Agriculture

16 pages, 1077 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Induced Polyploidy: A Tool for Forage Species Improvement

by Saeed Rauf, Rodomiro Ortiz, Dariusz P. Malinowski, Wellington Ronildo Clarindo, Wardah Kainat, Muhammad Shehzad, Ummara Waheed and Syed Wasim Hassan

Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030210 - 4 Mar 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7088

Abstract

Polyploidy means having more than two basic sets of chromosomes. Polyploid plants may be artificially obtained through chemical, physical and biological (2n gametes) methods. This approach allows an increased gene scope and expression, thus resulting in phenotypic changes such as yield and [...] Read more.

Polyploidy means having more than two basic sets of chromosomes. Polyploid plants may be artificially obtained through chemical, physical and biological (2n gametes) methods. This approach allows an increased gene scope and expression, thus resulting in phenotypic changes such as yield and product quality. Nonetheless, breeding new cultivars through induced polyploidy should overcome deleterious effects that are partly contributed by genome and epigenome instability after polyploidization. Furthermore, shortening the time required from early chromosome set doubling to the final selection of high yielding superior polyploids is a must. Despite these hurdles, plant breeders have successfully obtained polyploid bred-germplasm in broad range of forages after optimizing methods, concentration and time, particularly when using colchicine. These experimental polyploids are a valuable tool for understanding gene expression, which seems to be driven by dosage dependent gene expression, altered gene regulation and epigenetic changes. Isozymes and DNA-based markers facilitated the identification of rare alleles for particular loci when compared with diploids, and also explained their heterozygosity, phenotypic plasticity and adaptability to diverse environments. Experimentally induced polyploid germplasm could enhance fresh herbage yield and quality, e.g., leaf protein content, leaf total soluble solids, water soluble carbohydrates and sucrose content. Offspring of experimentally obtained hybrids should undergo selection for several generations to improve their performance and stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Genetics, Genomics and Breeding)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2855 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Revamping Ecosystem Services through Agroecology—The Case of Cereals

by Gomathy Sethuraman, Nurul Amalina Mohd Zain, Sumiani Yusoff, Yin Mei Ng, Niranjan Baisakh and Acga Cheng

Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030204 - 3 Mar 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6267

Abstract

Globally, farming systems are mostly dominated by monoculture, which has the advantage of profitability at the expense of ecological systems. Recent years have witnessed an increasing momentum in global efforts to deploy sustainable agriculture practices that mimic ecological processes, with agroecology at the [...] Read more.

Globally, farming systems are mostly dominated by monoculture, which has the advantage of profitability at the expense of ecological systems. Recent years have witnessed an increasing momentum in global efforts to deploy sustainable agriculture practices that mimic ecological processes, with agroecology at the forefront. In addition to the ecological aspect, agroecology also encompasses economic and social aspects targeting the whole food system. Transformative agroecology has been recognized as a stepping stone to achieving several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), due to its great potential to build climate change-resilient farming systems while enhancing ecosystem services and reducing biodiversity loss. Nonetheless, the available literature on the recent developments and future trajectories of the adoption of agroecology approaches for improving the production of cereals, the most important group of food crops, is limited. This review aims to highlight the blueprint of agroecology that can contribute to the achievements of the SDGs, allowing explicit interpretation of the term that will benefit twenty-first century agriculture. Using cereal crops as the case study, we provide insights into how far this field has come and the main barriers to its adoption, and conclude that this approach of “science for and with society” is the way forward for building a resilient future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation Agriculture for Ecosystem Services)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 706 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

By-Product Feeds: Current Understanding and Future Perspectives

by Kaili Yang, Yiqing Qing, Qifang Yu, Xiaopeng Tang, Gang Chen, Rejun Fang and Hu Liu

Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030207 - 3 Mar 2021

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 10177

Abstract

Recently, industrial and agricultural by-products, resulting from crops, fruit and vegetable processing which can be used in animal diets have become a hot topic in the animal feed industry. This review focuses on the agro-industry by-products as feeds, not only for the nutritional [...] Read more.

Recently, industrial and agricultural by-products, resulting from crops, fruit and vegetable processing which can be used in animal diets have become a hot topic in the animal feed industry. This review focuses on the agro-industry by-products as feeds, not only for the nutritional values, but also for their nutricine contribution. In this review, we described the chemical composition of some by-products as feeds and their limiting factors in animal feeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improvement and Innovation in the Nutritional Quality and Technologies of Animal Feed)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 3855 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

State of the Art of Monitoring Technologies and Data Processing for Precision Viticulture

by Marco Ammoniaci, Simon-Paolo Kartsiotis, Rita Perria and Paolo Storchi

Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030201 - 28 Feb 2021

Cited by 54 | Viewed by 8438

Abstract

Precision viticulture (PV) aims to optimize vineyard management, reducing the use of resources, the environmental impact and maximizing the yield and quality of the production. New technologies as UAVs, satellites, proximal sensors and variable rate machines (VRT) are being developed and used more [...] Read more.

Precision viticulture (PV) aims to optimize vineyard management, reducing the use of resources, the environmental impact and maximizing the yield and quality of the production. New technologies as UAVs, satellites, proximal sensors and variable rate machines (VRT) are being developed and used more and more frequently in recent years thanks also to informatics systems able to read, analyze and process a huge number of data in order to give the winegrowers a decision support system (DSS) for making better decisions at the right place and time. This review presents a brief state of the art of precision viticulture technologies, focusing on monitoring tools, i.e., remote/proximal sensing, variable rate machines, robotics, DSS and the wireless sensor network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Precision Viticulture and Enology: Technologies and Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 2273 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Challenges of Smallholder Farming in Ethiopia and Opportunities by Adopting Climate-Smart Agriculture

by Gebeyanesh Zerssa, Debela Feyssa, Dong-Gill Kim and Bettina Eichler-Löbermann

Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030192 - 26 Feb 2021

Cited by 155 | Viewed by 43828

Abstract

Agriculture is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy, and the agricultural sector is dominated by smallholder farming systems. The farming systems are facing constraints such as small land size, lack of resources, and increasing degradation of soil quality that hamper sustainable crop production [...] Read more.

Agriculture is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy, and the agricultural sector is dominated by smallholder farming systems. The farming systems are facing constraints such as small land size, lack of resources, and increasing degradation of soil quality that hamper sustainable crop production and food security. The effects of climate change (e.g., frequent occurrence of extreme weather events) exacerbate these problems. Applying appropriate technologies like climate-smart agriculture (CSA) can help to resolve the constraints of smallholder farming systems. This paper provides a comprehensive overview regarding opportunities and challenges of traditional and newly developed CSA practices in Ethiopia, such as integrated soil fertility management, water harvesting, and agroforestry. These practices are commonly related to drought resilience, stability of crop yields, carbon sequestration, greenhouse gas mitigation, and higher household income. However, the adoption of the practices by smallholder farmers is often limited, mainly due to shortage of cropland, land tenure issues, lack of adequate knowledge about CSA, slow return on investments, and insufficient policy and implementation schemes. It is suggested that additional measures be developed and made available to help CSA practices become more prevalent in smallholder farming systems. The measures should include the utilization of degraded and marginal lands, improvement of the soil organic matter management, provision of capacity-building opportunities and financial support, as well as the development of specific policies for smallholder farming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Systems and Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 835 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Forecasting Global Developments and Challenges in Olive Oil Supply and Demand: A Delphi Survey from Spain

by Samir Mili and Maria Bouhaddane

Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030191 - 26 Feb 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 11107

Abstract

Forecasting future supply and demand is a topical subject in the olive oil sector due to its relevance for decision making and the lack of comprehensive and consensual estimates at the global level. This study aims at overcoming this gap in research by [...] Read more.

