Water

22 pages, 5810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Variation on Water Quality and Trophic State of a Tropical Urban Reservoir: A Case Study of the Lake Paranoá-DF, Brazil

by Damiana B. da Silva, Valéria R. Bellotto, Jackeline do S. B. Barbosa and Thiago B. Lima

Water 2021, 13(22), 3314; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223314 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2826

Abstract

Nutrient enrichment and eutrophication are among the main problems that lead to the deterioration of water quality in lakes and reservoirs. In this study, spatial and temporal variations in the concentrations of organic and inorganic species of nitrogen and phosphorus in the water [...] Read more.

Nutrient enrichment and eutrophication are among the main problems that lead to the deterioration of water quality in lakes and reservoirs. In this study, spatial and temporal variations in the concentrations of organic and inorganic species of nitrogen and phosphorus in the water column of Lake Paranoá-DF (Brazil) were evaluated between 2016 and 2017. Seasonality was the main factor in the variations in concentrations of the investigated parameters. Additionally, we found differences in behavior for different nutrients and other variables that indicate different main sources of each nutrient as well as different biogeochemical processes predominating in each season. For example, the electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved silicon, PO₄³⁻, and NO₃⁻ showed mean concentrations significantly higher in the rainy season, indicating greater inputs in these periods (which is in part related to increasing soil leaching and runoff). Agricultural activities were the main source of NO₃⁻ and wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) proved to be the main source of nutrients, mainly NH₄⁺ and all forms of phosphorus. These two allochthonous sources are also the determining factors of the trophic state and the degradation of the water quality of Lake Paranoá. The lake is in the transition process from a mesotrophic to a eutrophic condition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Engineering and Wastewater Treatment Ⅱ)

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26 pages, 703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Stakeholder Engagement in Developing New Technologies and Innovation for Nitrogen Reduction in Waters: A Longitudinal Study

by Kenneth Nygaard, Morten Graversgaard, Tommy Dalgaard, Brian H. Jacobsen and Stefan Schaper

Water 2021, 13(22), 3313; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223313 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4333

Abstract

Better nitrogen management, technologies, and regulation are required to reduce nitrogen losses in the aquatic environment. New innovative technologies can support farmers in a more targeted planning of fertilizer application and crop management at the field level to increase the effect of measures [...] Read more.

Better nitrogen management, technologies, and regulation are required to reduce nitrogen losses in the aquatic environment. New innovative technologies can support farmers in a more targeted planning of fertilizer application and crop management at the field level to increase the effect of measures when reducing nitrogen losses. However, if farmers do not perceive the need for such a concept, the demand (market pull) will be minimal, making the implementation of such a technology difficult. The lack of this market pull could, however, be counterbalanced by a market push from research or requirements from public sector stakeholders (regulators). Within this domain, the main objective of this paper was to study technological change over time and identify and understand the crucial stakeholder involvement using the Functions of Innovation Systems Approach. This article shows how stakeholders’ perceptions and participation evolved over a 10-year period. It examines the interplay between technology readiness and the perceived readiness and acceptance by affected stakeholders. We demonstrate how stakeholder engagement was crucial to ensure the development of the technologies by creating marketable options for their future implementation. A key dynamic that emerged in this process was the transition from a research push to a regulator pull. We demonstrate the fact that without the regulatory requirement linked to changes towards more targeting of measures, the technology would not, on its own, be a business case, although it would provide new knowledge, thus representing a gain for society. The specific findings can be used in countries where new technologies need to be developed, and where a link to the regulation can ensure the active use of the new technology and, therefore, make their implementation worthwhile. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stakeholder Engagement and Governance Arrangements in Agricultural Catchments)

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16 pages, 4655 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Landslide Susceptibility Mapping Incorporating the Effects of Heavy Rainfall: A Case Study of the Heavy Rainfall in August 2021 in Kitakyushu, Fukuoka, Japan

by Jiaying Li, Weidong Wang, Yange Li, Zheng Han and Guangqi Chen

Water 2021, 13(22), 3312; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223312 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2847

Abstract

Landslide represents an increasing menace causing huge casualties and economic losses, and rainfall is a predominant factor inducing landslides. Landslide susceptibility assessment (LSA) is a commonly used and effective method to prevent landslide risk, however, the LSA does not analyze the impact of [...] Read more.

Landslide represents an increasing menace causing huge casualties and economic losses, and rainfall is a predominant factor inducing landslides. Landslide susceptibility assessment (LSA) is a commonly used and effective method to prevent landslide risk, however, the LSA does not analyze the impact of the rainfall on landslides which is significant and non-negligible. Therefore, the spatiotemporal LSA considering the inducing effect of rainfall is proposed to improve accuracy and applicability. In this study, the influencing factors are selected using the chi-square test, out-of-bag error and multicollinearity test. The spatial LSA are thus obtained using the random forest (RF) model, deep belief networks model and support vector machine, and compared using receiver operating characteristic curve and seed cell area index to determine the optimal assessment result. According to the heavy rainfall characteristics in the study area, the rainfall period is divided into four stages, and the effective rainfall model is employed to generate the rainfall impact (RI) maps of the four stages. The spatiotemporal LSAs are obtained by coupling the optimal spatial LSA and various RI maps and verified using the landslide warning map. The results demonstrate that the optimal spatiotemporal LSA is obtained using the spatial LSA of the RF model and temporal LSA of the rainfall data in the peak stage. It can predict the area where rainfall-induced landslides are likely to occur and prevent landslide risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing and GIS for Geological Hazards Assessment)

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12 pages, 3178 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Establishing and Optimizing a Bacterial Consortia for Effective Biodegradation of Petroleum Contaminants: Advancing Classical Microbiology via Experimental and Mathematical Approach

by Baichun Wu, Jingmin Deng, Hao Niu, Jiahao Liang, Muhammad Arslan, Mohamed Gamal El-Din, Qinghong Wang, Shaohui Guo and Chunmao Chen

Water 2021, 13(22), 3311; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223311 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3695

Abstract

In classical microbiology, developing a high-efficiency bacterial consortium is a great challenge for faster biodegradation of petroleum contaminants. In this study, a systematic experimental and mathematical procedure was adopted to establish a bacterial consortium for the effective biodegradation of heavy oil constituents. A [...] Read more.

