Lubricants

Editorial

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10 pages, 213 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Tribology and Dowson

by Nicholas John Morris, Patricia M. Johns-Rahnejat and Homer Rahnejat

Lubricants 2020, 8(6), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8060063 - 9 Jun 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4956

Abstract

It is with great sadness that we note the passing of Professor Duncan Dowson on 6th January 2020. Duncan was an esteemed member of the Editorial Board of this journal. He will be remembered as one of the founding fathers of tribology and [...] Read more.

It is with great sadness that we note the passing of Professor Duncan Dowson on 6th January 2020. Duncan was an esteemed member of the Editorial Board of this journal. He will be remembered as one of the founding fathers of tribology and as a true gentleman. He was the last living member of the Jost Committee, set up by the UK Government (1964–1966) to investigate the state of lubrication education and research, and to establish the requirements of industry in this regard [1]. This committee coined the term “tribology”.Duncan contributed to many areas of tribological research and established many of them, including elastohydrodynamic theory and biotribology.[...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

19 pages, 11509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mathematical Development of a Novel Discrete Hip Deformation Algorithm for the In Silico Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication Modelling of Total Hip Replacements

by Alessandro Ruggiero and Alessandro Sicilia

Lubricants 2021, 9(4), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9040041 - 9 Apr 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2674

Abstract

In this paper, the procedure to achieve an accurate deformation model of a total hip replacement (THR) was proposed with the aim to obtain a numerical tool to be simply merged into THR elasto-hydrodynamic computational synovial lubrication algorithms. The approach was based on [...] Read more.

In this paper, the procedure to achieve an accurate deformation model of a total hip replacement (THR) was proposed with the aim to obtain a numerical tool to be simply merged into THR elasto-hydrodynamic computational synovial lubrication algorithms. The approach was based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) and was developed in a Matlab code, allowing the definition of the influence matrix and of a boundary conditions vector. It works with linear tetrahedra and performs the displacement calculation for both the acetabular cup and the femoral head, taking into account the anatomical hip relative motion, by coupling them with a cubic interpolation matrix. Two simulations were conducted in order to validate the algorithm and the results were compared with the ones obtained by the commercial software Ansys. The comparison provides a satisfactory agreement in terms of surface deformation, Von Mises stress and strain energy, proving the reliability of the model and the possibility to use the model in the in silico prostheses tribological simulations, avoiding the complexity and the high computational resource requirement coming from the coupling between complex lubrication algorithms and FEM commercial software, and with the possibility to directly act on many key parameter characteristics of the investigated problem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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14 pages, 3687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Friction in Total Knee Prosthesis during a Standard Gait Cycle

by Matúš Ranuša, Markus A. Wimmer, Spencer Fullam, Martin Vrbka and Ivan Křupka

Lubricants 2021, 9(4), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9040036 - 3 Apr 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4159

Abstract

Total knee arthroplasty is on the rise worldwide. Despite its success, revision surgeries are also increasing. According to the American Joint Replacement Registry 2020, 3.3% of revision surgeries are due to wear, and 24.2% are due to mechanical loosening. The combination of shear [...] Read more.

Total knee arthroplasty is on the rise worldwide. Despite its success, revision surgeries are also increasing. According to the American Joint Replacement Registry 2020, 3.3% of revision surgeries are due to wear, and 24.2% are due to mechanical loosening. The combination of shear stresses and wear particles occurring at the bone/implant interface can lead to local osteolysis. Although the shear stresses are partially driven by joint friction, relatively little is known about the evolution of the coefficient of friction (CoF) during a gait cycle in total knee replacement. Here we describe the CoF during a gait cycle and investigate its association with kinematics (slide–roll-ratio), applied load, and relative velocity. The artificial knee was simulated by cobalt–chromium condyle on a flat ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) tibial plateau, lubricated by either water or proteinaceous solution. We found that the CoF is not a constant but fluctuates between the values close to 0 and 0.15. Cross-correlation suggested that this is primarily an effect of the slide–roll ratio and the contact pressure. There was no difference in the CoF between water and proteinaceous solution. Knowledge about the CoF behavior during a gait cycle will help to increase the accuracy of future computational models of total knee replacement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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18 pages, 10591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coupling Molecular Dynamics and Micromechanics for the Assessment of Friction and Damage Accumulation in Diamond-Like Carbon Thin Films under Lubricated Sliding Contacts

by Timo J. Hakala, Kenneth Holmberg and Anssi Laukkanen

Lubricants 2021, 9(3), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9030030 - 5 Mar 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3147

Abstract

Diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings have proven to be an excellent thin film solution for reducing friction of tribological systems as well as providing resistance to wear. These characteristics yield greater efficiency and longer lifetimes of tribological contacts with respect to surface solutions targeting [...] Read more.

Diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings have proven to be an excellent thin film solution for reducing friction of tribological systems as well as providing resistance to wear. These characteristics yield greater efficiency and longer lifetimes of tribological contacts with respect to surface solutions targeting for example automotive applications. However, the route from discovery to deployment of DLC films has taken its time and still the design of these solutions is largely done on a trial-and-error basis. This results in challenges both in designing and optimizing DLC films for specific applications and limits the understanding, and subsequently exploitation, of many of the underlying physical mechanisms responsible for its favorable frictional response and high resistance to various types of wear. In current work multiscale modeling is utilized to study the friction and wear response of DLC thin films in dry and lubricated contacts. Atomic scale mechanisms responsible for friction due to interactions between the sliding surfaces and shearing of the amorphous carbon surface are utilized to establish frictional response for microstructure scale modeling of DLC to DLC surface contacts under dry and graphene lubricated conditions. Then at the coarser microstructural scale both structure of the multilayer, substrate and surface topography of the DLC coating are incorporated in studying of the behavior of the tribosystem. A fracture model is included to evaluate the nucleation and growth of wear damage leading either to loss of adhesion or failure of one of the film constituents. The results demonstrate the dependency of atomistic scale friction on film characteristics, particularly hybridization of bonding and tribochemistry. The microstructure scale modeling signifies the behavior of the film as a tribosystem, the various material properties and the surface topography interact to produce the explicitly modeled failure response. Ultimately, the work contributes towards establishing multiscale modeling capabilities to better understand and design novel DLC material solutions for various tribological applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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23 pages, 4585 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synovial Joints. Tribology, Regeneration, Regenerative Rehabilitation and Arthroplasty

by Valentin L. Popov, Aleksandr M. Poliakov and Vladimir I. Pakhaliuk

Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020015 - 2 Feb 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5166

Abstract

Synovial joints are unique biological tribosystems that allow a person to perform a wide range of movements with minimal energy consumption. In recent years, they have been increasingly called “smart friction units” due to their ability to self-repair and adapt to changing operating [...] Read more.

Synovial joints are unique biological tribosystems that allow a person to perform a wide range of movements with minimal energy consumption. In recent years, they have been increasingly called “smart friction units” due to their ability to self-repair and adapt to changing operating conditions. However, in reality, the elements of the internal structure of the joints under the influence of many factors can degrade rather quickly, leading to serious disease such as osteoarthritis. According to the World Health Organization, osteoarthritis is already one of the 10 most disabling diseases in developed countries. In this regard, at present, fundamental research on synovial joints remains highly relevant. Despite the fact that the synovial joints have already been studied fully, many issues related to their operating, prevention, development of pathology, diagnosis and treatment require more detailed consideration. In this article, we discuss the urgent problems that need to be solved for the development of new pharmacological agents, biomaterials, scaffolds, implants and rehabilitation devices for the prevention, rehabilitation and improvement of the treatment effectiveness of synovial joints at various stages of osteoarthritis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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14 pages, 5028 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Experimental Study on the Fretting Corrosion Behaviours of Three Material Pairs at Modular Interfaces for Hip Joint Implants

by Jian Pu, Dongsheng Wu, Yali Zhang, Xiaogang Zhang and Zhongmin Jin

Lubricants 2021, 9(2), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9020012 - 21 Jan 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3095

Abstract

The fretting corrosion behaviours of Al₂O₃ ceramic/Ti6Al4V alloy, 316 L stainless/Ti6Al4V alloy, and CoCrMo alloy/Ti6Al4V alloy pairs were studied in an in-house developed fretting-corrosion tester. The fretting behaviours were characterized by the F_t-D-N and F [...] Read more.