Forecasting future supply and demand is a topical subject in the olive oil sector due to its relevance for decision making and the lack of comprehensive and consensual estimates at the global level. This study aims at overcoming this gap in research by providing a foresight of global supply and demand for olive oil for the years to come. We use the Delphi technique to estimate the expected annual growth rates in the olive oil production and consumption worldwide as well as their likely impact on Spanish exports by 2025. Another key objective of the study is to elicit expert judgements on the factors that are likely to shape the predicted changes as well as the international challenges ahead. Results suggest substantial future increases in production in new-producing countries, in parallel with a slower growth in the European traditional suppliers whose focus will increasingly be placed on quality and sustainability rather than quantity. In addition, a significant growth in the world’s demand for olive oil is expected in non-traditional markets, which will be driven by greater awareness of the positive health and sustainability attributes of this product, jointly with the changes in lifestyles and rising incomes of several consumer segments. These emerging markets offer promising prospects for the international expansion of olive oil companies. Future international challenges facing the olive oil industry include new market entry, worldwide product promotion, quality standards’ harmonization, enacting trade facilitation schemes, and dealing with the COVID-19 impacts. Findings improve market predictability and transparency, and ultimately support decision-making and strategic planning in the olive oil sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Science and Techniques for the Development of a Sustainable Oliveculture)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

28 pages, 605 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Potential for Innovative and Smart Rural Development in the Peripheral Regions of Eastern Poland

by Mieczysław Adamowicz

Agriculture 2021, 11(3), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030188 - 25 Feb 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4772

Abstract

Peripheral regions exist in most European countries, and in the countries of the European Union they have been supported for many years by the Community’s Cohesion Policy, which aims at reducing development disparities between the Member States and regions within individual countries. In [...] Read more.

Peripheral regions exist in most European countries, and in the countries of the European Union they have been supported for many years by the Community’s Cohesion Policy, which aims at reducing development disparities between the Member States and regions within individual countries. In Poland, five out of sixteen voivodeships in the country are considered to be peripheral regions. They are located on Poland’s eastern border, which is also the eastern border of the European Union. Support programmes for these regions have attained the status of separate operational programmes, focusing on generating convergence effects, which can be achieved by increasing the level of innovation and implementing intelligent ways of operating the economy. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the essence of peripherality and the innovative-development potential of peripheral regions in Poland, as well as the potential of smart rural development. The paper is based on an analysis of research results drawn from the literature on the subject, as well as from official information and statistics. Own research on the smart village concept in three regions of Eastern Poland was also used. This research showed a reduction in disproportions in the development of regions in Poland, and a link between the level of innovation and the economic growth of the regions, which occurred with a certain lag in relation to the transfer of innovation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Challenges of Agriculture and Rural Areas in the Context of Sustainable Development)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 8529 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Oil Palm Tree Detection and Health Classification on High-Resolution Imagery Using Deep Learning

by Kanitta Yarak, Apichon Witayangkurn, Kunnaree Kritiyutanont, Chomchanok Arunplod and Ryosuke Shibasaki

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020183 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 13432

Abstract

Combining modern technology and agriculture is an important consideration for the effective management of oil palm trees. In this study, an alternative method for oil palm tree management is proposed by applying high-resolution imagery, combined with Faster-RCNN, for automatic detection and health classification [...] Read more.

Combining modern technology and agriculture is an important consideration for the effective management of oil palm trees. In this study, an alternative method for oil palm tree management is proposed by applying high-resolution imagery, combined with Faster-RCNN, for automatic detection and health classification of oil palm trees. This study used a total of 4172 bounding boxes of healthy and unhealthy palm trees, constructed from 2000 pixel × 2000 pixel images. Of the total dataset, 90% was used for training and 10% was prepared for testing using Resnet-50 and VGG-16. Three techniques were used to assess the models’ performance: model training evaluation, evaluation using visual interpretation, and ground sampling inspections. The study identified three characteristics needed for detection and health classification: crown size, color, and density. The optimal altitude to capture images for detection and classification was determined to be 100 m, although the model showed satisfactory performance up to 140 m. For oil palm tree detection, healthy tree identification, and unhealthy tree identification, Resnet-50 obtained F1-scores of 95.09%, 92.07%, and 86.96%, respectively, with respect to visual interpretation ground truth and 97.67%, 95.30%, and 57.14%, respectively, with respect to ground sampling inspection ground truth. Resnet-50 yielded better F1-scores than VGG-16 in both evaluations. Therefore, the proposed method is well suited for the effective management of crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 12743 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mapping Priority Areas for Apiculture Development with the Use of Geographical Information Systems

by Simeon Marnasidis, Apostolos Kantartzis, Chrisovalantis Malesios, Fani Hatjina, Garyfallos Arabatzis and Efstathia Verikouki

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020182 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6915

Abstract

Supporting local and central authorities in decision-making processes pertaining to environmental planning requires the adoption of scientific methods and the submission of proposals that could be implemented in practice. Taking into consideration the dual role that honeybees play as honey producers and crop [...] Read more.

Supporting local and central authorities in decision-making processes pertaining to environmental planning requires the adoption of scientific methods and the submission of proposals that could be implemented in practice. Taking into consideration the dual role that honeybees play as honey producers and crop pollinators, the aim of the present study is to identify and utilize a number of indicators and subsequently develop priority thematic maps. Previous research has focused on the determination of, and, on certain occasions, on mapping, priority areas for apiculture development, based mainly on the needs of honeybees, without taking into consideration the pollination needs of crops that are cultivated in these areas. In addition, research so far has been carried out in specific spatial entities, in contrast to the current study, in which the areas to be comparatively assessed are pre-chosen based on their geographical boundaries. The information derived from this process is expected to help decision-makers in local and regional authorities to adopt measures for optimal land use and sound pollination practices in order to enhance apiculture development at a local scale. To achieve this target, the study incorporates literature about the attractiveness of crops and plants to pollinating honeybees as well as the pollination services provided by honeybees, in combination with detailed vegetative land cover data. The local communities of each municipality were comparatively evaluated, by introducing three indicators through numerical and spatial data analysis: Relative Attractiveness Index (RAI), Relative Dependence Index (RDI), and Relative Priority Index (RPI). Based on these indicators, attractiveness, dependence, and priority maps were created and explained in detail. We suggest that a number of improvement measures that will boost pollination or honey production or both should be taken by decision-makers, based on the correlations between the aforementioned indicators and the exanimated areas. In addition, dependence maps can constitute a powerful tool for raising awareness among both the public and the farmers about the value of honeybees in pollination, thus reinforcing bee protection efforts undertaken globally. Attractiveness maps that provide a thorough picture of the areas that are sources of pollen and nectar can serve as a general guide for the establishment of hives in areas with high potential for beekeeping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 6527 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of Different Storage Conditions on the Browning Degree, PPO Activity, and Content of Chemical Components in Fresh Lilium Bulbs (Liliumbrownii F.E.Brown var. viridulum Baker.)

by Kanghong Zhao, Zhengpeng Xiao, Jianguo Zeng and Hongqi Xie

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020184 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4109

Abstract

Although Lilium brownii (L. brownii) bulbs are popular fresh vegetables, a series of quality problems still remain after harvest. In this study, fresh L. brownii bulbs were placed in the dark at 25, 4, and −20 °C and under light at [...] Read more.

Although Lilium brownii (L. brownii) bulbs are popular fresh vegetables, a series of quality problems still remain after harvest. In this study, fresh L. brownii bulbs were placed in the dark at 25, 4, and −20 °C and under light at 25 °C from 0 to 30 days; the chemical compositions were analyzed by ultraviolet spectrophotometry (UV) and high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-Q-TOF-MS). During the 30-day storage period, the browning degree increased over the storage time and with increasing temperature, but the contents of proteins and free amino acids decreased and were aggravated by light. The total polyphenol content increased until the 6th day at 25 °C (dark or light), but it did not significantly accumulate at −20 or 4 °C. The reducing sugar content showed a dynamic balance, but the total polysaccharide content decreased constantly in the four storage conditions. The polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity increased with storage time and increasing temperature, while it was inhibited by light. The increase rates of malondialdehyde (MDA) content at −20 °C and light (25 °C) were higher than those at 4 and 25 °C. In addition, 12 secondary metabolites were identified, most of which accumulated during the storage period, for example, 1-O-feruloyl-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosylglycerol; 1,3-O-di-p-coumaroylglycerol; 1-O-feruloyl-3-O-p-coumaroylglycerol; and 1,2-O-diferuloylglycerol. The variations in nutrient levels had a low correlation with browning, but the variations in MDA, PPO, and secondary metabolite (phenolic acids) levels had a high correlation with browning. In conclusion, fresh L. brownii bulbs should be stored at a low temperature (4 °C) and in dark condition, and browning bulbs are excellent materials for secondary metabolite utilization. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 541 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Mixing Alfalfa with Whole-Plant Corn in Different Proportions on Fermentation Characteristics and Bacterial Community of Silage

by Musen Wang, Run Gao, Marcia Franco, David B. Hannaway, Wencan Ke, Zitong Ding, Zhu Yu and Xusheng Guo

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020174 - 20 Feb 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4145

Abstract

The influence of mixing alfalfa with whole-plant corn in different proportions on the fermentation characteristics and bacterial community of silage was investigated. Alfalfa and whole-plant corn, harvested at dry matter content of 276.47 and 328.43 g/kg fresh weight, accordingly, were chopped to approximately [...] Read more.

