMC) is designed to control and stabilize a new reconfigurable Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) in the presence of uncertain and variable parameters. The studied UAV is an over-actuated system due the number [...] Read more.

In this paper, a nonlinear robust Fast Terminal Sliding Mode Controller (FTSMC) is designed to control and stabilize a new reconfigurable Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) in the presence of uncertain and variable parameters. The studied UAV is an over-actuated system due the number of actuator control inputs. It can modify the length and the angles between its four arms in different ways, which result an important variation in its Center of Gravity (CoG), inertia, and control matrix. The proposed FTSMC offers many advantages such as, reaching the desired states in a finite-time unlike the conventional sliding mode, robustness vis-a-vis uncertain and unknown parameters, fast convergence towards the sliding surface, high accuracy and reducing the chattering phenomena. Furthermore, the closed-loop stability of the this UAV is ensured by the Lyapunov theory. The eight actuators used to rotate and extend the UAV arms are controlled by simple Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controllers. Lastly, the robustness and efficiency of the proposed controller are evaluated through a flight scenario, where the UAV geometric parameters are variable over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Navigation and Control of UAVs)

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23 pages, 4909 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Coordination of Multiple Robotic Vehicles in Obstacle-Cluttered Environments

by Charalampos P. Bechlioulis, Panagiotis Vlantis and Kostas J. Kyriakopoulos

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020075 - 22 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4622

Abstract

In this work, we consider the motion control problem for a platoon of unicycle robots operating within an obstacle-cluttered workspace. Each robot is equipped with a proximity sensor that allows it to perceive nearby obstacles as well as a camera to obtain its [...] Read more.

In this work, we consider the motion control problem for a platoon of unicycle robots operating within an obstacle-cluttered workspace. Each robot is equipped with a proximity sensor that allows it to perceive nearby obstacles as well as a camera to obtain its relative position with respect to its preceding robot. Additionally, no robot other than the leader of the team is able to localize itself within the workspace and no centralized communication network exists, i.e., explicit information exchange between the agents is unavailable. To tackle this problem, we adopt a leader–follower architecture and propose a novel, decentralized control law for each robot-follower, based on the Prescribed Performance Control method, which guarantees collision-free tracking and visual connectivity maintenance by ensuring that each follower maintains its predecessor within its camera field of view while keeping static obstacles out of the line of sight for all time. Finally, we verify the efficacy of the proposed control scheme through extensive simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Robot Systems: From Theoretical Contributions to Practical Applications)

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14 pages, 4135 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Design of PEIS: A Low-Cost Pipe Inspector Robot

by Mario Mauro Salvatore, Alessio Galloro, Leonardo Muzzi, Giovanni Pullano, Péter Odry and Giuseppe Carbone

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020074 - 19 May 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5773

Abstract

This paper outlines the design of a novel mechatronic system for semi-automatic inspection and white-water in-pipe obstruction removals without the need for destructive methods or specialized manpower. The device is characterized by a lightweight structure and high transportability. It is composed by a [...] Read more.

This paper outlines the design of a novel mechatronic system for semi-automatic inspection and white-water in-pipe obstruction removals without the need for destructive methods or specialized manpower. The device is characterized by a lightweight structure and high transportability. It is composed by a front, a rear and a central module that realize the worm-like locomotion of the robot with a specifically designed driving mechanism for the straight motion of the robot along the pipeline. The proposed mechatronic system is easily adaptable to pipes of various sizes. Each module is equipped with a motor that actuates three slider-crank-based mechanisms. The central module incorporates a length-varying mechanism that allows forward and backward locomotion. The device is equipped with specific low-cost sensors that allow an operator to monitor the device and locate an obstruction in real time. The movement of the device can be automatic or controlled manually by using a specific user-friendly control board and a laptop. Preliminary laboratory tests are reported to demonstrate the engineering feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed design, which is currently under patenting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Italian Robotics II)

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19 pages, 7076 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Collision Avoidance Method Based on Deep Reinforcement Learning

by Shumin Feng, Bijo Sebastian and Pinhas Ben-Tzvi

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020073 - 19 May 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8476

Abstract

This paper set out to investigate the usefulness of solving collision avoidance problems with the help of deep reinforcement learning in an unknown environment, especially in compact spaces, such as a narrow corridor. This research aims to determine whether a deep reinforcement learning-based [...] Read more.