The fretting corrosion behaviours of Al₂O₃ ceramic/Ti6Al4V alloy, 316 L stainless/Ti6Al4V alloy, and CoCrMo alloy/Ti6Al4V alloy pairs were studied in an in-house developed fretting-corrosion tester. The fretting behaviours were characterized by the F_t-D-N and F_t/F_n curves. The morphology of the worn surface was analyzed by energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX), a scanning electron microscope (SEM), and a white light interferometer (WLI). The fretting regimes were found to vary from slip regime (SR) to mixed fretting regime (MFR), with an increase in loads for the Al₂O₃/Ti6Al4V and 316 L/Ti6Al4V pairs, while for the CoCrMo/Ti6Al4V pair the fretting always remained in SR. The damage mechanism of the Al₂O₃/Ti6Al4V pair was mainly abrasive wear and corrosive wear, while for the 316 L/Ti6Al4V pair and CoCrMo/Ti6Al4V pair, the wear mechanism was mainly adhesive wear and corrosive wear with slight abrasive wear. The electrochemical impedance spectrum results show that the material transfer layer formed on the surface of the material can protect the material from corrosion for the 316 L/Ti6Al4V and CoCrMo/Ti6Al4V pairs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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15 pages, 3774 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of the Nanoclay Concentration and Oil Viscosity on the Rheological and Tribological Properties of Nanoclay-Based Ecolubricants

by Samuel D. Fernández-Silva, Moisés García-Morales, Charlène Ruffel and Miguel A. Delgado

Lubricants 2021, 9(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9010008 - 8 Jan 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2884

Abstract

This manuscript describes a rheological and tribological study carried out on eco-friendly lubricants. These ecolubricants were made up of nanoclays as dispersed phase (a layered nanosilicate (montmorillonite Cloisite 15A) and a fiber-like nanoclay (sepiolite Pangel B20)) and vegetable-based oil as continuous phase (castor [...] Read more.

This manuscript describes a rheological and tribological study carried out on eco-friendly lubricants. These ecolubricants were made up of nanoclays as dispersed phase (a layered nanosilicate (montmorillonite Cloisite 15A) and a fiber-like nanoclay (sepiolite Pangel B20)) and vegetable-based oil as continuous phase (castor oil (CO), high oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) and their mixtures). A series of nanoclay-based ecolubricants were prepared by varying both nanoclay concentration and base oil, and thus, its viscosity. Friction and wear behaviors were assessed by using a ball-on-three plates tribometer cell. The results showed that the fiber-like sepiolite Pangel B20 yielded an important reduction in the wear scar diameter, thus revealing its potential as anti-wear and load-carrying additive in ecolubricant formulations, while Cloisite 15A proved to have friction improving properties. These anti-wear and friction reducing properties were found to be influenced by both nanoclay concentration and oil viscosity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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22 pages, 10936 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Lubrication State in a Field Operational Wind Turbine Gearbox Bearing Using Ultrasonic Reflectometry

by G. Nicholas, B. P. Clarke and R. S. Dwyer-Joyce

Lubricants 2021, 9(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9010006 - 6 Jan 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4627

Abstract

Fully flooded lubrication is the ideal state for a rolling bearing; this is especially true in the aggressive environment of a wind turbine transmission where bearings are subject to intermittent operation and highly variable loading. In this paper, a novel ultrasonic reflection method [...] Read more.

Fully flooded lubrication is the ideal state for a rolling bearing; this is especially true in the aggressive environment of a wind turbine transmission where bearings are subject to intermittent operation and highly variable loading. In this paper, a novel ultrasonic reflection method is used to detect the presence of oil between rollers in the bearing. Ultrasonic sensors were instrumented on the static inner (lab) and outer (field) bearing raceways and reflections were captured as the rollers travelled past the sensor. The proportion of the sound wave reflected (known as the reflection coefficient, R) is dependent on the acoustic mismatch of the materials either side of the interface. Changes in R indicate either a steel–air or steel–oil interface as R values transitioned from 1 to 0.95, respectively, and even lower for a steel–roller interface. Consequently, it was possible to detect the presence of lubricant on the raceway between roller passes. From the laboratory measurements, the recurring reflection coefficient patterns between roller passes were used to identify the lubrication condition of the raceway. An absence of these patterns between roller passes indicated the absence of lubricant on the bearing surface. For the field measurements, three bearing lubrication conditions (partial, insufficient, and fully lubricated) were observed. Partially and insufficiently lubricated datasets were found to occur mostly during transient operation. As transient operation is often accompanied by overloading and torque reversals, coupled with the lubrication issues, these all act to increase the risk of premature bearing failure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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17 pages, 5404 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Measurement of the Time-Based Development of Oil Film Thickness, Lubricating Film Extent and Lubricant Transport in Crosshead Engines

by Graham Calderbank, Edward H. Smith and Ian Sherrington

Lubricants 2021, 9(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9010004 - 29 Dec 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2769

Abstract

This paper describes the design of a test apparatus which simulates the lubrication of large, slow, two-stroke marine engines in which the ring pack is lubricated by means of injectors supplying lubricant above the piston. The equipment is able to control lubricant injection [...] Read more.