The influence of mixing alfalfa with whole-plant corn in different proportions on the fermentation characteristics and bacterial community of silage was investigated. Alfalfa and whole-plant corn, harvested at dry matter content of 276.47 and 328.43 g/kg fresh weight, accordingly, were chopped to approximately 2 cm and mixed at ratios of 100:0 (C0, control), 80:20 (C20), 60:40 (C40), 40:60 (C60), 20:80 (C80) and 0:100 (C100) on a fresh weight basis, respectively. Silos of each treatment were produced in triplicate and anaerobically fermented in darkness for 100 days at room temperature (20–21 °C). At silo opening, silage fermentation characteristics and bacterial composition and diversity were analyzed. The C0 silage was weakly preserved, evidenced by a low lactic acid concentration and a high value of pH, acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and ammonia nitrogen. With corn proportion in the mixture increasing from 0% to 40%, silage pH, acetic acid, butyric acid and ammonia nitrogen level decreased, whereas the value of lactic acid and lactic acid to acetic acid ratio increased. The C40, C60, C80 and C100 silages’ Flieg score, used to evaluate the overall fermentation quality, was above 80 and higher than C0 (25) and C20 (61) silages. The C0 silage contained a complex bacterial community at the genus level, consisting mainly of Enterococcus (38.86%), Enterobacteria (20.61%), Rhizobium (8.45%), Lactobacillus (8.15%), Methylobacterium (5.54%) and Weissella (5.24%). As corn percentage increased from 0% to 40%, the relative abundance of desirable Lactobacillus increased and undesirable Rhizobium and Methylobacterium population reduced. With corn proportion in the mixture increasing from 0% to 40%, inclusion of corn to alfalfa at ensiling significantly improved silage fermentation quality and shifted the bacterial community for better silage preservation. Overall, high quality silage was produced when alfalfa was combined with at least 40% whole-plant corn on a fresh weight basis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improvement and Innovation in the Nutritional Quality and Technologies of Animal Feed)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 315 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Methane Emission and Milk Production from Jersey Cows Grazing Perennial Ryegrass–White Clover and Multispecies Forage Mixtures

by Cecilia Loza, Thorsten Reinsch, Ralf Loges, Friedhelm Taube, José Ignacio Gere, Christof Kluß, Mario Hasler and Carsten S. Malisch

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020175 - 20 Feb 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 11073

Abstract

Methane is a major constituent of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from ruminants, and mitigation strategies are needed to alleviate this negative environmental impact while maintaining the environmental and other benefits of grazing systems. Forages containing plant-specialized metabolites (PSM), particularly condensed tannins, may help [...] Read more.

Methane is a major constituent of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from ruminants, and mitigation strategies are needed to alleviate this negative environmental impact while maintaining the environmental and other benefits of grazing systems. Forages containing plant-specialized metabolites (PSM), particularly condensed tannins, may help reduce enteric methane (CH₄) emissions. However, information on in vivo CH₄ emissions from cows grazing mixtures that contain bioactive herbs is scarce. Accordingly, this study compared a binary mixture of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens) against a diverse mixture of six additional species, including tannin-rich species like birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) and salad burnet (Sanguisorba minor), in a full-grazing dairy system. Enteric CH₄ emissions were measured using the SF₆ tracer technique. Cows grazing diverse mixtures increased their energy-corrected milk (ECM) yield by 4% (p < 0.001) compared with binary mixtures. However, CH₄ emissions per kg ECM were also 11% greater for the diverse mixtures (p < 0.05). The very high feed quality and milk yield from both mixtures explained the low CH₄ emissions recorded relative to the milk output. The addition of forbs did not provide additional benefits at these intensities, as they were maintained in low yield shares throughout. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Livestock: Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation)

13 pages, 1061 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Land Uses, Altitude and Texture Effects on Soil Parameters. A Comparative Study in Two Districts of Nagaland, Northeast India

by Gaurav Mishra and Rosa Francaviglia

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020171 - 19 Feb 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7906

Abstract

Northeast (NE) India is a typical tropical ecosystem with a luxuriant forest vegetation cover, but nowadays forests are under stress due to exploitation and land use changes, which are known to affect soil health and productivity. However, due to a scarcity of data, [...] Read more.

Northeast (NE) India is a typical tropical ecosystem with a luxuriant forest vegetation cover, but nowadays forests are under stress due to exploitation and land use changes, which are known to affect soil health and productivity. However, due to a scarcity of data, the influence of land uses and altitude on soil properties of this peculiar ecosystem is poorly quantified. This study presents the changes in soil properties in two districts of Nagaland (Mon and Zunheboto) in relation to land uses (forest, plantation, jhum and fallow jhum), altitude (<500 m, 500–1000 m, >1000 m) and soil texture (coarse, medium, fine). For this, a random soil sampling was performed in both the districts. Results indicated that soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks and available potassium (K) were significantly influenced by land uses in the Mon district, while in Zunheboto a significant difference was observed in available phosphorus (P) content. SOC stocks showed an increasing trend with elevation in both districts. The influence of altitude on P was significant and the maximum concentration was at lower elevations (<500 m). In Mon, soil texture significantly affected SOC stocks and the available N and P content. The variability in soil properties due to land uses, altitudinal gradients and textural classes can be better managed with the help of management options, which are still needed for this ecosystem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 3358 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Trends in Soil Microbial Inoculants Research: A Science Mapping Approach to Unravel Strengths and Weaknesses of Their Application

by Loredana Canfora, Corrado Costa, Federico Pallottino and Stefano Mocali

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020158 - 16 Feb 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5429

Abstract

Microbial inoculants are widely accepted as potential alternatives or complements to chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture. However, there remains a lack of knowledge regarding their application and effects under field conditions. Thus, a quantitative description of the scientific literature related to soil [...] Read more.

Microbial inoculants are widely accepted as potential alternatives or complements to chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture. However, there remains a lack of knowledge regarding their application and effects under field conditions. Thus, a quantitative description of the scientific literature related to soil microbial inoculants was conducted, adopting a science mapping approach to observe trends, strengths, and weaknesses of their application during the period of 2000–2020 and providing useful insights for future research. Overall, the study retrieved 682 publications with an increasing number during the 2015–2020 period, confirming China, India, and the U.S. as leading countries in microbial inoculants research. Over the last decade, the research field emphasized the use of microbial consortia rather than single strains, with increasing attention paid to sustainability and environmental purposes by means of multidisciplinary approaches. Among the emerging topics, terms such as “persistence” indicate the actual need for detecting and monitoring the persistence and fate of soil microbial inoculants. On the other hand, the low occurrence of terms related to failed studies as well as formulation processes may have limited the overall comprehension of the real potential of microbial inoculants to date. In conclusion, successful application of soil microbial inoculants in agriculture requires filling the fundamental knowledge gaps related to the processes that govern dynamics and interactions of the inoculants with soil and its native microbiota. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1407 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Food System Resilience during COVID-19 Pandemic: The Case of Roman Solidarity Purchasing Groups

by Simona Tarra, Giampiero Mazzocchi and Davide Marino

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020156 - 14 Feb 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5426

Abstract

The restriction measures linked to the COVID-19 shock suddenly highlighted the vulnerability of most socioeconomic systems, including the food sector. In a context in which the limitation to the movement of people and goods has put the longer and more structured supply chains [...] Read more.