In classical microbiology, developing a high-efficiency bacterial consortium is a great challenge for faster biodegradation of petroleum contaminants. In this study, a systematic experimental and mathematical procedure was adopted to establish a bacterial consortium for the effective biodegradation of heavy oil constituents. A total of 27 bacterial consortia were established as per orthogonal experiments, using 8 petroleum-degrading bacterial strains. These bacteria were closer phylogenetic relatives of Brevundimonas sp. Tibet-IX23 (Y1), Bacillus firmus YHSA15, B. cereus MTCC 9817, B. aquimaris AT8 (Y2, Y6 and Y7), Pseudomonas alcaligenes NBRC (Y3), Microbacterium oxydans CV8.4 (Y4), Rhodococcus erythropolis SBUG 2052 (Y5), and Planococcus sp. Tibet-IX21 (Y8), and were used in different combinations. Partial correlation analysis and a general linear model hereafter were applied to investigate interspecific relationships among different strains and consortia. The Y1 bacterial species showed a remarkable synergy, whereas Y3, Y4, and Y6 displayed a strong antagonism in all consortia. Inoculation ratios of different strains significantly influenced biodegradation. An optimal consortium was constructed with Y1, Y2, Y5, Y7, and Y8, which revealed maximum degradation of 11.238 mg/mL OD₆₀₀ for oil contaminants. This study provides a line of evidence that a functional consortium can be established by mathematical models for improved bioremediation of petroleum-contaminated environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradation and Biotransformation in Biological Wastewater Treatment: Advances and Perspectives)

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40 pages, 3564 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementing an Operational Framework to Develop a Streamflow Duration Assessment Method: A Case Study from the Arid West United States

by Raphael D. Mazor, Brian J. Topping, Tracie-Lynn Nadeau, Ken M. Fritz, Julia E. Kelso, Rachel A. Harrington, Whitney S. Beck, Kenneth S. McCune, Aaron O. Allen, Robert Leidy, James T. Robb and Gabrielle C. L. David

Water 2021, 13(22), 3310; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223310 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3831

Abstract

Streamflow duration information underpins many management decisions. However, hydrologic data are rarely available where needed. Rapid streamflow duration assessment methods (SDAMs) classify reaches based on indicators that are measured in a single brief visit. We evaluated a proposed framework for developing SDAMs to [...] Read more.

Streamflow duration information underpins many management decisions. However, hydrologic data are rarely available where needed. Rapid streamflow duration assessment methods (SDAMs) classify reaches based on indicators that are measured in a single brief visit. We evaluated a proposed framework for developing SDAMs to develop an SDAM for the Arid West United States that can classify reaches as perennial, intermittent, or ephemeral. We identified 41 candidate biological, geomorphological, and hydrological indicators of streamflow duration in a literature review, evaluated them for a number of desirable criteria (e.g., defensibility and consistency), and measured 21 of them at 89 reaches with known flow durations. We selected metrics for the SDAM based on their ability to discriminate among flow duration classes in analyses of variance, as well as their importance in a random forest model to predict streamflow duration. This approach resulted in a “beta” SDAM that uses five biological indicators. It could discriminate between ephemeral and non-ephemeral reaches with 81% accuracy, but only 56% accuracy when distinguishing 3 classes. A final method will be developed following expanded data collection. This Arid West study demonstrates the effectiveness of our approach and paves the way for more efficient development of scientifically informed SDAMs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)

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17 pages, 2884 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cost-Effectiveness of Treatment Wetlands for Nitrogen Removal in Tropical and Subtropical Australia

by Emad Kavehei, Syezlin Hasan, Carla Wegscheidl, Matthew Griffiths, James C. R. Smart, Carlos Bueno, Liz Owen, Kambez Akrami, Mel Shepherd, Scott Lowe and Maria Fernanda Adame

Water 2021, 13(22), 3309; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223309 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4698

Abstract

Treatment wetlands can reduce nitrogen (N) pollution in waterways. However, the shortage of information on their cost-effectiveness has resulted in their relatively slow uptake in tropical and subtropical Australia, including the catchments of the Great Barrier Reef and Moreton Bay. We assessed the [...] Read more.

Treatment wetlands can reduce nitrogen (N) pollution in waterways. However, the shortage of information on their cost-effectiveness has resulted in their relatively slow uptake in tropical and subtropical Australia, including the catchments of the Great Barrier Reef and Moreton Bay. We assessed the performance of constructed treatment wetlands (CW) and vegetated drains (VD) that treat agricultural runoff, and of sewage treatment plant wetlands (STPW), which polish treated effluent. Treatment performance was estimated as changes in concentration (dissolved inorganic nitrogen, DIN, and total nitrogen, TN; mg L⁻¹) and annual load reductions (kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). We calculated their cost-effectiveness by comparing their N removal against the costs incurred in their design, construction, and maintenance. Overall, CWs and VDs reduced DIN concentrations by 44% (0.52 to 0.29 mg L⁻¹), and STPW reduced them by 91% (2.3 to 0.2 mg L⁻¹); STPWs also reduced TN concentrations by 72%. The efficiency varied among sites, with the best performing CWs and VDs being those with relatively high inflow concentrations (>0.2 mg L⁻¹ of DIN, >0.7 mg L⁻¹ of TN), low suspended solids, high vegetation cover and high length: width ratio. These high performing CWs and VDs removed N for less than USD 37 kg⁻¹ DIN (AUD 50 kg⁻¹ DIN), less than the end-of-catchment benchmark for the Great Barrier Reef of USD 110 kg⁻¹ DIN (AUD 150 kg⁻¹ DIN). When adequately located, designed, and managed, treatment wetlands can be cost-effective and should be adopted for reducing N in tropical and subtropical Australia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Water)

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23 pages, 9490 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Potential of the Cost-Efficient TAHMO Observation Data for Hydro-Meteorological Applications in Sub-Saharan Africa

by Julia Schunke, Patrick Laux, Jan Bliefernicht, Moussa Waongo, Windmanagda Sawadogo and Harald Kunstmann

Water 2021, 13(22), 3308; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223308 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2700

Abstract

The Trans-African Hydro-Meteorological Observatory (TAHMO) is a promising initiative aiming to install 20,000 stations in sub-Saharan Africa counteracting the decreasing trend of available measuring stations. To achieve this goal, it is particularly important that the installed weather stations are cost-efficient, appropriate for African [...] Read more.

The Trans-African Hydro-Meteorological Observatory (TAHMO) is a promising initiative aiming to install 20,000 stations in sub-Saharan Africa counteracting the decreasing trend of available measuring stations. To achieve this goal, it is particularly important that the installed weather stations are cost-efficient, appropriate for African conditions, and reliably measure the most important variables for hydro-meteorological applications. Since there exist no performance studies of TAHMO stations while operating in Africa, it is necessary to investigate their performance under different climate conditions. This study provides a first analysis of the performance of 10 selected TAHMO stations across Burkina Faso (BF). More specifically, the analysis consists of missing value statistics, plausibility tests of temperature (minimum, maximum) and precipitation, spatial dependencies (correlograms) by comparison with daily observations from synoptical stations of the BF meteorological service as well as cross-comparison between the TAHMO stations. Based on the results of this study for BF for the period from May 2017 to December 2020, it is concluded that TAHMO potentially offers a reliable and cost-efficient solution for applications in hydro-meteorology. The usage of wind speed measurements cannot be recommended without reservation, at least not without bias correcting of the data. The limited measurement period of TAHMO still prevents its usability in climate (impact) research. It is also stressed that TAHMO cannot replace existing observation networks operated by the local meteorological services, but it can be a complement and has great potential for detailed spatial analyses. Since restricted to BF in this analysis, more evaluation studies of TAHMO are needed considering different environmental and climate conditions across SSA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Data Pre-post Processing Methods for Modeling Hydro-Climatologic Processes)

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17 pages, 3116 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Water Quality for Aquaculture in Hau River, Mekong Delta, Vietnam Using Multivariate Statistical Analysis

by Fridah Gacheri Mutea, Howard Kasigwa Nelson, Hoa Van Au, Truong Giang Huynh and Ut Ngoc Vu

Water 2021, 13(22), 3307; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223307 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6210

Abstract

The deterioration signs of water quality in the Hau River are apparent. The present study analyzed the surface water quality of the Hau River using multivariate statistical techniques, including principal component analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysis (CA). Eleven water quality parameters were analyzed [...] Read more.