This paper set out to investigate the usefulness of solving collision avoidance problems with the help of deep reinforcement learning in an unknown environment, especially in compact spaces, such as a narrow corridor. This research aims to determine whether a deep reinforcement learning-based collision avoidance method is superior to the traditional methods, such as potential field-based methods and dynamic window approach. Besides, the proposed obstacle avoidance method was developed as one of the capabilities to enable each robot in a novel robotic system, namely the Self-reconfigurable and Transformable Omni-Directional Robotic Modules (STORM), to navigate intelligently and safely in an unknown environment. A well-conceived hardware and software architecture with features that enable further expansion and parallel development designed for the ongoing STORM projects is also presented in this work. A virtual STORM module with skid-steer kinematics was simulated in Gazebo to reduce the gap between the simulations and the real-world implementations. Moreover, comparisons among multiple training runs of the neural networks with different parameters related to balance the exploitation and exploration during the training process, as well as tests and experiments conducted in both simulation and real-world, are presented in detail. Directions for future research are also provided in the paper. Full article

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16 pages, 545 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A* Based Routing and Scheduling Modules for Multiple AGVs in an Industrial Scenario

by Joana Santos, Paulo M. Rebelo, Luis F. Rocha, Pedro Costa and Germano Veiga

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020072 - 19 May 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6617

Abstract

A multi-AGV based logistic system is typically associated with two fundamental problems, critical for its overall performance: the AGV’s route planning for collision and deadlock avoidance; and the task scheduling to determine which vehicle should transport which load. Several heuristic functions can be [...] Read more.

A multi-AGV based logistic system is typically associated with two fundamental problems, critical for its overall performance: the AGV’s route planning for collision and deadlock avoidance; and the task scheduling to determine which vehicle should transport which load. Several heuristic functions can be used according to the application. This paper proposes a time-based algorithm to dynamically control a fleet of Autonomous Guided Vehicles (AGVs) in an automatic warehouse scenario. Our approach includes a routing algorithm based on the A* heuristic search (TEA*—Time Enhanced A*) to generate free-collisions paths and a scheduling module to improve the results of the routing algorithm. These modules work cooperatively to provide an efficient task execution time considering as basis the routing algorithm information. Simulation experiments are presented using a typical industrial layout for 10 and 20 AGVs. Moreover, a comparison with an alternative approach from the state-of-the-art is also presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Industrial Robotics and Intelligent Systems)

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20 pages, 4675 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multirobot Confidence and Behavior Modeling: An Evaluation of Semiautonomous Task Performance and Efficiency

by Nathan Lucas and Abhilash Pandya

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020071 - 17 May 2021

Viewed by 4603

Abstract

There is considerable interest in multirobot systems capable of performing spatially distributed, hazardous, and complex tasks as a team leveraging the unique abilities of humans and automated machines working alongside each other. The limitations of human perception and cognition affect operators’ ability to [...] Read more.

There is considerable interest in multirobot systems capable of performing spatially distributed, hazardous, and complex tasks as a team leveraging the unique abilities of humans and automated machines working alongside each other. The limitations of human perception and cognition affect operators’ ability to integrate information from multiple mobile robots, switch between their spatial frames of reference, and divide attention among many sensory inputs and command outputs. Automation is necessary to help the operator manage increasing demands as the number of robots (and humans) scales up. However, more automation does not necessarily equate to better performance. A generalized robot confidence model was developed, which transforms key operator attention indicators to a robot confidence value for each robot to enable the robots’ adaptive behaviors. This model was implemented in a multirobot test platform with the operator commanding robot trajectories using a computer mouse and an eye tracker providing gaze data used to estimate dynamic operator attention. The human-attention-based robot confidence model dynamically adapted the behavior of individual robots in response to operator attention. The model was successfully evaluated to reveal evidence linking average robot confidence to multirobot search task performance and efficiency. The contributions of this work provide essential steps toward effective human operation of multiple unmanned vehicles to perform spatially distributed and hazardous tasks in complex environments for space exploration, defense, homeland security, search and rescue, and other real-world applications. Full article

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26 pages, 2413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Modeling of Planar Multi-Link Flexible Manipulators

by Dipendra Subedi, Ilya Tyapin and Geir Hovland

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020070 - 11 May 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6749

Abstract

A closed-form dynamic model of the planar multi-link flexible manipulator is presented. The assumed modes method is used with the Lagrangian formulation to obtain the dynamic equations of motion. Explicit equations of motion are derived for a three-link case assuming two modes of [...] Read more.