The restriction measures linked to the COVID-19 shock suddenly highlighted the vulnerability of most socioeconomic systems, including the food sector. In a context in which the limitation to the movement of people and goods has put the longer and more structured supply chains in serious difficulty, many experiences and initiatives have emerged as viable alternatives. The aim of the research was to understand if and how the Solidarity Purchasing Groups (SPG) of Rome have contributed to the resilience of the food system of the metropolitan city during the lockdown. The research was based on the results of a questionnaire administered to the SPGs of Rome during the first period of the pandemic (April–July 2020), enriched by some in-depth interviews carried out by the authors. What emerged was that, despite the limited extent in terms of products conveyed within the whole food system, the SPGs represented an important food supply channel during the lockdown period, for two main reasons: a greater flexibility and agility in moving and in handling goods and the possibility of remunerating local farms, contributing to the resilience of the local agri-food fabric. The analysis of the results confirms the strong vitality of such Food Movements in Rome and, at the same time, allows for the identification of a series of interventions that the institutions could adopt to favor the spread of a food environment more compatible with more sustainable and fairer forms of food production and distribution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Food Systems in Italy: Policies, Movements and Markets)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 7492 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact Assessment of the Long-Term Fallowed Land on Agricultural Soils and the Possibility of Their Return to Agriculture

by Małgorzata Kozak and Rafał Pudełko

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020148 - 11 Feb 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4611

Abstract

Agricultural land abandonment is a process observed in most European countries. In Poland and other countries of Central and Eastern Europe, it was initiated with the political transformation of the 1990s. Currently, in Poland, it concerns over 2 million ha of arable land. [...] Read more.

Agricultural land abandonment is a process observed in most European countries. In Poland and other countries of Central and Eastern Europe, it was initiated with the political transformation of the 1990s. Currently, in Poland, it concerns over 2 million ha of arable land. Such a large acreage constitutes a resource of land that can be directly restored to agricultural production or perform environmental functions. A new concept for management of fallow/abandoned areas is to start producing biomass for the bioeconomy purposes. Production of perennial crops, especially on poorer soils, requires an appropriate assessment of soil conditions. Therefore, it has become crucial to answer the question: What is the real impact of the fallowing process on soil, and is it possible to return it to production at all? For this purpose, on the selected fallowed land that met the marginality criteria defined under the project, physicochemical tests of soil properties were carried out, and subsequently, the results were compared with those of the neighboring agricultural land and with the soil valuation of the fallow land, which was conducted during its past agricultural use. The work was mainly aimed at analyzing the impact of long-term fallowing on soil pH, carbon sequestration and nutrient content, e.g., phosphorus and potassium. The result of the work is a positive assessment of the possibility of restoring fallowed land for agricultural production, including the production of biomass for non-agricultural purposes. Among the studied types of fallow plots, the fields where goldenrod (Solidago L.—invasive species) appeared were indicated as the areas most affected by soil degradation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and Perspectives of Industrial and Bioenergy Crops for Bioeconomy Development)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 2754 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Secondary Metabolites Produced by Neofusicoccum Species Associated with Plants: A Review

by Maria Michela Salvatore, Artur Alves and Anna Andolfi

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020149 - 11 Feb 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3942

Abstract

The genus Neofusicoccum is comprised of approximately 50 species with a worldwide distribution and is typically associated with plants. Neofusicoccum is well-known for the diseases it causes on economically and ecologically relevant host plants. In particular, members of this genus are responsible for [...] Read more.

The genus Neofusicoccum is comprised of approximately 50 species with a worldwide distribution and is typically associated with plants. Neofusicoccum is well-known for the diseases it causes on economically and ecologically relevant host plants. In particular, members of this genus are responsible for grapevine diseases, such as leaf spots, fruit rots, shoot dieback, bud necrosis, vascular discoloration of the wood, and perennial cankers. Many secondary metabolites, including (−)-botryoisocoumarin A, botryosphaerones, cyclobotryoxide and isosclerone, were identified from species of Neofusicoccum and their structural variability and bioactivities might be associated with the role of these compounds in the fungal pathogenicity and virulence. In this review, we summarize the secondary metabolites from Neofusicoccum species focusing on the role of these compounds in the interaction between the fungus and host plant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Secondary Metabolites in Plant-Microbe Interactions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 4106 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Foodshed, Agricultural Diversification and Self-Sufficiency Assessment: Beyond the Isotropic Circle Foodshed—A Case Study from Avignon (France)

by José Luis Vicente-Vicente, Esther Sanz-Sanz, Claude Napoléone, Michel Moulery and Annette Piorr

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020143 - 10 Feb 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5166

Abstract

The regionalization of food systems in order to shorten supply chains and develop local agriculture to feed city regions presents particular challenges for food planning and policy. The existing foodshed approaches enable one to assess the theoretical capacity of the food self-sufficiency of [...] Read more.

The regionalization of food systems in order to shorten supply chains and develop local agriculture to feed city regions presents particular challenges for food planning and policy. The existing foodshed approaches enable one to assess the theoretical capacity of the food self-sufficiency of a specific region, but they struggle to consider the diversity of existing crops in a way that could be usable to inform decisions and support urban food strategies. Most studies are based on the definition of the area required to meet local consumption, obtaining a map represented as an isotropic circle around the city, without considering the site-specific pedoclimatic, geographical, and socioeconomic conditions which are essential for the development of local food supply chains. In this study, we propose a first stage to fill this gap by combining the Metropolitan Foodshed and Self-sufficiency Scenario model, which already considers regional yields and specific land use covers, with spatially-explicit data on the cropping patterns, soil and topography. We use the available Europe-wide data and apply the methodology in the city region of Avignon (France), initially considering a foodshed with a radius of 30 km. Our results show that even though a theoretically-high potential self-sufficiency could be achieved for all of the food commodities consumed (>80%), when the specific pedological conditions of the area are considered, this could be suitable only for domestic plant-based products, whereas an expansion of the initial foodshed to a radius of 100 km was required for animal products to provide >70% self-sufficiency. We conclude that it is necessary to shift the analysis from the size assessment to the commodity-group–specific spatial configuration of the foodshed based on biophysical and socioeconomic features, and discuss avenues for further research to enable the development of a foodshed assessment as a complex of complementary pieces, i.e., the ‘foodshed archipelago’. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Diversification)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

12 pages, 461 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Selenium Biofortification of Wheat as a Strategy to Improve Human Nutrition

by Aleksandra Radawiec, Wiesław Szulc and Beata Rutkowska

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020144 - 10 Feb 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3529

Abstract

This paper analyses the effects of soil and foliar fertilization with sodium selenate (VI) on the selenium content in spring wheat grain. The research was carried out at the Departmental Experimental Station of the Institute of Agriculture WULS in Skierniewice in 2018 and [...] Read more.

This paper analyses the effects of soil and foliar fertilization with sodium selenate (VI) on the selenium content in spring wheat grain. The research was carried out at the Departmental Experimental Station of the Institute of Agriculture WULS in Skierniewice in 2018 and 2019. The dose of selenium used was 5.00 g Se·ha⁻¹ in various development stages of spring wheat. The results showed that selenium fertilisation did not affect the size of the grain yield, but both soil and foliar fertilisation significantly increased the content of selenium in wheat grain compared to the control group. The highest Se content was obtained with the method of soil fertilisation combined with the foliar application with a total dose of 10.00 g·ha^-1 Se in the stem elongation phase (S + F2), and in the tillering and stem elongation phase (S + F1 + F2), which resulted in the values of 0.615 and 0.719 mg·kg⁻¹ Se in grain, respectively. On this basis, it was concluded that the best time to carry out foliar fertilisation treatment is in the stem elongation phase (BBCH 30–39). The results show that the greatest increase in selenium content in the grain is achieved with soil and foliar fertilisation combined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Agriculture in Addressing Food Security, Ecological Sustainability and Quality of Food)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 3574 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoicePerspective

From Smart Farming towards Unmanned Farms: A New Mode of Agricultural Production

by Tan Wang, Xianbao Xu, Cong Wang, Zhen Li and Daoliang Li

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020145 - 10 Feb 2021

Cited by 78 | Viewed by 15052

Abstract

Agriculture is the most important industry for human survival and solving the hunger problem worldwide. With the growth of the global population, the demand for food is increasing, which needs more agriculture labor. However, the number of people willing to engage in agricultural [...] Read more.