This paper describes the design of a test apparatus which simulates the lubrication of large, slow, two-stroke marine engines in which the ring pack is lubricated by means of injectors supplying lubricant above the piston. The equipment is able to control lubricant injection parameters (volume, frequency, etc.) and employs capacitance based lubricant film thickness transducers to allow instantaneous oil film thickness and film extent around the compression ring to be investigated on a stroke-by-stroke basis. It is demonstrated that the equipment can be used to study the development of lubricating films on successive strokes under differing injection strategies. Time varying changes in lubricating film thickness and film extent have been measured and the rate at which the lubricant spreads across the cylinder wall has also been investigated. It has been observed that increases in oil-film thickness are strongly linked to the transition from starved to fully-flooded inlet conditions and that net lubricant transport rates along different parts of the cylinder can be evaluated from measured data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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20 pages, 4184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Effect of the Slip-Pocket in Single and Double Parallel Bearing Considering Cavitation: A Theoretical Approach

by M. Muchammad, Mohammad Tauviqirrahman, J. Jamari and D. J. Schipper

Lubricants 2021, 9(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9010003 - 28 Dec 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2413

Abstract

In this paper, based on an analytical approach, the effect of pockets and boundary slip on the hydrodynamic performance of parallel sliding surfaces considering cavitation is investigated. A modified Reynolds theory is developed for solving two kinds of bearings: a single and a [...] Read more.

In this paper, based on an analytical approach, the effect of pockets and boundary slip on the hydrodynamic performance of parallel sliding surfaces considering cavitation is investigated. A modified Reynolds theory is developed for solving two kinds of bearings: a single and a double pocket bearing. The performance is compared with respect to the variation of the pocket depth, pocket length, slip, and no-slip situation. The results show that the maximum pressure and load support increases with the reduction in pocket length. The main finding is that the pocket depth reduces the cavitation area. However, in the case of a single pocket, the role of pocket depth is more significant in reducing the cavitation effect than that in the case of a double pocket bearing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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15 pages, 2144 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Critical Shear Rate of Polymer-Enhanced Hydraulic Fluids

by Pawan Panwar, Paul Michael, Mark Devlin and Ashlie Martini

Lubricants 2020, 8(12), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8120102 - 25 Nov 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4929

Abstract

Many application-relevant fluids exhibit shear thinning, where viscosity decreases with shear rate above some critical shear rate. For hydraulic fluids formulated with polymeric additives, the critical shear rate is a function of the molecular weight and concentration of the polymers. Here we present [...] Read more.

Many application-relevant fluids exhibit shear thinning, where viscosity decreases with shear rate above some critical shear rate. For hydraulic fluids formulated with polymeric additives, the critical shear rate is a function of the molecular weight and concentration of the polymers. Here we present a model for predicting the critical shear rate and Newtonian viscosity of fluids, with the goal of identifying a fluid that shear thins in a specific range relevant to hydraulic pumps. The model is applied to predict the properties of fluids comprising polyisobutene polymer and polyalphaolefin base oil. The theoretical predictions are validated by comparison to viscosities obtained from experimental measurements and molecular dynamics simulations across many decades of shear rates. Results demonstrate that the molecular weight of the polymer plays a key role in determining the critical shear rate, whereas the concentration of polymer primarily affects the Newtonian viscosity. The simulations are further used to show the molecular origins of shear thinning and critical shear rate. The atomistic simulations and simple model developed in this work can ultimately be used to formulate polymer-enhanced fluids with ideal shear thinning profiles that maximize the efficiency of hydraulic systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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18 pages, 4574 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Competitive Adsorption of Ionic Liquids Versus Friction Modifier and Anti-Wear Additive at Solid/Lubricant Interface—Speciation with Vibrational Sum Frequency Generation Spectroscopy

by Dien Ngo, Xin He, Huimin Luo, Jun Qu and Seong H. Kim

Lubricants 2020, 8(11), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8110098 - 12 Nov 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3382

Abstract

A modern lubricant contains various additives with different functionalities and the interactions or reactions between these additives could induce synergistic or antagonistic effects in tribological performance. In this study, sum frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy was used to investigate competitive adsorption of lubricant additives [...] Read more.