A closed-form dynamic model of the planar multi-link flexible manipulator is presented. The assumed modes method is used with the Lagrangian formulation to obtain the dynamic equations of motion. Explicit equations of motion are derived for a three-link case assuming two modes of vibration for each link. The eigenvalue problem associated with the mass boundary conditions, which changes with the robot configuration and payload, is discussed. The time-domain simulation results and frequency-domain analysis of the dynamic model are presented to show the validity of the theoretical derivation. Full article

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21 pages, 7755 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Behaviour of Large Strain Capacitive Sensor with Barium Titanate Ecoflex Composite Used to Detect Human Motion

by Eshwar Reddy Cholleti, Jonathan Stringer, Piaras Kelly, Chris Bowen and Kean Aw

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020069 - 4 May 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5665

Abstract

In this paper, the effect of strain rate on the output signal of highly stretchable interdigitated capacitive (IDC) strain sensors is studied. IDC sensors fabricated with pristine Ecoflex and a composite based on 40 wt% of 200 nm barium titanate (BTO) dispersed in [...] Read more.

In this paper, the effect of strain rate on the output signal of highly stretchable interdigitated capacitive (IDC) strain sensors is studied. IDC sensors fabricated with pristine Ecoflex and a composite based on 40 wt% of 200 nm barium titanate (BTO) dispersed in a silicone elastomer (Ecoflex 00-30^TM) were subjected to 1000 stretch and relax cycles to study the effect of dynamic loading conditions on the output signal of the IDC sensor. It was observed that the strain rate has no effect on the output signal of IDC sensor. To study the non-linear elastic behaviour of pristine Ecoflex and composites based on 10, 20, 30, 40 wt% of 200 nm BTO filler dispersed in a silicone elastomer, we conducted uniaxial tensile testing to failure at strain rates of ~5, ~50, and ~500 mm/min. An Ogden second-order model was used to fit the uniaxial tensile test data to understand the non-linearity in the stress-strain responses of BTO-Ecoflex composite at different strain rates. The decrease in Ogden parameters (α₁ and α₂) indicates the decrease in non-linearity of the stress-strain response of the composite with an increase in filler loading. Scanning electronic microscopy analysis was performed on the cryo-fractured pristine Ecoflex and 10, 20, 30, and 40 wt% of BTO-Ecoflex composites, where it was found that 200 nm BTO is more uniformly distributed in Ecoflex at a higher filler loading levels (40 wt% 200 nm BTO). Therefore, an IDC sensor was fabricated based on a 40 wt% 200 nm BTO-Ecoflex composite and mounted on an elastic elbow sleeve with supporting electronics, and successfully functioned as a reliable and robust flexible sensor, demonstrating an application to measure the bending angle of an elbow at slow and fast movement of the arm. A linear relationship with respect to the elbow bending angle was observed between the IDC sensor output signal under a 50% strain and the deflection of the elbow of hand indicating its potential as a stretchable, flexible, and wearable sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensors and Control in Robotics)

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18 pages, 6696 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GazeEMD: Detecting Visual Intention in Gaze-Based Human-Robot Interaction

by Lei Shi, Cosmin Copot and Steve Vanlanduit

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020068 - 30 Apr 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5440

Abstract

In gaze-based Human-Robot Interaction (HRI), it is important to determine human visual intention for interacting with robots. One typical HRI interaction scenario is that a human selects an object by gaze and a robotic manipulator will pick up the object. In this work, [...] Read more.

In gaze-based Human-Robot Interaction (HRI), it is important to determine human visual intention for interacting with robots. One typical HRI interaction scenario is that a human selects an object by gaze and a robotic manipulator will pick up the object. In this work, we propose an approach, GazeEMD, that can be used to detect whether a human is looking at an object for HRI application. We use Earth Mover’s Distance (EMD) to measure the similarity between the hypothetical gazes at objects and the actual gazes. Then, the similarity score is used to determine if the human visual intention is on the object. We compare our approach with a fixation-based method and HitScan with a run length in the scenario of selecting daily objects by gaze. Our experimental results indicate that the GazeEMD approach has higher accuracy and is more robust to noises than the other approaches. Hence, the users can lessen cognitive load by using our approach in the real-world HRI scenario. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application and Optimal Control of Vision Robot System)