Agriculture is the most important industry for human survival and solving the hunger problem worldwide. With the growth of the global population, the demand for food is increasing, which needs more agriculture labor. However, the number of people willing to engage in agricultural work is decreasing, causing a severe shortage of agricultural labor. Therefore, it is necessary to study the mode of agricultural production without labor force participation. With the rapid development of the Internet of Things, Big Data, artificial intelligence, robotics and fifth-generation (5G) communication technology, robots can replace humans in agricultural operations, thus enabling the establishment of unmanned farms in the near future. In this review, we have defined unmanned farms, introduced the framework of unmanned farms, analyzed the current state of the technology and how these technologies can be used in unmanned farms, and finally discuss all the technical challenges. We believe that this review will provide guidance for the development of unmanned farms and provide ideas for further investigation of these farms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Digital Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 3516 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of Climate on Fruit Growth and Development on Olive Oil Quality in Cultivar Carolea

by Rocco Mafrica, Amalia Piscopo, Alessandra De Bruno and Marco Poiana

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020147 - 10 Feb 2021

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 4400

Abstract

Trees of the olive (Olea europaea L.) cultivar Carolea grown in Calabria (Italy) in three sites with different main climate traits (temperatures, rainfall, Growth Degree Days seasonal variations) were studied for three years to see the ripening time course and quality of [...] Read more.

Trees of the olive (Olea europaea L.) cultivar Carolea grown in Calabria (Italy) in three sites with different main climate traits (temperatures, rainfall, Growth Degree Days seasonal variations) were studied for three years to see the ripening time course and quality of the oils. The optimal harvesting time for obtaining the best-quality olive oils was defined for each site. The effect on quality indexes of three harvesting periods was also considered, linking this to the observed various thermal regimes. The different climates largely affected the growth and the development of fruits and the quality of obtained oils. Lower temperatures and higher rainfall slow down fruit growth and development and delay ripening. Olive oils of good quality (free acidity, fatty acid composition, antioxidant components and oxidative stability were obtained in the site with lower temperatures and higher rainfall when fruits were still yellow-green ripe and had a detachment index between 1.9 and 1.5. Climate change, evidenced by rising temperatures, led to the movement of olive groves from the high-temperature coastal plain to the intern foothills. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Science and Techniques for the Development of a Sustainable Oliveculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 3282 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Technical Infrastructure as an Element of Sustainable Development of Rural Regions in Małopolskie Voivodeship in Poland and Trnava Region in Slovakia

by Marcin Surówka, Łukasz Popławski and Helena Fidlerová

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020141 - 9 Feb 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4147

Abstract

The work discusses issues of the infrastructure, its instruments, and specifics of infrastructure in Polish and Slovak rural areas. The aim of this article is to analyze the level of technical infrastructure development in rural regions of the Małopolskie Voivodeship in Poland and [...] Read more.

The work discusses issues of the infrastructure, its instruments, and specifics of infrastructure in Polish and Slovak rural areas. The aim of this article is to analyze the level of technical infrastructure development in rural regions of the Małopolskie Voivodeship in Poland and the west part of Slovakia—Trnava self-governing region (Trnava region) as two regions with a similar position regarding regional competitiveness index. Following the topic, after identification of strengths and weaknesses of mentioned regions, the opportunities, and threats of sustainable development of infrastructure in rural areas have been analyzed using the SWOT method. The development of sustainable, reliable, and functional infrastructure does not only refer to the chosen regions of Poland and Slovakia but also other regions in the European Union. Sustainable infrastructure is a factor stimulating social and economic progress as one of the most important determinants of sustainable development and regional competitiveness. The authors notice a particular lack in the sustainable development of infrastructure in the field of water and sewerage management together with the supply of water. Therefore, this article tries to complete the gap in research focusing on the concept of a more systematic approach to technical infrastructure improvement in the context of sustainable development, and strategy of cooperation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Challenges of Agriculture and Rural Areas in the Context of Sustainable Development)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 714 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Exploring the Preferences of Consumers’ Organic Products in Aspects of Sustainable Consumption: The Case of the Polish Consumer

by Julia Wojciechowska-Solis and Anetta Barska

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020138 - 7 Feb 2021

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 10594

Abstract

The dynamically developing trend of sustainable consumption is manifested, among others, by the growing interest in organic products on the part of consumers. The aim of this article was to identify the behavior of Polish consumers in the market of organic products and [...] Read more.

The dynamically developing trend of sustainable consumption is manifested, among others, by the growing interest in organic products on the part of consumers. The aim of this article was to identify the behavior of Polish consumers in the market of organic products and to establish a link between their environmental awareness and willingness to buy organic products. The authors hypothesized that there is a relationship between consumer awareness of the concept of sustainable consumption and the consumption of organic products. Consumer awareness means making conscious choices based on the knowledge expressed in the attitudes and, sometimes, preferences of the food brand. The research was conducted using a proprietary survey questionnaire. A total of 1067 respondents participated. A statistical analysis was performed by using Statistica 13.1 PL software, which includes descriptive statistics, the discriminant function analysis, and regression analysis. Motives were identified that are of crucial importance to the consumer deciding to purchase organic products. These include: beneficial health effects, contents of nutrients, no additional substances used in food production, taste, and others. A statistical relationship was established between environmental awareness and the tendency to buy organic products. Among the organic products, eggs, fresh fruit and vegetables, honey, cow’s milk and its derivatives, as well as cereal products, are the most preferred by consumers of both genders. The proposed model, which outlines the relationship between environmental awareness and the tendency to buy organic products, includes the following variables: care for the environment and animal welfare, no harmful substances used in food production, low level of processing, short shelf life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Challenges of Agriculture and Rural Areas in the Context of Sustainable Development)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1717 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Grain Yield and Quality of Winter Wheat Depending on Previous Crop and Tillage System

by Dorota Gawęda and Małgorzata Haliniarz

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020133 - 6 Feb 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3887

Abstract

The effects of previous crops (soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) and winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L. ssp. oleifera Metzg)), as well as of conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage (NT), on yield and some quality parameters of winter wheat (Triticum [...] Read more.

The effects of previous crops (soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) and winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L. ssp. oleifera Metzg)), as well as of conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage (NT), on yield and some quality parameters of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain were evaluated based on a four-year field experiment. Wheat was grown in a four-field crop rotation: Soybean—winter wheat—winter oilseed rape—winter wheat. The study revealed that growing winter wheat after soybean, compared to its cultivation in the field after winter oilseed rape, significantly increased grain and straw yield, as well as all yield and crop components evaluated. After the previous soybean crop, higher grain protein content, Zeleny sedimentation value, and grain uniformity were also found. After winter oilseed rape, only a greater value of the gluten index was obtained. Statistical analysis did not show the tillage system (TS) to influence the grain yield of winter wheat. Under the CT system, relative to NT, straw yield, number of ears per 1 m², and plant height of winter wheat were found to be significantly higher. The NT system, on the other hand, beneficially affected the thousand grain weight. Wheat grain harvested under the CT system was characterized by a higher grain test weight, better grain uniformity, and lower gluten index than under NT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 12794 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Deviation Tolerance Performance Evaluation and Experiment of Picking End Effector for Famous Tea

by Yingpeng Zhu, Chuanyu Wu, Junhua Tong, Jianneng Chen, Leiying He, Rongyang Wang and Jiangming Jia

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020128 - 5 Feb 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4353

Abstract

Accurately obtaining the posture and spatial position of tea buds through machine vision and other technologies is difficult due to the small size, different shapes, and complex growth environment of tea buds. Therefore, end effectors are prone to problems, such as picking omission [...] Read more.

Accurately obtaining the posture and spatial position of tea buds through machine vision and other technologies is difficult due to the small size, different shapes, and complex growth environment of tea buds. Therefore, end effectors are prone to problems, such as picking omission and picking error. This study designs a picking end effector based on negative pressure guidance for famous tea. This end effector uses negative pressure to guide tea buds in a top-down manner, thereby correcting their posture and spatial position. Therefore, the designed end effector has deviation tolerance performance that can improve the picking success rate. The pre-experiment is designed, the tip of apical bud is referred to as the descent position, and the negative pressure range is determined to be 0.6 to 0.9 kPa. A deviation tolerance orthogonal experiment is designed. Experimental results show that various experimental factors are ranked in terms of the significance level of the effect on the average success rate, and the significance ranking is as follows: negative pressure (P) > pipe diameter (D) > descent speed (V). An evaluation method of deviation tolerance performance is presented, and the optimal experiment factor-level combination is determined as: P = 0.9 kPa, D = 34 mm, V = 20 mm/s. Within the deviation range of a 10 mm radius, the average success rate of the negative pressure guidance of the end effector is 97.36%. The designed end effector can be applied to the intelligent picking of famous tea. This study can provide a reference for the design of similar picking end effectors for famous tea. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Structures and Mechanization)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 23678 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Bringing Semantics to the Vineyard: An Approach on Deep Learning-Based Vine Trunk Detection

by André Silva Aguiar, Nuno Namora Monteiro, Filipe Neves dos Santos, Eduardo J. Solteiro Pires, Daniel Silva, Armando Jorge Sousa and José Boaventura-Cunha

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020131 - 5 Feb 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4148

Abstract

The development of robotic solutions in unstructured environments brings several challenges, mainly in developing safe and reliable navigation solutions. Agricultural environments are particularly unstructured and, therefore, challenging to the implementation of robotics. An example of this is the mountain vineyards, built-in steep slope [...] Read more.