The deterioration signs of water quality in the Hau River are apparent. The present study analyzed the surface water quality of the Hau River using multivariate statistical techniques, including principal component analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysis (CA). Eleven water quality parameters were analyzed at 19 different sites in An Giang and Can Tho Provinces for 12 months from January to December 2019. The findings show high levels of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Soluble Solids (TSS), and total coliform, all year round. The PCA revealed that all the water quality parameters influenced the water quality of the Hau River, hence the relevance for water sample scrutiny. The dendrogram of similarity between sampling sites showed a maximum similarity of 95.6%. The Accumulation Factor (AF) trend showed that the concentrations/values of TSS, BOD, and phosphate (PO4³⁻) in the downstream were 1.29, 1.53, and 1.52 times, respectively, greater than the upstream levels. Despite most of the parameters analyzed supporting aquaculture production, caution is needed in the regulation of pollution point sources to undertake sustainable aquaculture production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Hydroinformatics: Focusing on Machine Learning and Remote Sensing in Hydrology)

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21 pages, 2458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Application of a Self-Organizing Model for the Estimation of Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI) in Soybean with Different Watering Levels

by Angela Anda, Brigitta Simon-Gáspár and Gábor Soós

Water 2021, 13(22), 3306; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223306 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2347

Abstract

A field experiment was conducted with soybean to observe evapotranspiration (ET) and crop water stress index (CWSI) with three watering levels at Keszthely, Hungary, during the growing seasons 2017–2020. The three different watering levels were rainfed, unlimited, and water stress in flowering. Traditional [...] Read more.

A field experiment was conducted with soybean to observe evapotranspiration (ET) and crop water stress index (CWSI) with three watering levels at Keszthely, Hungary, during the growing seasons 2017–2020. The three different watering levels were rainfed, unlimited, and water stress in flowering. Traditional and converted evapotranspirometers documented water stress levels in two soybean varieties (Sinara, Sigalia), with differing water demands. ET totals with no significant differences between varieties varied from 291.9 to 694.9 mm in dry, and from 205.5 to 615.6 mm in wet seasons. Theoretical CWSI, CWSI_t was computed using the method of Jackson. One of the seasons, the wet 2020 had to be excluded from the CWSI_t analysis because of uncertain canopy temperature, T_c data. Seasonal mean CWSI_t and T_c were inversely related to water use efficiency. An unsupervised Kohonen self-organizing map (K-SOM) was developed to predict the CWSI, CWSI_p based on easily accessible meteorological variables and T_c. In the prediction, the CWSI_p of three watering levels and two varieties covered a wide range of index values. The results suggest that CWSI_p modelling with the minimum amount of input data provided opportunity for reliable CWSI_p predictions in every water treatment (R² = 0.935–0.953; RMSE = 0.033–0.068 mm, MAE = 0.026–0.158, NSE = 0.336–0.901, SI = 0.095–0.182) that could be useful in water stress management of soybean. However, highly variable weather conditions in the mild continental climate of Hungary might limit the potential of CWSI application. The results in the study suggest that a less than 450 mm seasonal precipitation caused yield reduction. Therefore, a 100–160 mm additional water use could be recommended during the dry growing seasons of the country. The 150 year-long local meteorological data indicated that 6 growing seasons out of 10 are short of precipitation in rainfed soybean. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water, Agriculture and Aquaculture)

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17 pages, 4268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anthropogenic Disturbances Have Contributed to Degradation of River Water Quality in Arid Areas

by Li Ji, Yuan Li, Guixiang Zhang and Yonghong Bi

Water 2021, 13(22), 3305; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223305 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3774

Abstract

The earth has been reshaped for millennia. The accelerating pace of anthropogenic activities has generated enormous impacts on the water environment. As one of the main drivers of landscape change, anthropogenic disturbance has brought many negative effects on rivers. Studying the relationship between [...] Read more.

The earth has been reshaped for millennia. The accelerating pace of anthropogenic activities has generated enormous impacts on the water environment. As one of the main drivers of landscape change, anthropogenic disturbance has brought many negative effects on rivers. Studying the relationship between anthropogenic disturbances and river water quality is of significance for regional conservation and ecosystem management, while the relationship remains poorly understood in the current. In this study, we quantified anthropogenic disturbances by introducing the concept of the hemeroby index and evaluated rivers’ water quality in eight sub-watersheds on the Loess Plateau. The results indicated that 37.5% of the sub-watersheds were in Eutrophic status, and 62.5% were in Marginal water quality index. The river water quality was most poor in the southwestern region near the Yellow River with high-level anthropogenic disturbance. A correlation analysis between water quality indicators and hemeroby suggested that anthropogenic disturbance contributed to a significant water quality deterioration trend (p < 0.01). The river water quality was relatively sensitive to the changes of completely disturbed land-use covers, including urban and industrial land. Our findings provide theoretical guidance for regional water resources conservation and ecosystem management in arid areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Emerging Solutions for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene)

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20 pages, 8121 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydraulic and Structural Analysis of Complex Cross-Section Reinforced Concrete Pipes to Improve Sewage Flow in a Combined Sewer System

by Hyon Wook Ji, Jeong-Hee Kang, Dan Daehyun Koo and Sung Soo Yoo

Water 2021, 13(22), 3304; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223304 - 22 Nov 2021

Viewed by 2892

Abstract

A complex cross-section reinforced concrete pipe that combines a sub-pipe for the flow of sewage in dry weather and a main pipe for the flow of rainwater was developed to reduce sedimentation of the combined sewer system in dry weather. The sub-pipe was [...] Read more.

A complex cross-section reinforced concrete pipe that combines a sub-pipe for the flow of sewage in dry weather and a main pipe for the flow of rainwater was developed to reduce sedimentation of the combined sewer system in dry weather. The sub-pipe was designed, considering the flow velocity, constructability, and maintenance. By fitting the sewage data in the dry weather to the normal distribution, the ratio of the cross-sectional area of sewage flow to that of the pipe was determined to be approximately 0.418, which could cover 99.85% of the sewage volume of the target site. Based on this ratio, the diameter of the sub-pipe corresponding to the combined sewer system with a pipe diameter between 450 and 1300 mm was determined. The hydraulic performance analysis results showed that the flow velocity increased by 11 to 12% compared to the circular pipe based on the full sub-pipe and by more than 15% depending on the water level. The shear stress increased by more than 16.5%, and higher tractive force was observed. Structural safety was determined as the crack load and failure load far exceeded the minimum criteria, thereby verifying the feasibility and field applicability of the complex cross-section reinforced concrete pipe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)

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16 pages, 1516 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Functional Feeding Groups of Macrofauna and Detritus Decomposition along a Gradient of Glacial Meltwater Influence in Tropical High-Andean Streams

by Patricio Andino, Rodrigo Espinosa, Verónica Crespo-Pérez, Sophie Cauvy-Frauníe, Olivier Dangles and Dean Jacobsen

Water 2021, 13(22), 3303; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223303 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3128

Abstract

Tropical Andean glaciers are retreating rapidly, with possible consequences for trophic structure and ecosystem processes in high Andean meltwater streams. Here, we measured the environmental characteristics, quantified pools of particulate organic matter (POM) and periphyton (Chl. a), sampled benthic macroinvertebrates, determined functional feeding [...] Read more.