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29 pages, 809 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

An Overview of Verification and Validation Challenges for Inspection Robots

by Michael Fisher, Rafael C. Cardoso, Emily C. Collins, Christopher Dadswell, Louise A. Dennis, Clare Dixon, Marie Farrell, Angelo Ferrando, Xiaowei Huang, Mike Jump, Georgios Kourtis, Alexei Lisitsa, Matt Luckcuck, Shan Luo, Vincent Page, Fabio Papacchini and Matt Webster

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020067 - 29 Apr 2021

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 10536

Abstract

The advent of sophisticated robotics and AI technology makes sending humans into hazardous and distant environments to carry out inspections increasingly avoidable. Being able to send a robot, rather than a human, into a nuclear facility or deep space is very appealing. However, [...] Read more.

The advent of sophisticated robotics and AI technology makes sending humans into hazardous and distant environments to carry out inspections increasingly avoidable. Being able to send a robot, rather than a human, into a nuclear facility or deep space is very appealing. However, building these robotic systems is just the start and we still need to carry out a range of verification and validation tasks to ensure that the systems to be deployed are as safe and reliable as possible. Based on our experience across three research and innovation hubs within the UK’s “Robots for a Safer World” programme, we present an overview of the relevant techniques and challenges in this area. As the hubs are active across nuclear, offshore, and space environments, this gives a breadth of issues common to many inspection robots. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Robots for Hazardous Environments in the UK)

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17 pages, 2789 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unsupervised Online Grounding for Social Robots

by Oliver Roesler and Elahe Bagheri

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020066 - 29 Apr 2021

Viewed by 4236

Abstract

Robots that incorporate social norms in their behaviors are seen as more supportive, friendly, and understanding. Since it is impossible to manually specify the most appropriate behavior for all possible situations, robots need to be able to learn it through trial and error, [...] Read more.

Robots that incorporate social norms in their behaviors are seen as more supportive, friendly, and understanding. Since it is impossible to manually specify the most appropriate behavior for all possible situations, robots need to be able to learn it through trial and error, by observing interactions between humans, or by utilizing theoretical knowledge available in natural language. In contrast to the former two approaches, the latter has not received much attention because understanding natural language is non-trivial and requires proper grounding mechanisms to link words to corresponding perceptual information. Previous grounding studies have mostly focused on grounding of concepts relevant to object manipulation, while grounding of more abstract concepts relevant to the learning of social norms has so far not been investigated. Therefore, this paper presents an unsupervised cross-situational learning based online grounding framework to ground emotion types, emotion intensities and genders. The proposed framework is evaluated through a simulated human–agent interaction scenario and compared to an existing unsupervised Bayesian grounding framework. The obtained results show that the proposed framework is able to ground words, including synonyms, through their corresponding perceptual features in an unsupervised and open-ended manner, while outperfoming the baseline in terms of grounding accuracy, transparency, and deployability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics and AI)

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20 pages, 2325 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Validating Safety in Human–Robot Collaboration: Standards and New Perspectives

by Marcello Valori, Adriano Scibilia, Irene Fassi, José Saenz, Roland Behrens, Sebastian Herbster, Catherine Bidard, Eric Lucet, Alice Magisson, Leendert Schaake, Jule Bessler, Gerdienke B. Prange-Lasonder, Morten Kühnrich, Aske B. Lassen and Kurt Nielsen

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020065 - 29 Apr 2021

Cited by 52 | Viewed by 11881

Abstract

Human–robot collaboration is currently one of the frontiers of industrial robot implementation. In parallel, the use of robots and robotic devices is increasing in several fields, substituting humans in “4D”—dull, dirty, dangerous, and delicate—tasks, and such a trend is boosted by the recent [...] Read more.