A modern lubricant contains various additives with different functionalities and the interactions or reactions between these additives could induce synergistic or antagonistic effects in tribological performance. In this study, sum frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy was used to investigate competitive adsorption of lubricant additives at a solid/base oil interface. A silica substrate was used as a model solid surface. The lubricant additives studied here included two oil-soluble ionic liquids (ILs, [N888H][DEHP] and [P8888][DEHP]), an antiwear additive (secondary ZDDP), an organic friction modifier (OFM), and a dispersant (PIBSI). Our results showed that for mixtures of ZDDP and IL in a base oil (PAO4), the silica surface is dominated by the IL molecules. In the cases of base oils containing OFM and IL, the silica/lubricant interface is dominated by OFM over [N888H][DEHP], while it is preferentially occupied by [P8888][DEHP] over OFM. The presence of PIBSI in the mixture of PAO4 and IL leads to the formation of a mixed surface layer at the silica surface with PIBSI as a major component. The SFG results in this investigation provide fundamental insights that are helpful to design the formulation of new lubricant additives of desired properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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14 pages, 3013 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Elastostatic Contact Mechanics of Highly-Loaded Contacts of Varying Conformity

by Patricia M. Johns-Rahnejat, Nader Dolatabadi and Homer Rahnejat

Lubricants 2020, 8(9), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8090089 - 2 Sep 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3672

Abstract

In applications requiring high load carrying capacity, conforming contacting pairs with a relatively large contact footprint are used. These include circular arc, Novikov, and Wildhaber gears found, for example, in helicopter rotors. Closely conforming contacts also occur in many natural endo-articular joints, such [...] Read more.

In applications requiring high load carrying capacity, conforming contacting pairs with a relatively large contact footprint are used. These include circular arc, Novikov, and Wildhaber gears found, for example, in helicopter rotors. Closely conforming contacts also occur in many natural endo-articular joints, such as hips, or their replacement arthroplasty. The main determining factors in contact fatigue are the sub-surface shear stresses. For highly loaded contacts, classical Hertzian contact mechanics is used for many gears, bearings, and joints. However, the theory is essentially for concentrated counterforming contacts, where the problem is reduced to a rigid ellipsoidal solid penetrating an equivalent semi-infinite elastic half-space. Applicability is limited though, and the theory is often used inappropriately for contacts of varying degrees of conformity. This paper presents a generic contact mechanics approach for the determination of sub-surface stresses, which is applicable to both highly conforming as well as concentrated counterforming contacts. It is shown that sub-surface shear stresses alter in magnitude and disposition according to contact conformity, and lead to the different modes of fatigue failure noted in practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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7 pages, 794 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Identification of an Adequate Stressing Level to Find the Proper Running-In Conditions of a Lubricated DLC-Metal-System

by Joachim Faller and Matthias Scherge

Lubricants 2020, 8(9), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8090088 - 31 Aug 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3053

Abstract

Using a tribometer equipped with a high-resolution wear measurement unit (RNT), the running-in of a diamondlike carbon (DLC) iron spray coating contact was analyzed and optimized. The optimization comprised an initial parameter field with different load and speed levels to find key operation [...] Read more.

Using a tribometer equipped with a high-resolution wear measurement unit (RNT), the running-in of a diamondlike carbon (DLC) iron spray coating contact was analyzed and optimized. The optimization comprised an initial parameter field with different load and speed levels to find key operation points. These points were used to compose a dedicated running-in parameter field. The analysis underlined the importance of identifying the adequate stressing conditions. With respect to our concept of the running-in corridor, a high-power running-in has to be preferred to obtain a tribological system with low friction, small total wear and wear rate, high system stability, and low sensitivity to external changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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21 pages, 8051 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transient Analysis of Isothermal Elastohydrodynamic Point Contacts under Complex Kinematics of Combined Rolling, Spinning and Normal Approach

by Gajarajan Sivayogan, Ramin Rahmani and Homer Rahnejat

Lubricants 2020, 8(8), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8080081 - 5 Aug 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4291

Abstract

This paper presents a brief review of elastohydrodynamic analysis in commemoration of the immense contributions of Duncan Dowson. This paper also presents an elastohydrodynamic analysis of the elliptical point contact problem under steady state as well as transient conditions. The overall methodology is [...] Read more.