Tropical Andean glaciers are retreating rapidly, with possible consequences for trophic structure and ecosystem processes in high Andean meltwater streams. Here, we measured the environmental characteristics, quantified pools of particulate organic matter (POM) and periphyton (Chl. a), sampled benthic macroinvertebrates, determined functional feeding groups (FFG), and performed mesh bag decomposition experiments with Calamagrostis grass detritus at 17 stream sites along a gradient of glacial influence (GI) with 0–23% glacier cover in the catchment at 4050–4200 m a.s.l. in the Andes of Ecuador. POM was unrelated to GI while Chl. a. showed a weak (non-significant) negative relationship to GI. The macrofauna abundance decreased while taxon richness and the number of FFGs per site showed a hump-shaped relationship with increasing GI. Taxa with an opportunistic and generalist feeding mode generally dominated benthic assemblages and were related to high GI levels and low Chl. a. Only shredders were negatively related to GI, but unrelated to POM. Decomposition rates were comparable to those found in temperate alpine streams, and for both fine (0.0010–0.0065; median 0.0028 d⁻¹) and coarse (0.0019–0.0088; median 0.0048 d⁻¹) mesh bags, peaked at intermediate GI values, while the difference between bag types was small and almost constant along the GI gradient. This indicates an overall minor effect of macroinvertebrate shredders compared to that of microbes, in particular at high GI. It also suggests that the relatively high average temperature of these high-altitude equatorial streams (7–10 °C) does not produce higher decomposition rates than those in comparable but colder streams at temperate latitudes. The results suggest that, at the lower end of glacier cover, tropical glacier loss will not change the dominant microbial role in detritus decomposition, but that part of the physical abrasion could be partially replaced by biological shredding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Climate and Environmental Change on Freshwater Ecosystems)

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13 pages, 2564 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Removal of Various Hazardous Materials Using a Multifunctional Biomass-Derived Hydroxyapatite (HAP) Catalyst and Its Antibacterial Effects

by Sanha Jang, Kyeongmun Park, Sehwan Song, Haksoo Lee, Sungkyun Park, Buhyun Youn and Kanghyun Park

Water 2021, 13(22), 3302; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223302 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3052

Abstract

In the present study, oyster shells, a cause of environmental pollution, were employed effectively to synthesize hydroxyapatite (HAP) by facile oxidation and phosphorylation. The ability of HAP to adsorb various metal cations and inhibit bacterial growth was validated. The biomass-derived HAP catalyst exhibited [...] Read more.

In the present study, oyster shells, a cause of environmental pollution, were employed effectively to synthesize hydroxyapatite (HAP) by facile oxidation and phosphorylation. The ability of HAP to adsorb various metal cations and inhibit bacterial growth was validated. The biomass-derived HAP catalyst exhibited high metal cation adsorption in water at room temperature and under various acidic conditions (M = Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Cd, Ba, and Pb). HAP was demonstrated to have a maximum removal efficiency of 92.8% for the heavy metal Pb. Even under different pH conditions, HAP was demonstrated to be effective for the removal of three harmful heavy metals, Cr, Cd, and Pb, with a particularly high removal efficiency demonstrated for Pb under all conditions (average removal efficiency of Cr: 63.0%, Cd: 59.9%, and Pb: 91.6%). In addition, HAP had a significant influence on phosphate ion adsorption in aqueous solution, eliminating 98.1% after 3 min. Furthermore, biomass-derived HAP was demonstrated to have significant antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus (5 mM: 74% and 78.1%, 10 mM: 89.6% and 96.0%, respectively). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Processes for the Removing of Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solutions)

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47 pages, 1055 KiB

Open AccessReview

Urban Wetlands: A Review on Ecological and Cultural Values

by Somayeh Alikhani, Petri Nummi and Anne Ojala

Water 2021, 13(22), 3301; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223301 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 88 | Viewed by 35951

Abstract

Wetlands are a critical part of natural environments that offer a wide range of ecosystem services. In urban areas, wetlands contribute to the livability of cities through improving the water quality, carbon sequestration, providing habitats for wildlife species, reducing the effects of urban [...] Read more.

Wetlands are a critical part of natural environments that offer a wide range of ecosystem services. In urban areas, wetlands contribute to the livability of cities through improving the water quality, carbon sequestration, providing habitats for wildlife species, reducing the effects of urban heat islands, and creating recreation opportunities. However, maintaining wetlands in urban areas faces many challenges, such as the reduction of hydrological functions, changed water regimes due to barriers, contamination by wastewater, habitat loss due to land-use change, and loss of biodiversity due to the entry of alien species. In this article, we review the theoretical background of wetlands in urban areas through the existing studies in the literature. We provide knowledge on urban wetlands and highlight the benefits of these wetlands in urban areas. These benefits include sustainability, biodiversity, urban heat islands, social perception, and recreation values. We also summarize the objectives, methodologies, and findings of the reviewed articles in five tables. In addition, we summarize the critical research gaps addressed in the reviewed articles. Our review study addresses the research gaps by performing a rigorous analysis to identify significant open research challenges, showing the path toward future research in the field. We further discuss and highlight the role of policymakers and stakeholders in preserving wetlands and finally present our conclusions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green and Blue Infrastructure: Current Issues, Challenges, and Opportunities)

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10 pages, 539 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Passive Treatment for Acid Mine Drainage Partially Restores Microbial Community Structure in Different Stream Habitats

by Alexis N. Neff, Dean M. DeNicola and Chris Maltman

Water 2021, 13(22), 3300; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223300 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3334

Abstract

The assessment of the degree to which biological communities in streams impaired by acid mine drainage (AMD) are restored by passive treatment has focused primarily on eukaryotic-cell organisms and microbial processes. The responses of microbial community structure to passive treatment have received much [...] Read more.