Human–robot collaboration is currently one of the frontiers of industrial robot implementation. In parallel, the use of robots and robotic devices is increasing in several fields, substituting humans in “4D”—dull, dirty, dangerous, and delicate—tasks, and such a trend is boosted by the recent need for social distancing. New challenges in safety assessment and verification arise, due to both the closer and closer human–robot interaction, common for the different application domains, and the broadening of user audience, which is now very diverse. The present paper discusses a cross-domain approach towards the definition of step-by-step validation procedures for collaborative robotic applications. To outline the context, the standardization framework is analyzed, especially from the perspective of safety testing and assessment. Afterwards, some testing procedures based on safety skills, developed within the framework of the European project COVR, are discussed and exemplary presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Robot Collaboration)

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13 pages, 2930 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Condition Assessment for Concrete Sewer Pipes Using Displacement Probes: A Robotic Design Case Study

by Robert Ross, Alex Stumpf, Dean Barnett and Richard Hall

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020064 - 27 Apr 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4476

Abstract

Worldwide, millions of kilometres of sewers are constructed from concrete pipes. Unfortunately, concrete sewers are susceptible to corrosion from biogenic hydrogen sulphide, and, though they may pass visual inspection, their ability to hold together under load may be degraded. This paper presents the [...] Read more.

Worldwide, millions of kilometres of sewers are constructed from concrete pipes. Unfortunately, concrete sewers are susceptible to corrosion from biogenic hydrogen sulphide, and, though they may pass visual inspection, their ability to hold together under load may be degraded. This paper presents the design of a teleoperated robot with a protractible probe, that allows an operator to apply a localised load to selected points within a concrete sewer pipe. We report findings from laboratory and field trials of our prototype, with initial results suggesting that this approach has the potential to contribute useful information to sewer maintenance planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural and Field Robotics)

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26 pages, 3090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prototype Development of Small Mobile Robots for Mallard Navigation in Paddy Fields: Toward Realizing Remote Farming

by Hirokazu Madokoro, Satoshi Yamamoto, Yo Nishimura, Stephanie Nix, Hanwool Woo and Kazuhito Sato

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020063 - 27 Apr 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7109

Abstract

This study was conducted to develop robot prototypes of three models that navigate mallards to achieve high-efficiency rice-duck farming. We examined two robotics navigation approaches based on imprinting and feeding. As the first approach, we used imprinting applied to baby mallards. They exhibited [...] Read more.

This study was conducted to develop robot prototypes of three models that navigate mallards to achieve high-efficiency rice-duck farming. We examined two robotics navigation approaches based on imprinting and feeding. As the first approach, we used imprinting applied to baby mallards. They exhibited follow behavior to our first prototype after imprinting. Experimentally obtained observation results revealed the importance of providing imprinting immediately up to one week after hatching. As another approach, we used feed placed on the top of our second prototype. Experimentally obtained results showed that adult mallards exhibited wariness not only against the robot, but also against the feeder. After relieving wariness with provision of more than one week time to become accustomed, adult mallards ate feed in the box on the robot. However, they ran away immediately at a slight movement. Based on this confirmation, we developed the third prototype as an autonomous mobile robot aimed for mallard navigation in a paddy field. The body width is less than the length between rice stalks. After checking the waterproof capability of a body waterproof box, we conducted an indoor driving test for manual operation. Moreover, we conducted outdoor evaluation tests to assess running on an actual paddy field. We developed indoor and outdoor image datasets using an onboard monocular camera. For the outdoor image datasets, our segmentation method based on SegNet achieved semantic segmentation for three semantic categories. For the indoor image datasets, our prediction method based on CNN and LSTM achieved visual prediction for three motion categories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Agriculture and Forest Robotics)

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15 pages, 3448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation and Evaluation of a Semi-Autonomous Hydraulic Dual Manipulator for Cutting Pipework in Radiologically Active Environments

by Stephen D. Monk, Alex Grievson, Manuel Bandala, Craig West, Allahyar Montazeri and C. James Taylor

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020062 - 27 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5155

Abstract

We describe the implementation of a bespoke two arm hydraulically actuated robotic platform which is used to semi-autonomously cut approximately 50 mm diameter pipes of three different materials: cardboard, ABS plastic and aluminium. The system is designed to be utilised within radiologically active [...] Read more.