This paper presents a brief review of elastohydrodynamic analysis in commemoration of the immense contributions of Duncan Dowson. This paper also presents an elastohydrodynamic analysis of the elliptical point contact problem under steady state as well as transient conditions. The overall methodology is validated against numerical predictions and experimental observations of acknowledged historical sources. The validated methodology is used to make original contributions in the elastohydrodynamics of elliptical point contact subjected to complex combined contact kinematics, including rolling/sliding, mutual convergence and separation (squeeze film motion) of contacting pairs, when subjected to reciprocating and spinning motions. This combined complex contact kinematics under transient conditions has not hitherto been reported in the literature. This paper shows the critical role of squeeze film motion upon lubricant film thickness. The results also show that the influence of spin motion is only significant at fairly high values of angular velocity and in the absence of a rolling/sliding motion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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14 pages, 4056 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Design and Lubrication of Water-Lubricated, Rubber, Cutlass Bearings Operating in the Soft EHL Regime

by Edward H. Smith

Lubricants 2020, 8(7), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8070075 - 13 Jul 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5972

Abstract

All propeller-driven ships employ a drive shaft supported by journal bearings. To avoid water pollution, these bearings are generally lubricated by the surrounding water, removing the need for a rear seal. Such bearings, commonly referred to as Cutlass bearings, usually have an inner [...] Read more.

All propeller-driven ships employ a drive shaft supported by journal bearings. To avoid water pollution, these bearings are generally lubricated by the surrounding water, removing the need for a rear seal. Such bearings, commonly referred to as Cutlass bearings, usually have an inner grooved nitrile rubber lining. The grooves (called flutes) allow debris to be flushed out and the bearing surface to be cooled. The remaining area is divided into a number of load-carrying areas called staves. At present, no rigorous design guide exists for these bearings. This paper presents a methodology to predict the minimum film thickness between the journal and the most heavily-loaded stave, an approach not hitherto reported in the literature. The method includes a new, 3D, finite element (FE) approach for soft elasto-hydrodynamic (EHL) predictive modelling of generated pressures in cutlass bearings. Model predictions compare favourably with experimental data. It is shown that the modulus of elasticity of the rubber has no influence on the minimum film thickness. An equation relating dimensionless film thickness to dimensionless load, clearance ratio and numbers of staves is presented. For a nominally circular bearing, increasing the clearance ratio or increasing the numbers of staves reduces load-carrying capacity. It is shown that distortion due to loading can increase load-carrying capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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27 pages, 10481 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Mixed Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication Model for Wear Calculation in Artificial Hip Joints

by Alessandro Ruggiero and Alessandro Sicilia

Lubricants 2020, 8(7), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8070072 - 1 Jul 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4429

Abstract

The aim of this paper was to propose a novel in silico mixed elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication model with the purpose of wear prediction in Total Hip Replacements (THRs). The model considers the progressive wear contribution in the calculation of the meatus filled by the [...] Read more.

The aim of this paper was to propose a novel in silico mixed elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication model with the purpose of wear prediction in Total Hip Replacements (THRs). The model considers the progressive wear contribution in the calculation of the meatus filled by the non-Newtonian synovial fluid. The results were referred to the gait cycle kinematics, calculated by using musculoskeletal multibody software, while the loading was assumed by literature in vivo measurements. The simulations allow evaluating the fluid and the contact pressure fields and the acetabular cup wear over the time. The results were obtained considering a Ultra High Molecular Weight PolyEthylene, UHMWPE, cup and were compared with results from the literature, showing a good agreement in terms of total volume wear of the cup. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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20 pages, 4071 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping the Micro-Abrasion Mechanisms of CoCrMo: Some Thoughts on Varying Ceramic Counterface Diameter on Transition Boundaries In Vitro

by Kamran Sadiq, Mark A. Sim, Richard A. Black and Margaret M. Stack

Lubricants 2020, 8(7), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8070071 - 1 Jul 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3353

Abstract

The micro-abrasion wear mechanisms for CoCrMo against variable size alumina balls, representing typical artificial femoral head sizes, were investigated over a range of applied loads in foetal calf serum solution. SEM analysis of resulting wear scars displayed two-body and mixed-mode abrasion modes of [...] Read more.