The assessment of the degree to which biological communities in streams impaired by acid mine drainage (AMD) are restored by passive treatment has focused primarily on eukaryotic-cell organisms and microbial processes. The responses of microbial community structure to passive treatment have received much less attention, even though functional processes such as nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition depend on taxonomic composition. Our objective was to determine the degree to which passive treatment restored microbial communities in three types of habitats: aqueous, leaf, and sediment. To assess their recovery, we compared the community composition in these habitats based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing at three different stream sites: an untreated AMD site (U), a remediated site below AMD passive treatment (T), and an unimpaired reference site (R). The acidity, conductivity, and soluble metal concentrations at T were found to be elevated compared to R, but generally 1–2 orders of magnitude less than at U. Microbial community composition was found to be synergistically affected by habitat type and AMD impact, with the similarity among communities in the three habitats increasing with the severity of the AMD. Sediment- and leaf-associated microbial communities at U were characterized by taxa that are tolerant to severe AMD. The absence of the nitrogen oxidizing bacterium Nitrospira in sediment communities at T and U was found to correspond to higher NH₄⁺ concentrations compared to R, possibly because of the presence of iron oxyhydroxide precipitate. In contrast, the microbial composition was found to be similar between the T and R sites for both aqueous and leaf communities, indicating that passive treatment was more able to restore these communities to the reference condition than sediment communities. The remediation of AMD streams should consider the habitat-specific responses of microbial community composition and be guided by future studies that empirically couple changes in taxonomic composition to measured functional processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biodiversity and Functionality of Aquatic Ecosystems)

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20 pages, 5788 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Contribution of Rainwater Collection to Crop Production on Udo Island, Korea

by Minseok Kang, Chulsang Yoo and Wooyoung Na

Water 2021, 13(22), 3299; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223299 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2830

Abstract

This study evaluated the contribution of small agricultural reservoirs (the mool-tongs) to crop production on Udo, and the role they play. Agricultural water demand and deficit, water storage in the mool-tongs, and the amount of irrigation water were analyzed by applying the water [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the contribution of small agricultural reservoirs (the mool-tongs) to crop production on Udo, and the role they play. Agricultural water demand and deficit, water storage in the mool-tongs, and the amount of irrigation water were analyzed by applying the water balance model. In particular, the Blaney-Criddle method was used to estimate the agricultural water for crop growth. In this study, four typical crops of garlic, spring onion, peanut, and barley were considered, whose growing seasons were somewhat different from each other. A total of 47 years (1973–2019) of rainfall, temperature, and evaporation data were used in this study. As a result, it was confirmed that the crop coefficient, growing period of a crop, share of the cultivated area, and the seasonal distribution of rainfall affect the role of the mool-tongs. Comparison of the frequencies of occurrence of agricultural water deficit and irrigation interval before and after introducing the mool-tongs also confirms their usefulness. After the introduction of the mool-tongs for irrigation, the frequency of occurrence of agricultural water deficits changed significantly, from almost 30% of the entire simulation period to less than 20%. Even though the water supply capacity of the mool-tongs on Udo is insufficient to offset the entire agricultural water deficit, the water stored in the mool-tongs was found to considerably aid the survival of the crops and increase crop production. The results in this study can help to determine the capacity of rainwater collecting systems, especially on a small island where the available water resources are limited. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water and Crops)

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20 pages, 12269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal and Spatial Changes of Runoff Regime in the Yellow River Basin from 1956 to 2017

by Mingda Yang, Huan Liu, Yuping Han, Qinghui Zeng, Jianhua Wang and Peng Hu

Water 2021, 13(22), 3298; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223298 - 21 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2754

Abstract

The Yellow River is one of the major rivers with severe runoff declines in China, but there are significant differences in runoff changes in the upper and lower reaches of the basin and among different tributaries. However, the characteristic of runoff change and [...] Read more.

The Yellow River is one of the major rivers with severe runoff declines in China, but there are significant differences in runoff changes in the upper and lower reaches of the basin and among different tributaries. However, the characteristic of runoff change and its spatial heterogeneity are not well understood in the whole basin. In this paper, 48 hydrological stations located in the mainstream and major tributaries were selected, and the meteorological and runoff data from 1956 to 2017 were collected. The multi-year and intra-year changes in runoff were analyzed, and then the attribution of climate change and human activity to runoff change was quantified by the climate elasticity coefficients. The results showed that: (1) in the past 60 years, the runoff of the Yellow River showed a serious decrease trend of −8.25 mm/10a. Moreover, most tributaries decreased significantly in runoff with a rate of −1.42 mm/10a to −28.99 mm/10a; (2) for the whole basin, the contribution of climate change and human activity to runoff changes was 13% and 87%, respectively. Moreover, the contribution of the two factors varied considerably in different tributaries. Finally, focusing on different runoff regime and socioeconomic characteristics, this study provided corresponding water resources adaptive management suggestions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Assessing Water Ecosystem Services for Water Resource Management)

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15 pages, 2821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Filter Tube of Pumping Well on Groundwater Drawdown during Deep Foundation Pit Dewatering

by Xuehan Zhang, Xuwei Wang and Yeshuang Xu

Water 2021, 13(22), 3297; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223297 - 21 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2893

Abstract

The partial penetrating waterproof curtain combined with pumping wells is widely applied to deep foundation pit dewatering engineering. The filter tube of the pumping well plays a critical role on the environment effect that resulted from foundation pit dewatering. This paper investigated the [...] Read more.

The partial penetrating waterproof curtain combined with pumping wells is widely applied to deep foundation pit dewatering engineering. The filter tube of the pumping well plays a critical role on the environment effect that resulted from foundation pit dewatering. This paper investigated the impact of the filter tube on the groundwater drawdown outside the pit to provide a theoretical basis for the foundation pit dewatering design. Three patterns according to the relative position of the waterproof curtain and the filter tube, which are called wall-well patterns, namely the full-closed pattern, part-closed pattern, and none-closed pattern, have been analyzed. By taking a practice engineering case in Shanghai as an example, the relationship among the proportion of the filter tube length to the dewatering aquifer thickness, the buried depth difference of the wall-well, and the groundwater drawdown difference at both sides of the waterproof curtain are discussed by numerical simulation. The full-closed pattern is the optimal wall-well pattern on the ideal condition. The suggested and optimal values of the filter tube length to the dewatering aquifer thickness are 38.7% and 58.2%. The suggested and optimal values of the buried depth difference of the wall-well are −6.41 m and −1.92 m. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Water)

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13 pages, 7643 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effects of Arctic Warming on Microbes and Methane in Different Land Types in Svalbard

by Fang Zhang, Han Zhang, Shaofeng Pei, Liyang Zhan and Wangwang Ye

Water 2021, 13(22), 3296; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223296 - 21 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3066

Abstract

Climate change is having a profound impact on Arctic microbiomes and their living environments. However, we have only incomplete knowledge about the seasonal and inter-annual variations observed among these microbes and about their methane regulation mechanisms with respect to glaciers, glacial melting, snow [...] Read more.