We describe the implementation of a bespoke two arm hydraulically actuated robotic platform which is used to semi-autonomously cut approximately 50 mm diameter pipes of three different materials: cardboard, ABS plastic and aluminium. The system is designed to be utilised within radiologically active environments where human access is limited due to dose limits and thus remote operation is greatly beneficial. The remotely located operator selects the object from an image via a bespoke algorithm featuring a COTS 3D vision system, along with the desired positions for gripping with one manipulator, and cutting with the other. A pseudo-Jacobian inverse kinematic technique and a programmable automation controller are used to achieve the appropriate joint positions within the dual arm robotic platform. In this article, we present the latest developments to the system and the lessons learnt from the new cutting experiments with a reciprocating saw. A comparison to tele-operated control and manual cutting is also made, with this technique shown to be slower than manual cutting, but faster than pure tele-operational control, where the requirements for highly trained users and operator fatigue are further deleterious factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Robots for Hazardous Environments in the UK)

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23 pages, 3942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

FES Cycling and Closed-Loop Feedback Control for Rehabilitative Human–Robot Interaction

by Christian Cousin, Victor Duenas and Warren Dixon

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020061 - 22 Apr 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5777

Abstract

For individuals with movement impairments due to neurological injuries, rehabilitative therapies such as functional electrical stimulation (FES) and rehabilitation robots hold vast potential to improve their mobility and activities of daily living. Combining FES with rehabilitation robots results in intimately coordinated human–robot interaction. [...] Read more.

For individuals with movement impairments due to neurological injuries, rehabilitative therapies such as functional electrical stimulation (FES) and rehabilitation robots hold vast potential to improve their mobility and activities of daily living. Combining FES with rehabilitation robots results in intimately coordinated human–robot interaction. An example of such interaction is FES cycling, where motorized assistance can provide high-intensity and repetitive practice of coordinated limb motion, resulting in physiological and functional benefits. In this paper, the development of multiple FES cycling testbeds and safeguards is described, along with the switched nonlinear dynamics of the cycle–rider system. Closed-loop FES cycling control designs are described for cadence and torque tracking. For each tracking objective, the authors’ past work on robust and adaptive controllers used to compute muscle stimulation and motor current inputs is presented and discussed. Experimental results involving both able-bodied individuals and participants with neurological injuries are provided for each combination of controller and tracking objective. Trade-offs for the control algorithms are discussed based on the requirements for implementation, desired rehabilitation outcomes and resulting rider performance. Lastly, future works and the applicability of the developed methods to additional technologies including teleoperated robotics are outlined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Robot Collaboration)

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11 pages, 8529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Laser-Based Direct Cable Length Measurement Sensor for CDPRs

by Christoph Martin, Marc Fabritius, Johannes T. Stoll and Andreas Pott

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020060 - 21 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4663

Abstract

Accuracy improvement is an important research topic in the field of cable-driven parallel robots (CDPRs). One reason for inaccuracies of CDPRs are deviations in the cable lengths. Such deviations can be caused by the elongation of the cable due to its elasticity or [...] Read more.

Accuracy improvement is an important research topic in the field of cable-driven parallel robots (CDPRs). One reason for inaccuracies of CDPRs are deviations in the cable lengths. Such deviations can be caused by the elongation of the cable due to its elasticity or creep behavior. For most common CDPRs, the cable lengths are controlled using motor encoders of the winches, without feedback about the actual elongation of the cables. To address this problem, this paper proposes a direct cable length measurement sensor based on a laser distance sensor. We present the mechanical design, the first prototype and an experimental evaluation. As a result, the measurement principle works well and the accuracy of the measured cable lengths is within −2.32 mm to +1.86 mm compared to a range from −5.19 mm to +6.02 mm of the cable length set with the motor encoders. The standard deviation of the cable length error of the direct cable length measurement sensor is 58% lower compared to the one set with the motor encoders. Equipping all cables of the cable robot with direct cable length measurement sensors results in the possibility to correct cable length deviations and thus increase the accuracy of CDPRs. Furthermore, it enables new possibilities like the automatic recalibration of the home pose. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensors and Control in Robotics)

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17 pages, 2853 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Software Sensors for Order Tracking Applied to Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Diagnostics: A Comparative Study

by Laurent Rambault, Abdallah Allouche, Erik Etien, Anas Sakout, Thierry Doget and Sebastien Cauet

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020059 - 8 Apr 2021

Viewed by 3901

Abstract

The paper deals with software sensors which facilitates the diagnosis of electrical machines in non-stationary operating conditions. The technique targeted is order tracking for which different techniques exist to estimate the speed and angle of rotation. However, from a methodological point of view, [...] Read more.