The micro-abrasion wear mechanisms for CoCrMo against variable size alumina balls, representing typical artificial femoral head sizes, were investigated over a range of applied loads in foetal calf serum solution. SEM analysis of resulting wear scars displayed two-body and mixed-mode abrasion modes of wear. The wear factor, κ, was found to range between 0.86 and 22.87 (10⁻⁶ mm³/Nm). Micro-abrasion mechanism and wastage maps were constructed for the parameter range tested. A dominant two- to three-body abrasion regime was observed with an increasing load and ball diameter. The 28-mm ball diameter displayed the lowest wastage, with an increasing load. Proteins may act to reduce the severity of contact between abrasive particles and bearing surfaces. Wear volumes did not necessarily increase linearly with applied load and ball diameter; therefore, there is a need to develop more accurate models for wear prediction during micro-abrasion conditions. Wear mapping for hip replacements could provide a useful aid for pre-clinical hip wear evaluations and long-term performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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15 pages, 6840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Friction Behavior of Pre-Damaged Wet-Running Multi-Plate Clutches in an Endurance Test

by Thomas Schneider, Katharina Voelkel, Hermann Pflaum and Karsten Stahl

Lubricants 2020, 8(7), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8070068 - 30 Jun 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4845

Abstract

Wet-running multi-plate clutches should be prevented from failing due to the often safety-relevant functions they fulfill in the drive train. In addition to long-term damage, spontaneous damage is of particular relevance for failures. This paper focuses on the influence of spontaneous damage on [...] Read more.

Wet-running multi-plate clutches should be prevented from failing due to the often safety-relevant functions they fulfill in the drive train. In addition to long-term damage, spontaneous damage is of particular relevance for failures. This paper focuses on the influence of spontaneous damage on frictional behavior in the later life cycle. The aim of the experimental investigations is to initially cause spontaneous damage in wet-running multi-plate clutches with sintered friction linings. For this purpose, three clutches are first pre-damaged in stage tests with different intensities, so that the first spontaneous damage (local discoloration, sinter transfer) occurs. In the second step, an endurance test is carried out with the pre-damaged clutch packs and a non-pre-damaged reference clutch. The friction behavior of the clutches during the endurance test is compared and evaluated. It shows that local discoloration and sinter transfer are no longer visible after the endurance tests. At the beginning of the endurance test, the values of coefficient of friction are higher over the entire speed range of the heavily pre-damaged clutches than with the slightly pre-damaged clutch and the non-pre-damaged reference clutch. At the end of the endurance test, it can be observed that the greater the pre-damage to the clutches is, the greater the coefficient of friction increases with decreasing sliding speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

25 pages, 6800 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Critical Review of Approaches to the Design of Floating-Liner Apparatus for Instantaneous Piston Assembly Friction Measurement

by Abdelrahman M. Youssef, Graham Calderbank, Ian Sherrington, Edward H. Smith and Homer Rahnejat

Lubricants 2021, 9(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9010010 - 16 Jan 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4005

Abstract

Several approaches have been developed to measure instantaneous friction between the piston assembly and cylinder in internal combustion (IC) engines, such as floating-liner, reciprocating liner, instantaneous mean effective pressure (IMEP), fixed sleeve, and (P-ω) method and tribological bench tests. However, the “floating-liner method” [...] Read more.

Several approaches have been developed to measure instantaneous friction between the piston assembly and cylinder in internal combustion (IC) engines, such as floating-liner, reciprocating liner, instantaneous mean effective pressure (IMEP), fixed sleeve, and (P-ω) method and tribological bench tests. However, the “floating-liner method” and the “(IMEP) method” are the most common methods used to measure instantaneous friction between the piston assembly and IC engines. This paper critically evaluates different approaches to the design of the “floating-liner”. The paper begins by discussing piston assembly frictional losses and their significance and then discuss the development of instantaneous piston-friction measurements. After that, it reviews the main design challenges in the floating-liner approach. “Methods of cylinder sealing” and “force balancing methods” are also reviewed. Design challenges associated with firing operation were presented. Floating-liner designs were classified into different categories with a detailed presentation of the features of each. The paper ends by presenting a range of broad recommendations for further work which would benefit future designs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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23 pages, 37890 KiB

Open AccessReview

High Temperature Tribology under Linear Oscillation Motion

by Raj Shah, Rui Chen, Mathias Woydt, Christoph Baumann, Joshua Jurs and Philip Iaccarino

Lubricants 2021, 9(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants9010005 - 30 Dec 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3975

Abstract

High temperature tribology is considered to begin from a minimum temperature of 300–350 °C, where organic base oils and polymers begin to decompose, until a temperature of 1000 °C. In this field of tribology, tests are typically run under dry or solid-state friction, [...] Read more.