Climate change is having a profound impact on Arctic microbiomes and their living environments. However, we have only incomplete knowledge about the seasonal and inter-annual variations observed among these microbes and about their methane regulation mechanisms with respect to glaciers, glacial melting, snow lakes and coastal marine water. This gap in our knowledge limits our understanding of the linkages between climate and environmental change. In the Arctic, there are large reservoirs of methane which are sensitive to temperature changes. If global warming intensifies, larger quantities of methane stored in deep soil and sediments will be released into the atmosphere, causing irreversible effects on the global ecosystem. Methane production is mainly mediated by microorganisms. Although we have some knowledge of microbial community structure, we know less about the methane-correlated microbes in different land types in the Svalbard archipelago, and we do not have a comprehensive grasp of the relationship between them. That is the main reason we have written this paper, in which current knowledge of microorganisms and methane-correlated types in High Arctic Svalbard is described. The problems that need to be addressed in the future are also identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice-Ocean-Atmosphere Exchanges in the Arctic Region and Its Impacts)

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19 pages, 10626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toxicity and Risks Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in River Bed Sediments of an Artisanal Crude Oil Refining Area in the Niger Delta, Nigeria

by Ibigoni C. Howard, Kingsley E. Okpara and Kuaanan Techato

Water 2021, 13(22), 3295; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223295 - 21 Nov 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4179

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants that possess serious risks to human health and the environment. Forty riverbed sediments samples were collected in mangrove river bed sediments where artisanal refining of crude oil takes place in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. [...] Read more.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants that possess serious risks to human health and the environment. Forty riverbed sediments samples were collected in mangrove river bed sediments where artisanal refining of crude oil takes place in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. The concentration, occurrence, distribution, toxicity and health risk of sixteen priority PAHs (16PAHs) were analysed in the samples. Apart from Nap, Acy, BkF, InP and DbE, all the other PAHs were present in all the sampled points of the studied area with BbF and BaA recording the highest mean values. The range and mean of the total PAHs (∑16PAHs) of this study are 23.461–89.886 mg/kg and 42.607 ± 14.30 mg/kg dry weight (dw), which is classified as heavily contaminated when compared to the European classification of PAHs pollution in soil (>1.0 mg/kg). The range of the effect range factors used to assess the risk of PAHs in an ecosystem (Effect rang-low (ER-L) and Effect range-median ER-M) of this study is from 0.953 to 8.80 mg/kg. PAHs below ER-L (4.0 mg/kg) indicate no toxic effect, but values above ER-M (44.79 mg/kg) indicate toxic effects to the sediments, its resources and, ultimately, the public that consumes the resources thereof; hence, the study area falls within the contaminated category. The occurrence of the high molecular weight (HMW) PAHs (73.4%) supersedes those of the lower molecular weight (LMW) PAHs (26.6%). The diagnostic ratios and principal component analysis suggest that the main contributors of PAHS into the sediments are the combustion of biomass, fossil fuel (crude oil) and pyrogenic sources. The toxic equivalent quotient (TEQ) and mutagenic equivalent quotient (MEQ) of PAHs ranged from 2.96 to 23.26 mgTEQ/kg dw and 4.47 to 23.52 mgMEQ/kg dw, and the total mean toxic equivalency quotient (∑TEQ) (15.12 ± 8.4 mg/kg) is also greater than the safe level of 0.6 mg/kg, which indicates high toxicity potency. The mean incremental lifetime cancer risks (ILCRs) of human exposure to PAHs shows that both adults Total_ILCR _adults (6.15 × 10⁻⁵) and children Total_ILCR _children (2.48 × 10⁻⁴) can be affected by dermal contact rather than ingestion and inhalation. Based on these findings, the appropriate regulatory bodies and other organs of government in the region should enforce outright stoppage of the activities of these illegal artisans who do not have control mechanisms for loss control at the site and carry out appropriate clean-up of the area. Full article

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14 pages, 3420 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Prediction of Summer Precipitation in the Middle and Lower Reaches of the Yangtze River Valley: Comparison of Machine Learning and Climate Model Predictions

by Chentao He, Jiangfeng Wei, Yuanyuan Song and Jing-Jia Luo

Water 2021, 13(22), 3294; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223294 - 21 Nov 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4128

Abstract

The middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River valley (YRV), which are among the most densely populated regions in China, are subject to frequent flooding. In this study, the predictor importance analysis model was used to sort and select predictors, and five [...] Read more.

The middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River valley (YRV), which are among the most densely populated regions in China, are subject to frequent flooding. In this study, the predictor importance analysis model was used to sort and select predictors, and five methods (multiple linear regression (MLR), decision tree (DT), random forest (RF), backpropagation neural network (BPNN), and convolutional neural network (CNN)) were used to predict the interannual variation of summer precipitation over the middle and lower reaches of the YRV. Predictions from eight climate models were used for comparison. Of the five tested methods, RF demonstrated the best predictive skill. Starting the RF prediction in December, when its prediction skill was highest, the 70-year correlation coefficient from cross validation of average predictions was 0.473. Using the same five predictors in December 2019, the RF model successfully predicted the YRV wet anomaly in summer 2020, although it had weaker amplitude. It was found that the enhanced warm pool area in the Indian Ocean was the most important causal factor. The BPNN and CNN methods demonstrated the poorest performance. The RF, DT, and climate models all showed higher prediction skills when the predictions start in winter than in early spring, and the RF, DT, and MLR methods all showed better prediction skills than the numerical climate models. Lack of training data was a factor that limited the performance of the machine learning methods. Future studies should use deep learning methods to take full advantage of the potential of ocean, land, sea ice, and other factors for more accurate climate predictions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrological Cycle and Land-Atmosphere Interactions: From Evapotranspiration to Precipitation)

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17 pages, 3384 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Models of Gully Erosion by Water

by Aleksey Sidorchuk

Water 2021, 13(22), 3293; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223293 - 21 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3390

Abstract

The type of modelling of gully erosion for the projects of land management depend on the targets and degree of details of these projects, as well as on the availability of input data. The set of four models cover a broad range of [...] Read more.

The type of modelling of gully erosion for the projects of land management depend on the targets and degree of details of these projects, as well as on the availability of input data. The set of four models cover a broad range of possible applications. The most detailed information about predicted gullies, change of their depth, width, and volume throughout the gully lifetime is obtained with the gully erosion and thermoerosion dynamic model. The calculation requires the time series of surface runoff, catchment relief, and lithology and the complex of coefficients and parameters, some of which can be estimated only by model calibration on the measurements. The difficulty in obtaining some of these coefficients makes it necessary to use less complicated models. The stable gully model predicts final gully depths and widths and is useful for projects where only stable gully geometry is used. The modified area–slope approach is used in the two simplest models, where the position on the slopes of possible gullies is calculated without details of the gully geometry. One of these models calculates total erosion potential, taking into account all water runoff transforming a gully. The second calculates gully erosion risk, using the information about slope inclination, contributing area and maximum surface runoff. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Water Erosion)

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12 pages, 956 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Density Slopes in Variable Density Flow Modeling

by Weixing Guo

Water 2021, 13(22), 3292; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223292 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3324

Abstract

Variable density flow (VDF) modeling is a valuable tool for assessing the potential impacts of global climate change and sea level rise on coastal aquifers. When using any of these modeling tools, a quantitative relationship is needed to compute the fluid density from [...] Read more.