The paper deals with software sensors which facilitates the diagnosis of electrical machines in non-stationary operating conditions. The technique targeted is order tracking for which different techniques exist to estimate the speed and angle of rotation. However, from a methodological point of view, this paper offers a comparison of several methods in order to evaluate their performance from tests on a test bench. In addition, to perform the tests, it is necessary to initialize the different methods to make them work correctly. In particular, an identification technique is proposed as well as a way to facilitate initialization. The example of this paper is that of a synchronous generator. Angular sampling allows the spectrum to be stationary and the interpretation of a possible defect. The realization of the angular sampling and the first diagnostic elements require the knowledge of two fundamental quantities: the speed of rotation and the angular position of the shaft. The estimation of the rotation speed as well as the estimation of the angular position of the shaft are carried out from the measurement of an electric current (or three electric currents and three voltages). Four methods are proposed and evaluated to realize software sensors: identification technique, PLL (Phase Locked Loop), Concordia transform and an observer. The four methods are evaluated on measurements carried out on a test bench. The results are discussed from the diagnosis of a mechanical fault. Full article

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21 pages, 1055 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Particle Swarm Optimization—An Adaptation for the Control of Robotic Swarms

by George Rossides, Benjamin Metcalfe and Alan Hunter

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020058 - 8 Apr 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7040

Abstract

Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is a numerical optimization technique based on the motion of virtual particles within a multidimensional space. The particles explore the space in an attempt to find minima or maxima to the optimization problem. The motion of the particles is [...] Read more.

Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is a numerical optimization technique based on the motion of virtual particles within a multidimensional space. The particles explore the space in an attempt to find minima or maxima to the optimization problem. The motion of the particles is linked, and the overall behavior of the particle swarm is controlled by several parameters. PSO has been proposed as a control strategy for physical swarms of robots that are localizing a source; the robots are analogous to the virtual particles. However, previous attempts to achieve this have shown that there are inherent problems. This paper addresses these problems by introducing a modified version of PSO, as well as introducing new guidelines for parameter selection. The proposed algorithm links the parameters to the velocity and acceleration of each robot, and demonstrates obstacle avoidance. Simulation results from both MATLAB and Gazebo show close agreement and demonstrate that the proposed algorithm is capable of effective control of a robotic swarm and obstacle avoidance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Robots and Mechatronics)

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20 pages, 8038 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Scheduling and Path-Planning for Operator Oversight of Multiple Robots

by Sebastián A. Zanlongo, Peter Dirksmeier, Philip Long, Taskin Padir and Leonardo Bobadilla

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020057 - 6 Apr 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5069

Abstract

There is a need for semi-autonomous systems capable of performing both automated tasks and supervised maneuvers. When dealing with multiple robots or robots with high complexity (such as humanoids), we face the issue of effectively coordinating operators across robots. We build on our [...] Read more.

There is a need for semi-autonomous systems capable of performing both automated tasks and supervised maneuvers. When dealing with multiple robots or robots with high complexity (such as humanoids), we face the issue of effectively coordinating operators across robots. We build on our previous work to present a methodology for designing trajectories and policies for robots such that a few operators can supervise multiple robots. Specifically, we: (1) Analyze the complexity of the problem, (2) Design a procedure for generating policies allowing operators to oversee many robots, (3) Present a method for designing policies and robot trajectories to allow operators to oversee multiple robots, and (4) Include both simulation and hardware experiments demonstrating our methodologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural and Field Robotics)

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18 pages, 32837 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Introduction to Patterns for the Internet of Robotic Things in the Ambient Assisted Living Scenario

by Bruno Andò, Luciano Cantelli, Vincenzo Catania, Ruben Crispino, Dario Calogero Guastella, Salvatore Monteleone and Giovanni Muscato

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020056 - 4 Apr 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4670

Abstract

The Internet of Things paradigm envisions the interoperation among objects, people, and their surrounding environment. In the last decade, the spread of IoT-based solutions has been supported in various domains and scenarios by academia, industry, and standards-setting organizations. The wide variety of applications [...] Read more.