The development of robotic solutions in unstructured environments brings several challenges, mainly in developing safe and reliable navigation solutions. Agricultural environments are particularly unstructured and, therefore, challenging to the implementation of robotics. An example of this is the mountain vineyards, built-in steep slope hills, which are characterized by satellite signal blockage, terrain irregularities, harsh ground inclinations, and others. All of these factors impose the implementation of precise and reliable navigation algorithms, so that robots can operate safely. This work proposes the detection of semantic natural landmarks that are to be used in Simultaneous Localization and Mapping algorithms. Thus, Deep Learning models were trained and deployed to detect vine trunks. As significant contributions, we made available a novel vine trunk dataset, called VineSet, which was constituted by more than 9000 images and respective annotations for each trunk. VineSet was used to train state-of-the-art Single Shot Multibox Detector models. Additionally, we deployed these models in an Edge-AI fashion and achieve high frame rate execution. Finally, an assisted annotation tool was proposed to make the process of dataset building easier and improve models incrementally. The experiments show that our trained models can detect trunks with an Average Precision up to 84.16% and our assisted annotation tool facilitates the annotation process, even in other areas of agriculture, such as orchards and forests. Additional experiments were performed, where the impact of the amount of training data and the comparison between using Transfer Learning and training from scratch were evaluated. In these cases, some theoretical assumptions were verified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Digital Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2058 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Estimation of Reference Evapotranspiration during the Irrigation Season Using Nine Temperature-Based Methods in a Hot-Summer Mediterranean Climate

by Gonçalo C. Rodrigues and Ricardo P. Braga

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020124 - 4 Feb 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2935

Abstract

The FAO-56 Penman–Monteith (PM) equation is regarded as the most accurate equation to estimate reference evapotranspiration (ETo). However, it requires a broad range of data that may not be available or of reasonable quality. In this study, nine temperature-based methods were assessed for [...] Read more.

The FAO-56 Penman–Monteith (PM) equation is regarded as the most accurate equation to estimate reference evapotranspiration (ETo). However, it requires a broad range of data that may not be available or of reasonable quality. In this study, nine temperature-based methods were assessed for ETo estimation during the irrigation at fourteen locations distributed through a hot-summer Mediterranean climate region of Alentejo, Southern Portugal. Additionally, for each location, the Hargreaves–Samani radiation adjustment coefficient (k_Rs) was calibrated and validated to evaluate the appropriateness of using the standard value, creating a locally adjusted Hargreaves–Samani (HS) equation. The accuracy of each method was evaluated by statistically comparing their results with those obtained by PM. Results show that the calibration of the k_Rs, a locally adjusted HS method can be used to estimate daily ETo acceptably well, with RMSE lower than 0.88 mm day⁻¹, an estimation error lower than 4% and a R² higher than 0.69, proving to be the most accurate model for 8 (out of 14) locations. A modified Hargreaves–Samani method also performed acceptably for 4 locations, with a RMSE of 0.72–0.84 mm day⁻¹, a slope varying from 0.95 to 1.01 and a R² higher than 0.78. One can conclude that, when weather data is missing, a calibrated HS equation is adequate to estimate ETo during the irrigation season. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1445 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) as a Multifunctional and Sustainable Crop for the Mediterranean Climate

by Clarissa Clemente, Luciana G. Angelini, Roberta Ascrizzi and Silvia Tavarini

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020123 - 4 Feb 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4896

Abstract

Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) is a promising medicinal and aromatic plant for Mediterranean agroecosystems given its positive agronomic attributes and interesting quality features. It has both food and pharmaceutical applications, since its leaves contain sweet-tasting steviol glycosides (SVglys) and bioactive compounds, such as phenolics, [...] Read more.

Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) is a promising medicinal and aromatic plant for Mediterranean agroecosystems given its positive agronomic attributes and interesting quality features. It has both food and pharmaceutical applications, since its leaves contain sweet-tasting steviol glycosides (SVglys) and bioactive compounds, such as phenolics, flavonoids, and vitamins. We evaluated the agronomic and qualitative performances of nine stevia genotypes cultivated, in open field conditions, for two consecutive years under the Mediterranean climate of central Italy. Growth, biomass production, and accumulation of bioactive compounds (SVglys, polyphenols, and their related antioxidant activities) were evaluated, considering the effect of harvest time and crop age (first and second year of cultivation). The results showed high variability among genotypes in terms of both morpho-productive and phytochemical characteristics. In general, greater leaf dry yields, polyphenol accumulation, and antioxidant activities were found in the second year of cultivation, harvesting the plants in full vegetative growth. On the other hand, total SVglys leaf content reached the highest values in the first year when plants were at the beginning of the reproductive phase. On the other hand, although the SVglys profile (Rubusoside, Dulcoside A, Stevioside, Rebaudioside A, C, D, E, and M) remained stable over harvest times, it differed significantly depending on the crop age and genotype. Our findings provide useful information on the influence of crop age and harvest time in defining quanti-qualitative traits in stevia, with PL, SL, BR5, and SW30 being the best performing genotypes and thus suitable for breeding programs. Our study highlighted that stevia, in the tested environment, represents a promising semi-perennial crop which offers new solutions in terms of cropping system diversification and marketing opportunities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Agricultural Research When Considering Criteria of Multifunctionality and Sustainability)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 2130 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessment of Guinea Grass Panicum maximum under Silvopastoral Systems in Combination with Two Management Systems in Orellana Province, Ecuador

by Raúl Lorenzo González Marcillo, Walter Efraín Castro Guamàn, Angela Edith Guerrero Pincay, Plutarco Antonio Vera Zambrano, Nelson René Ortiz Naveda and Santiago Alexander Guamàn Rivera

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020117 - 2 Feb 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4876

Abstract

Climate change has increased the interannual and seasonal variation in the average temperature and precipitation rate, which determine forage availability globally. Similar patterns of change have occurred in tropical regions, and Ecuador is no exception. This region includes other influencing factors, such as [...] Read more.

Climate change has increased the interannual and seasonal variation in the average temperature and precipitation rate, which determine forage availability globally. Similar patterns of change have occurred in tropical regions, and Ecuador is no exception. This region includes other influencing factors, such as the conversion of tropical forests to extensive pastures. Therefore, this study was carried out to evaluate guinea grass (Panicum maximum) cultivated under silvopastoral systems with different management strategies in both of the seasons of the study region in Ecuador (rainy season and dry season). A randomized complete block design was used for the experiment, with three repetitions and three treatments. Agronomic measures, forage production, chemical composition, animal responses, and soil properties were evaluated. Data were analyzed with the Mixed model of SAS. Differences in all evaluated parameters were observed between treatments, and silvopastoral systems (SPSs) produced better results than conventional grass monoculture. Furthermore, there was a strong seasonal effect on forage production, chemical composition, and soil properties. Therefore, management of Panicum maximum with well-planned grazing can enhance animal responses and help to retain natural resources, lowering the pressure on forests. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2715 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Response of Interspecific Geraniums to Waste Wood Fiber Substrates and Additional Fertilization

by Agnieszka Zawadzińska, Piotr Salachna, Jacek S. Nowak and Waldemar Kowalczyk

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020119 - 2 Feb 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3199

Abstract

Promotion of sustainable horticulture via wider use of peat substrate substitutes makes wood fiber an increasingly popular substrate component. Interspecific geraniums are plants of huge potential in the floriculture market, but there are not enough specific guidelines on their cultivation. This study investigated [...] Read more.