High temperature tribology is considered to begin from a minimum temperature of 300–350 °C, where organic base oils and polymers begin to decompose, until a temperature of 1000 °C. In this field of tribology, tests are typically run under dry or solid-state friction, unless a solid lubricant is used, since most lubricants will oxidize or break down when exposed to these extreme temperatures. Therefore, this form of tribotesting is useful to determine the friction, wear, and other tribological characteristics of coatings, ceramics, alloys, cermets, and similar materials. Additionally, high temperature tribology is important to further understand the frictional interactions and adhesive behavior of contacts that operate at these high temperatures. When considering measurements of the tribological parameters in a high temperature application, the standard Schwingung, Reibung, Verschleiž (SRV) (Oscillating, friction, wear, in English) reciprocating, linear-oscillatory tribometer can be modified for testing temperatures of up to 1000 °C by using a high temperature heating block. With this configuration, the instrument can accurately monitor many parameters of the tribosystem, such as coefficient of friction, electrical resistance, zero stroke point, sliding speed, and others. As a result, the SRV instrument is shown to be a powerful tool for high temperature tribotesting. This paper will provide an overview of this high temperature tribology test rig and will discuss its versatility and efficacy, and will show how it can effectively be implemented in both research and practical applications for the development of various coatings and other high temperature tribological contacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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20 pages, 3116 KiB

Open AccessReview

Non-Dimensional Groups, Film Thickness Equations and Correction Factors for Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication: A Review

by Max Marian, Marcel Bartz, Sandro Wartzack and Andreas Rosenkranz

Lubricants 2020, 8(10), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8100095 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 8011

Abstract

Apart from complex numerical models to predict the tribological behavior of elastohydrodynamically lubricated contacts, non-dimensional similarity groups and analytically solvable proximity equations can be used to estimate integral fluid film parameters. Based upon the pioneering work presented by Dowson and Higginson as well [...] Read more.

Apart from complex numerical models to predict the tribological behavior of elastohydrodynamically lubricated contacts, non-dimensional similarity groups and analytically solvable proximity equations can be used to estimate integral fluid film parameters. Based upon the pioneering work presented by Dowson and Higginson as well as Blok and Moes, these approaches have been continuously improved over the years by modifications or correction factors to capture different contact geometries (line-, point- or elliptical contacts) as well as to include fluid compression, thermal, non-Newtonian, starvation or roughness effects. Consequently, this review article aims at systematically reviewing these modifications/corrections and discussing their applicability as well as limitations before presenting some recommendations for future research activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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12 pages, 585 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Overview of Grease Water Resistance

by Alan Gurt and Michael Khonsari

Lubricants 2020, 8(9), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8090086 - 21 Aug 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 11416

Abstract

Many grease-lubricated components operate in wet environments, making them susceptible to water contamination which degrades their performance, functionality, and useful life. Hence, selecting a grease with appropriate water-resistant properties can have a significant influence on the life of the machine. While industry standards [...] Read more.

Many grease-lubricated components operate in wet environments, making them susceptible to water contamination which degrades their performance, functionality, and useful life. Hence, selecting a grease with appropriate water-resistant properties can have a significant influence on the life of the machine. While industry standards attempt to evaluate a grease’s water resistance, research indicates that a more thorough understanding of water resistance is needed to properly match a grease to an application. This paper provides an overview of the interaction of grease and water, covers existing water-resistance standards, discusses the results of available experiments aiming to describe the effects of water on grease, demonstrates the need for more meaningful standards, and suggests additional measures for characterizing a grease’s water resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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21 pages, 4345 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Practical Approach to Gear Design and Lubrication: A Review

by Dario Croccolo, Massimiliano De Agostinis, Giorgio Olmi and Nicolò Vincenzi

Lubricants 2020, 8(9), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8090084 - 20 Aug 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7297

Abstract

The modern design of mechanical parts, such as gears, goes through the continuous demand for a high level of efficiency and reliability, as well as an increased load carrying capacity and endurance life. The aim of the present paper was to perform a [...] Read more.

The modern design of mechanical parts, such as gears, goes through the continuous demand for a high level of efficiency and reliability, as well as an increased load carrying capacity and endurance life. The aim of the present paper was to perform a review and to collect practical examples in order to provide interesting tips and guidelines for gear design, including both its dimensioning and its lubrication. From this point of view, this paper is particularly novel, as it is a full-comprehensive collection of all the tools supporting gear design. Several practical aspects have been taken into account, including the definition of the right profile shifting, the selection of a proper lubricant, and the definition of the quality grade and of the tolerances needed to obtain the correct backlash. Finally, a numerical example is provided, addressing the research of the best solution to fit a given space, while maximizing the transmittable torque over weight ratio for two mating spur gears. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue In Commemoration of Professor Duncan Dowson: Tribology: Hydrodynamics, Elastohydrodynamics and Biotribology)

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