Variable density flow (VDF) modeling is a valuable tool for assessing the potential impacts of global climate change and sea level rise on coastal aquifers. When using any of these modeling tools, a quantitative relationship is needed to compute the fluid density from salt concentration. A full understanding of the relationship between fluid density and solute concentration and the correct implementation of the equation of state are critical for variable density modeling. The works of Baxter and his colleagues in the early 20th century showed that fluid density could be linearly correlated to salt concentrations. A constant density slope of 0.7 is often assumed and applied. The assumption is reasonable when the salinity is less than 100‰. The density slope can also be defined from chloride concentration data with the assumption of a constant ratio (55%) between chloride and total dissolved solids (TDS). Field data from central Florida indicate that the chloride/TDS ratio can be as low as 5%. Therefore, TDS is the preferred water quality data for fluid density determination in variable density modeling. Other issues with density slope are also discussed, and some commonly used values of density slope are provided in this technical note. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Flow Modeling in Coastal Aquifers)

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20 pages, 7653 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Openness of Fish Habitat Matters: Lake Pelagic Fish Community Starts Very Close to the Shore

by Karlos Moraes, Allan T. Souza, Mojmír Vašek, Daniel Bartoň, Petr Blabolil, Martin Čech, Romulo A. dos Santos, Vladislav Draštík, Michaela Holubová, Tomáš Jůza, Luboš Kočvara, Kateřina Kolářová, Josef Matěna, Jiří Peterka, Milan Říha, Zuzana Sajdlová, Marek Šmejkal, Lobsang Tsering and Jan Kubečka

Water 2021, 13(22), 3291; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223291 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3107

Abstract

Fish communities differ significantly between the littoral and the pelagic habitats. This paper attempts to define the shift in communities between the two habitats based on the European standard gillnet catch. We sampled the benthic and pelagic habitats from shore to shore in [...] Read more.

Fish communities differ significantly between the littoral and the pelagic habitats. This paper attempts to define the shift in communities between the two habitats based on the European standard gillnet catch. We sampled the benthic and pelagic habitats from shore to shore in Lake Most and Římov Reservoir (Czech Republic). The 3 m deep pelagic nets were spanned across the water body at equal distances from two boundary points, where the depth was 3.5 m. The benthic community contained more fish, more species, and smaller individuals. The mild sloped littoral with a soft bottom attracted more fish than the sloping bank with a hard bottom and less benthos and large Daphnia. The catch of the pelagic nets was dominated by eurytopic fish—rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) and roach (Rutilus rutilus) in Most and bleak (Alburnus alburnus) in Římov. With the exception of one case where overgrown macrophytes extended the structured habitat, the largest shift from the benthic to the pelagic community was observed only in the first pelagic gillnet above the bottom depth of 3.5 m. Open water catches were relatively constant with small signs of decline towards the middle of the lake. The results indicate that the benthic gillnet catch is representative of a very limited area and volume, while most of the volume is dominated by the pelagic community. This has important consequences for the assessment of the community parameters of the whole lake following the European standards for gillnet sampling design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biodiversity and Functionality of Aquatic Ecosystems)

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21 pages, 7239 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Permeability Estimation Method Based on Elliptical Pore Approximation

by Shuaishuai Wei, Kun Wang, Huan Zhang, Junming Zhang, Jincheng Wei, Wenyang Han and Lei Niu

Water 2021, 13(22), 3290; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223290 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2568

Abstract

Digital rock images may capture more detailed pore structure than the traditional laboratory methods. No explicit function can correlate permeability accurately for flow within the pore space. This has motivated researchers to predict permeability through the application of numerical techniques, e.g., using the [...] Read more.

Digital rock images may capture more detailed pore structure than the traditional laboratory methods. No explicit function can correlate permeability accurately for flow within the pore space. This has motivated researchers to predict permeability through the application of numerical techniques, e.g., using the finite difference method (FDM). However, in order to get better permeability calculation results, the grid refinement was needed for the traditional FDM and the accuracy of the traditional method decreased in pores with elongated cross sections. The goal of this study is to develop an improved FDM (IFDM) to calculate the permeabilities of digital rock images with complex pore space. An elliptical pore approximation method is invoked to describe the complex pore space. The permeabilities of four types of idealized porous media are calculated by IFDM. The calculated results are in sound agreement with the analytical solutions or semi-empirical solutions. What’s more, the permeabilities of the digital rock images after grid coarsening are calculated by IFDM in three orthogonal directions. These results are compared with the previously validated lattice-Boltzmann method (LBM), which indicates that the predicted permeabilities calculated by IFDM usually agree with permeabilities calculated by LBM. We conclude that the presented IFDM is suitable for complex pore space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Fluid Dynamics and Modeling)

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17 pages, 2511 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Scour Hole Development in Natural Cohesive Bed Sediment around Cylinder-Shaped Piers Subjected to Varying Sequential Flow Events

by Badal Mahalder, John S. Schwartz, Angelica M. Palomino and Jon Zirkle

Water 2021, 13(22), 3289; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223289 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2367

Abstract

Scour evolution and propagation around a cylinder in natural cohesive sediment was uniquely investigated under multi-flow event varying sequentially by velocity magnitudes. This flume study differs from others that only used test sediment with commercially available clays for single flow. The objective of [...] Read more.

Scour evolution and propagation around a cylinder in natural cohesive sediment was uniquely investigated under multi-flow event varying sequentially by velocity magnitudes. This flume study differs from others that only used test sediment with commercially available clays for single flow. The objective of this study was to explore the potential differences in scour hole development in natural riverbed sediments subjected to varying flow velocity scenarios, advancing our understanding from existing studies on scour. The study consisted of 18 experimental runs based on: velocity, flow duration, and soil bulk density. Scour hole development progressed initially along the cylinder sides, and maximum depths also occurred at these lateral locations. Scour hole depths were less for higher soil bulk densities (≥1.81 g/cm³) compared with lower densities, and erosion rates were slower. It was observed with all flow sequences that scour depths were similar at the end of each experimental run. However, scour initiation was observed to be time dependent for soils with higher bulk density (1.81–2.04 g/cm³) regardless of flow velocity sequences. The observed time dependency suggests a process feedback with the scour hole development initiated at the cylinder sides, which influence local 3D hydraulics as the scour hole depth progresses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Erosion and Sediment Transport)

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14 pages, 3117 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Water Supply Increases N Acquisition and N Resorption from Old Branches in the Leafless Shrub Calligonum caput-medusae at the Taklimakan Desert Margin

by Caibian Huang, Fanjiang Zeng, Bo Zhang, Jie Xue and Shaomin Zhang

Water 2021, 13(22), 3288; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223288 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2166

Abstract

Irrigation is the main strategy deployed to improve vegetation establishment, but the effects of increasing water availability on N use strategies in desert shrub species have received little attention. Pot experiments with drought-tolerant shrub Calligonum caput-medusae supplied with water at five field capacities [...] Read more.