Promotion of sustainable horticulture via wider use of peat substrate substitutes makes wood fiber an increasingly popular substrate component. Interspecific geraniums are plants of huge potential in the floriculture market, but there are not enough specific guidelines on their cultivation. This study investigated the effectiveness of enriching peat substrate with 10%, 20%, 30%, or 40% (by volume) waste wood fiber in the pot cultivation of interspecific geraniums cv. ‘Calliope Dark Red’. It also examined plant response to additional fertilization with nitrogen in the form of Ca(NO₃)₂. Plants grown in the substrate with 10% and 20% of wood fiber did not differ in the leaf greening index, flower weight, and visual score from the plants grown in control (100% peat substrate). Wood fiber content of 40% negatively affected all growth parameters and leaf content of macro- and micronutrients. The plants growing in the peat substrate enriched with 20% of waste wood fiber and fertilized with nitrogen had the highest leaf greenness index, the greatest number of flowers, and the highest content of N, P, Ca, Na, Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn. In summary, the study demonstrated that high quality ornamental plants can be successfully grown in peat substrate containing 20% of waste wood fiber and additionally fertilized with nitrogen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3023 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Agri-Environment-Climate Measure as an Element of the Bioeconomy in Poland—A Spatial Study

by Aleksandra Jezierska-Thöle, Roman Rudnicki, Łukasz Wiśniewski, Marta Gwiaździńska-Goraj and Mirosław Biczkowski

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020110 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3497

Abstract

The Polish agricultural economy has a chance to dynamically develop and influence the innovation policy in the EU model of bioeconomy. The research aims to assess the spatial diversification of the level and structure of spending funds for two Rural Development Program (RDP) [...] Read more.

The Polish agricultural economy has a chance to dynamically develop and influence the innovation policy in the EU model of bioeconomy. The research aims to assess the spatial diversification of the level and structure of spending funds for two Rural Development Program (RDP) measures: agri-environment-climate measures (AECM) and organic farming scheme (OFS) aimed at supporting proenvironmental forms of agricultural management in the context of bioeconomy development. The EU financial perspective determined the time range for 2014–2020. The study was conducted on the example of Poland in two spatial scales: regional (province) and local (community). The analysis was based on partial indicators, which were then subjected to the standardisation procedure and included in the total as a synthetic indicator of the utilisation of RDP 2014–2020 funds aimed at supporting proenvironmental forms of farming. The following information was included in the evaluation: the number of farms, the size of utilised agricultural area (UAA) covered by support and the amounts of payments made under the two analysed RDP measures. In the research, the size and distribution of farms benefiting from AECM and OFS were determined. Besides, the relationship between funds absorption and socioeconomic development, as well as natural and non-natural conditions, were identified. The synthetic indicator of AECM/OFS usage showed a strong spatial differentiation, determined by the impact of several conditions: the level of socioeconomic development, the level of agriculture development, natural conditions of agriculture, land with significant natural and ecological values, and proenvironmental forms of land use on farms. Spatial diversification is more often the result of the impact of proenvironmental or natural-ecological factors than of socioeconomic conditions, or the level of agricultural development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and Perspectives of Industrial and Bioenergy Crops for Bioeconomy Development)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 665 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Productivity and Nutritional Trait Improvements of Different Tomatoes Cultivated with Effective Microorganisms Technology

by Giuseppina Tommonaro, Gennaro Roberto Abbamondi, Barbara Nicolaus, Annarita Poli, Costantino D’Angelo, Carmine Iodice and Rocco De Prisco

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020112 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3813

Abstract

The use of ecofriendly strategies, such as the use of Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria, to improve the yield and quality of crops has become necessary to satisfy the growing demand of food and to avoid the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. In [...] Read more.

The use of ecofriendly strategies, such as the use of Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria, to improve the yield and quality of crops has become necessary to satisfy the growing demand of food and to avoid the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. In this study, we report the effects of an innovative microbial inoculation technique, namely Effective Microorganisms (EM), compared with traditional approaches, on productivity and nutritional aspect of four tomato varieties: Brandywine, Corbarino Giallo, S. Marzano Cirio 3, S. Marzano Antico. Results showed an increase of plant productivity as well as an enhanced antioxidant activity mainly in San Marzano Antico and Brandywine varieties treated with EM technology. Moreover, the polyphenol and carotenoid contents also changed, in response to the plant treatments. In conclusion, the application of EM^® technology in agriculture could represent a very promising strategy in agricultural sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Product Quality and Safety)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

11 pages, 1293 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Relationship between Soil Electrical Parameters and Compaction of Sandy Clay Loam Soil

by Katarzyna Pentoś, Krzysztof Pieczarka and Kamil Serwata

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020114 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4258

Abstract

Soil spatial variability mapping allows the delimitation of the number of soil samples investigated to describe agricultural areas; it is crucial in precision agriculture. Electrical soil parameters are promising factors for the delimitation of management zones. One of the soil parameters that affects [...] Read more.

Soil spatial variability mapping allows the delimitation of the number of soil samples investigated to describe agricultural areas; it is crucial in precision agriculture. Electrical soil parameters are promising factors for the delimitation of management zones. One of the soil parameters that affects yield is soil compaction. The objective of this work was to indicate electrical parameters useful for the delimitation of management zones connected with soil compaction. For this purpose, the measurement of apparent soil electrical conductivity and magnetic susceptibility was conducted at two depths: 0.5 and 1 m. Soil compaction was measured for a soil layer at 0–0.5 m. Relationships between electrical soil parameters and soil compaction were modelled with the use of two types of neural networks—multilayer perceptron (MLP) and radial basis function (RBF). Better prediction quality was observed for RBF models. It can be stated that in the mathematical model, the apparent soil electrical conductivity affects soil compaction significantly more than magnetic susceptibility. However, magnetic susceptibility gives additional information about soil properties, and therefore, both electrical parameters should be used simultaneously for the delimitation of management zones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 22869 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of Convolutional Neural Networks’ Hyperparameters with Transfer Learning to Determine Sorting of Ripe Medjool Dates

by Blanca Dalila Pérez-Pérez, Juan Pablo García Vázquez and Ricardo Salomón-Torres

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020115 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6572

Abstract

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have proven their efficiency in various applications in agriculture. In crops such as date, they have been mainly used in the identification and sorting of ripe fruits. The aim of this study was the performance evaluation of eight different [...] Read more.

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have proven their efficiency in various applications in agriculture. In crops such as date, they have been mainly used in the identification and sorting of ripe fruits. The aim of this study was the performance evaluation of eight different CNNs, considering transfer learning for their training, as well as five hyperparameters. The CNN architectures evaluated were VGG-16, VGG-19, ResNet-50, ResNet-101, ResNet-152, AlexNet, Inception V3, and CNN from scratch. Likewise, the hyperparameters analyzed were the number of layers, the number of epochs, the batch size, optimizer, and learning rate. The accuracy and processing time were considered to determine the performance of CNN architectures, in the classification of mature dates’ cultivar Medjool. The model obtained from VGG-19 architecture with a batch of 128 and Adam optimizer with a learning rate of 0.01 presented the best performance with an accuracy of 99.32%. We concluded that the VGG-19 model can be used to build computer vision systems that help producers improve their sorting process to detect the Tamar stage of a Medjool date. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1151 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Costs and Benefits of Improving Farm Animal Welfare

by Jill N. Fernandes, Paul H. Hemsworth, Grahame J. Coleman and Alan J. Tilbrook

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020104 - 27 Jan 2021

Cited by 79 | Viewed by 29094

Abstract

It costs money to improve the welfare of farm animals. For people with animals under their care, there are many factors to consider regarding changes in practice to improve welfare, and the optimal course of action is not always obvious. Decision support systems [...] Read more.

It costs money to improve the welfare of farm animals. For people with animals under their care, there are many factors to consider regarding changes in practice to improve welfare, and the optimal course of action is not always obvious. Decision support systems for animal welfare, such as economic cost–benefit analyses, are lacking. This review attempts to provide clarity around the costs and benefits of improving farm animal welfare, thereby enabling the people with animals under their care to make informed decisions. Many of the costs are obvious. For example, training of stockpeople, reconfiguration of pens, and administration of pain relief can improve welfare, and all incur costs. Other costs are less obvious. For instance, there may be substantial risks to market protection, consumer acceptance, and social licence to farm associated with not ensuring good animal welfare. The benefits of improving farm animal welfare are also difficult to evaluate from a purely economic perspective. Although it is widely recognised that animals with poor welfare are unlikely to produce at optimal levels, there may be benefits of improving animal welfare that extend beyond production gains. These include benefits to the animal, positive effects on the workforce, competitive advantage for businesses, mitigation of risk, and positive social consequences. We summarise these considerations into a decision tool that can assist people with farm animals under their care, and we highlight the need for further empirical evidence to improve decision-making in animal welfare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Pros and Cons of Innovation in Agriculture for Safeguarding Animal Health and Welfare)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 4279 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Social and Economic Aspects of Sustainable Development of Livestock Production and Meat Consumption in the Czech Republic

by Karel Šrédl, Marie Prášilová, Lucie Severová, Roman Svoboda and Michal Štěbeták

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020102 - 26 Jan 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5593

Abstract

The aim of this article was to express social and economic aspects of the sustainable livestock production in relation to meat consumption in the Czech Republic and to predict the possibilities of further development of livestock production in the conditions of Czech agriculture. [...] Read more.