The Internet of Things paradigm envisions the interoperation among objects, people, and their surrounding environment. In the last decade, the spread of IoT-based solutions has been supported in various domains and scenarios by academia, industry, and standards-setting organizations. The wide variety of applications and the need for a higher level of autonomy and interaction with the environment have recently led to the rise of the Internet of Robotic Things (IoRT), where smart objects become autonomous robotic systems. As mentioned in the recent literature, many of the proposed solutions in the IoT field have to tackle similar challenges regarding the management of resources, interoperation among objects, and interaction with users and the environment. Given that, the concept of the IoT pattern has recently been introduced. In software engineering, a pattern is defined as a general solution that can be applied to a class of common problems. It is a template suggesting a solution for the same problem occurring in different contexts. Similarly, an IoT pattern provides a guide to design an IoT solution with the difference that the software is not the only element involved. Starting from this idea, we propose the novel concept of the IoRT pattern. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first attempt at pattern authoring in the Internet of Robotic Things context. We focus on pattern identification by abstracting examples also in the Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) scenario. A case study providing an implementation of the proposed patterns in the AAL context is also presented and discussed. Full article

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32 pages, 4511 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi AGV Coordination Tolerant to Communication Failures

by Diogo Matos, Pedro Costa, José Lima and Paulo Costa

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020055 - 27 Mar 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5136

Abstract

Most path planning algorithms used presently in multi-robot systems are based on offline planning. The Timed Enhanced A* (TEA*) algorithm gives the possibility of planning in real time, rather than planning in advance, by using a temporal estimation of the robot’s positions at [...] Read more.

Most path planning algorithms used presently in multi-robot systems are based on offline planning. The Timed Enhanced A* (TEA*) algorithm gives the possibility of planning in real time, rather than planning in advance, by using a temporal estimation of the robot’s positions at any given time. In this article, the implementation of a control system for multi-robot applications that operate in environments where communication faults can occur and where entire sections of the environment may not have any connection to the communication network will be presented. This system uses the TEA* to plan multiple robot paths and a supervision system to control communications. The supervision system supervises the communication with the robots and checks whether the robot’s movements are synchronized. The implemented system allowed the creation and execution of paths for the robots that were both safe and kept the temporal efficiency of the TEA* algorithm. Using the Simtwo2020 simulation software, capable of simulating movement dynamics and the Lazarus development environment, it was possible to simulate the execution of several different missions by the implemented system and analyze their results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Industrial Robotics and Intelligent Systems)

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14 pages, 6284 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Human–Robot Interaction through Eye Tracking for Artistic Drawing

by Lorenzo Scalera, Stefano Seriani, Paolo Gallina, Mattia Lentini and Alessandro Gasparetto

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020054 - 26 Mar 2021

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 8117

Abstract

In this paper, authors present a novel architecture for controlling an industrial robot via an eye tracking interface for artistic purposes. Humans and robots interact thanks to an acquisition system based on an eye tracker device that allows the user to control the [...] Read more.

In this paper, authors present a novel architecture for controlling an industrial robot via an eye tracking interface for artistic purposes. Humans and robots interact thanks to an acquisition system based on an eye tracker device that allows the user to control the motion of a robotic manipulator with his gaze. The feasibility of the robotic system is evaluated with experimental tests in which the robot is teleoperated to draw artistic images. The tool can be used by artists to investigate novel forms of art and by amputees or people with movement disorders or muscular paralysis, as an assistive technology for artistic drawing and painting, since, in these cases, eye motion is usually preserved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Robot Collaboration)

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20 pages, 46680 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Forest Robotics: A State-of-the-Art Survey

by Luiz F. P. Oliveira, António P. Moreira and Manuel F. Silva

Robotics 2021, 10(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics10020053 - 24 Mar 2021

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 14853

Abstract

The development of robotic systems to operate in forest environments is of great relevance for the public and private sectors. In this sense, this article reviews several scientific papers, research projects and commercial products related to robotic applications for environmental preservation, monitoring, wildfire [...] Read more.

The development of robotic systems to operate in forest environments is of great relevance for the public and private sectors. In this sense, this article reviews several scientific papers, research projects and commercial products related to robotic applications for environmental preservation, monitoring, wildfire firefighting, inventory operations, planting, pruning and harvesting. After conducting critical analysis, the main characteristics observed were: (a) the locomotion system is directly affected by the type of environmental monitoring to be performed; (b) different reasons for pruning result in different locomotion and cutting systems; (c) each type of forest, in each season and each type of soil can directly interfere with the navigation technique used; and (d) the integration of the concept of swarm of robots with robots of different types of locomotion systems (land, air or sea) can compensate for the time of executing tasks in unstructured environments. Two major areas are proposed for future research works: Internet of Things (IoT)-based smart forest and navigation systems. It is expected that, with the various characteristics exposed in this paper, the current robotic forest systems will be improved, so that forest exploitation becomes more efficient and sustainable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Agriculture and Forest Robotics)

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