Irrigation is the main strategy deployed to improve vegetation establishment, but the effects of increasing water availability on N use strategies in desert shrub species have received little attention. Pot experiments with drought-tolerant shrub Calligonum caput-medusae supplied with water at five field capacities in the range of 30–85% were conducted using local soil at the southern margin of the Taklimakan Desert. We examined the changes in plant biomass, soil N status, and plant N traits, and addressed the relationships between them in four- and seven-month-old saplings and mature shrubs after 28 months. Results showed that the growth of C. caput-medusae was highly responsive to increased soil moisture supply, and strongly depleted the soil available inorganic N pools from 16.7 mg kg⁻¹ to an average of 1.9 mg kg⁻¹, although the total soil N pool increased in all treatments. Enhancement of biomass production by increasing water supply was closely linked to increasing total plant N pool, N use efficiency (NUE), N resorption efficiency (NRE), and proficiency (NRP) in four-month saplings, but that to total plant N pool, NRE, and NRP after 28 months. The well-watered plants had lower N concentrations in senesced branches compared to their counterparts experiencing the two lowest water inputs. The mature shrubs had higher NRE and NRP than saplings and the world mean levels, suggesting a higher N conservation. Structural equation models showed that NRE was largely controlled by senesced branch N concentrations, and indirectly affected by water supply, whereas NRP was mainly determined by water supply. Our results indicated that increasing water availability increased the total N uptake and N resorption from old branches to satisfy the N requirement of C. caput-medusae. The findings lay important groundwork for vegetation establishment in desert ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Hydrological Processes in Desert Regions)

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19 pages, 4475 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Facile Synthesis of Cu-Zn Binary Oxide Coupled Cadmium Tungstate (Cu-ZnBO-Cp-CT) with Enhanced Performance of Dye Adsorption

by Bushra Fatima, Basem Al Alwan, Sharf Ilahi Siddiqui, Rabia Ahmad, Mohammed Almesfer, Manoj Kumar Khanna, Ruby Mishra, Rangnath Ravi and Seungdae Oh

Water 2021, 13(22), 3287; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223287 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2306

Abstract

This study reports the synthesis of copper–zinc binary oxide coupled cadmium tungstate through a simple bio-precipitation method followed by calcination at 600 °C and its adsorption application. The characterization analysis reveals that the prepared composite has low particles size (nano-range), high porosity, and [...] Read more.

This study reports the synthesis of copper–zinc binary oxide coupled cadmium tungstate through a simple bio-precipitation method followed by calcination at 600 °C and its adsorption application. The characterization analysis reveals that the prepared composite has low particles size (nano-range), high porosity, and functional groups on the surface. The calcination of sample at 600 °C causes some essential function groups to disappear on the surface. Prepared composite was found to be effective adsorptive material to treat Congo red dye in aqueous solution. 2.5 g L⁻¹ dose of adsorbent could remove more than 99% Congo red dye from 10 mg L⁻¹ solution and more than 80% Congo red dye from 60 mg L⁻¹ aqueous solution. The maximum adsorption capacity of present adsorbent was calculated to be 19.6 mg Congo red per gram of adsorbent. Isotherms analysis suggested a physio-chemical adsorption process. Thermodynamic analysis revealed a exothermic and feasible adsorption process. Adsorption rate was well explained by pseudo second order kinetics. The rate determining step was intra-particle diffusion evaluated from the Weber-Morris plot. To assess the adsorption performance of present adsorbent for Congo red dye the partition coefficient and adsorption equilibrium capacity were compared with other adsorbents. The partition coefficient and adsorption equilibrium values for 10 mg L⁻¹ aqueous solution were found to be approximately 83.3 mg g⁻¹ µM⁻¹ and 4.0 mg g⁻¹ at 30 °C and 7.0 pH using 2.5 g L⁻¹ adsorbent. The value of partition coefficient was found to be higher than previous reported zinc oxide coupled cadmium tungstate having partition coefficient = as 21.4 mg g⁻¹ µM⁻¹ at 30 °C and 7.0 pH using 2.0 g L⁻¹ adsorbent. These results suggested that present adsorption technology is efficient for wastewater treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)

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7 pages, 794 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Sentinel-2 Reveals Abrupt Increment of Total Suspended Matter While Ever Given Ship Blocked the Suez Canal

by Milad Niroumand-Jadidi and Francesca Bovolo

Water 2021, 13(22), 3286; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223286 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3107

Abstract

The blockage of the Suez Canal, one of the world’s key trade routes, by a giant container ship in March 2021 was in the spotlight of news media worldwide, mainly because of its economic impacts. In this study, we look at this event [...] Read more.

The blockage of the Suez Canal, one of the world’s key trade routes, by a giant container ship in March 2021 was in the spotlight of news media worldwide, mainly because of its economic impacts. In this study, we look at this event from an environmental perspective by analyzing the impact of the artificial barrier made by the ship over the channel and of operations like dredging on the concentration of total suspended matter (TSM). In this context, multitemporal Sentinel-2 images are used to study short-term variations of TSM within a time window spanning before, during, and after the blockage event. A well-established neural network-based processor called Case 2 Regional CoastColour (C2RCC) is employed to derive remote sensing reflectance (Rrs) and then TSM concentrations from Sentinel-2 imagery. The results indicate that the stuck ship acted as an artificial barrier leading to very different TSM conditions north and south of the canal. Furthermore, the blockage of the Suez Canal and subsequent dredging caused an abrupt increment (+400%) in the concentration of TSM moving north from the ship’s location. We also identified a very high contrast between the TSM concentration in the north and south of the vessel during the blockage event. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)

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12 pages, 1650 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Adaptive Agricultural Strategies for Facing Water Deficit in Sweet Maize Production: A Case Study of a Semi-Arid Mediterranean Region

by Lea Piscitelli, Milica Colovic, Adel Aly, Mohamad Hamze, Mladen Todorovic, Vito Cantore and Rossella Albrizio

Water 2021, 13(22), 3285; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223285 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3332 | Correction

Abstract

Maize is a crucial global commodity, which is used not only for food, but also as an alternative crop in biogas production and as a major energy-supply ingredient in animal diets. However, climate change is jeopardizing current maize production due to its direct [...] Read more.

Maize is a crucial global commodity, which is used not only for food, but also as an alternative crop in biogas production and as a major energy-supply ingredient in animal diets. However, climate change is jeopardizing current maize production due to its direct impact on weather instability and water availability or its indirect effects on regional climate suitability loss. Hence, new areas for sweet maize cultivation should be considered in the future. Therefore, this study focuses on the possibility of producing maize in a challenging environment in Southern Italy considering rainfed cultivation and two irrigation regimes (full and deficit). The experiment was conducted during two subsequent growing seasons under semi-arid Mediterranean climate conditions. The overall results indicated a significant difference in biomass and yield between irrigated and non-irrigated treatments, and between full and deficit irrigation. Sweet maize cultivated under deficit irrigation gained less biomass than under full irrigation and its development and fruit maturation were delayed. Under deficit irrigation, the plants gave lower yields and a higher percentage of the panicle weight consisted of kernels. Irrigation water productivity was higher for deficit than for full irrigated treatment. These findings indicate the feasibility of sweet maize production in semi-arid areas of Southern Italy using adaptive agricultural strategies including deficit irrigation and controlled water stress. Given the importance of maize production, understanding of maize growth and productivity in a challenging environment may support future agricultural programming and thereby contribute e to mitigation of the direct and indirect effects of climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Smart Irrigation Management for Sustainable Agricultural Cultivation)

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