The aim of this article was to express social and economic aspects of the sustainable livestock production in relation to meat consumption in the Czech Republic and to predict the possibilities of further development of livestock production in the conditions of Czech agriculture. With the accession of Czechia to the EU (2004), the structure of Czech agriculture changed to the detriment of livestock production. The decisive sectors of livestock production are pig breeding, cattle breeding and poultry farming. This article (contribution) analyzes trends in the development of production in the basic categories of livestock, and it evaluates the degree of self-sufficiency of the economy in the given sector of agricultural production and the consumption of individual types of meat in Czechia. Using Holt’s model of statistical analysis, it then predicts the future consumption of meat and its individual types in the Czech Republic in the years 2020–2024. As research has shown, the sustainable development of livestock production and meat consumption in the Czech Republic depends not only on the mutual size of meat production and consumption or its quality, but also significantly on the market prices of meat (including world prices), as well as changes in eating habits of the population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Challenges of Agriculture and Rural Areas in the Context of Sustainable Development)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 3728 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Competition Effects and Productivity in Oat–Forage Legume Relay Intercropping Systems under Organic Farming Conditions

by Viktorija Gecaitė, Aušra Arlauskienė and Jurgita Cesevičienė

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020099 - 25 Jan 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3749

Abstract

Cereal-legume intercropping is important in many low-input agricultural systems. Interactions between combinations of different plant species vary widely. Field experiments were conducted to determine yield formation regularities and plant competition effects of oat (Avena sativa L.)–black medick (Medicago lupulina L.), oat–white [...] Read more.

Cereal-legume intercropping is important in many low-input agricultural systems. Interactions between combinations of different plant species vary widely. Field experiments were conducted to determine yield formation regularities and plant competition effects of oat (Avena sativa L.)–black medick (Medicago lupulina L.), oat–white clover (Trifolium repens L.), and oat–Egyptian clover (T. alexandrinum L.) under organic farming conditions. Oats and forage legumes were grown in mono- and intercrops. Aboveground dry matter (DM) measured at flowering, development of fruit and ripened grain, productivity indicators, oat grain yield and nutrient content were established. The results showed that oats dominated in the intercropping systems. Oat competitive performance (CP_o), which is characterized by forage legumes aboveground mass reduction compared to monocrops, were 91.4–98.9. As the oats ripened, its competitiveness tendency to declined. In oat–forage legume intercropping systems, the mass of weeds was significantly lower compared to the legume monocrops. Oats and forage legumes competed for P, but N and K accumulation in biomass was not significantly affected. We concluded that, in relay intercrop, under favourable conditions, the forage legumes easily adapted to the growth rhythm and intensity of oats and does not adverse effect on their grain yield. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Diversification)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1682 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Potassium and Nitrogen Fertilization vs. Trace Element Content of Maize (Zea mays L.)

by Mirosław Wyszkowski and Marzena S. Brodowska

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020096 - 24 Jan 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3698

Abstract

This research was conducted to study the impact of potassium and nitrogen fertilizers on the trace element content of maize (Zea mays L.). Higher doses of potassium fertilizer led to a linear increase in cadmium, lead, nickel, zinc, and manganese content, and [...] Read more.

This research was conducted to study the impact of potassium and nitrogen fertilizers on the trace element content of maize (Zea mays L.). Higher doses of potassium fertilizer led to a linear increase in cadmium, lead, nickel, zinc, and manganese content, and to lower Fe:Zn and Fe:Mn ratios. Moreover, cobalt level increased in maize upon the lower doses and decreased upon the higher doses of potassium. The impact of potassium fertilizer on the levels of other elements (iron and chromium) in maize was determined by the fertilizer dose and, in particular, by the supply of additional nitrogen. Potassium fertilization led to a higher bioconcentration (BCFactor) of most of the trace elements in the aerial parts of maize. Nitrogen fertilization led to increased contents of manganese and iron, increased Fe:Zn and Fe:Mn ratios, and decreased contents of cadmium, lead, nickel, and cobalt in maize. Compared with potassium, nitrogen fertilization produced less consistent changes in bioconcentration factors for trace elements in the aerial parts of maize. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fertilizer and Irrigation on Crop Production)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 928 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Crop Rotation Enhances Agricultural Sustainability: From an Empirical Evaluation of Eco-Economic Benefits in Rice Production

by Dun-Chun He, Yan-Li Ma, Zhuan-Zhuan Li, Chang-Sui Zhong, Zhao-Bang Cheng and Jiasui Zhan

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020091 - 21 Jan 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 9594

Abstract

Cropping systems greatly impact the productivity and resilience of agricultural ecosystems. However, we often lack an understanding of the quantitative interactions among social, economic and ecological components in each of the systems, especially with regard to crop rotation. Current production systems cannot guarantee [...] Read more.

Cropping systems greatly impact the productivity and resilience of agricultural ecosystems. However, we often lack an understanding of the quantitative interactions among social, economic and ecological components in each of the systems, especially with regard to crop rotation. Current production systems cannot guarantee both high profits in the short term and social and ecological benefits in the long term. This study combined statistic and economic models to evaluate the comprehensive effects of cropping systems on rice production using data collected from experimental fields between 2017 and 2018. The results showed that increasing agricultural diversity through rotations, particularly potato–rice rotation (PR), significantly increased the social, economic and ecological benefits of rice production. Yields, profits, profit margins, weighted dimensionless values of soil chemical and physical (SCP) and heavy metal (SHM) traits, benefits and externalities generated by PR and other rotations were generally higher than successive rice cropping. This suggests that agricultural diversity through rotations, particularly PR rotation, is worth implementing due to its overall benefits generated in rice production. However, due to various nutrient residues from preceding crops, fertilizer application should be rationalized to improve the resource and investment efficiency. Furthermore, we internalized the externalities (hidden ecological and social benefits/costs) generated by each of the rotation systems and proposed ways of incenting farmers to adopt crop rotation approaches for sustainable rice production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Diversification)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 2623 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Long-Term Yield Variability of Triticale (×Triticosecale Wittmack) Tested Using a CART Model

by Elżbieta Wójcik-Gront and Marcin Studnicki

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020092 - 21 Jan 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3321

Abstract

Triticale is a promising food crop that combines the yield potential and grain quality of wheat with the disease and environmental tolerance of rye. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of genotype, environment and crop management on spring and [...] Read more.

Triticale is a promising food crop that combines the yield potential and grain quality of wheat with the disease and environmental tolerance of rye. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of genotype, environment and crop management on spring and winter triticale yield variability, using data from 31 locations across the whole of Poland, from 2009 to 2017, with the Classification and Regression Tree (CART) analysis. It was found that CART is able to detect differences in spring and winter triticale successful growth. The yield variability of spring triticale was more dependent on the soil quality than winter triticale because of a shorter cycle duration, which increases sensitivity to nutrient supply and weather conditions. Spring triticale also needs to be sown as soon as possible to ensure a successful establishment. A strong dependence of yield variability on the availability of water for the winter triticale was observed. When growing winter triticale in Poland, with periodic excess water especially during autumn and early spring, the use of fungicides and growth regulators should be taken into account. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2077 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Winter Wheat Straw Decomposition under Different Nitrogen Fertilizers

by Gabriela Mühlbachová, Pavel Růžek, Helena Kusá, Radek Vavera and Martin Káš

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020083 - 20 Jan 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3863

Abstract

The climate changes and increased drought frequency still more frequent in recent periods bring challenges to management with wheat straw remaining in the field after harvest and to its decomposition. The field experiment carried out in 2017–2019 in the Czech Republic aimed to [...] Read more.

The climate changes and increased drought frequency still more frequent in recent periods bring challenges to management with wheat straw remaining in the field after harvest and to its decomposition. The field experiment carried out in 2017–2019 in the Czech Republic aimed to evaluate winter wheat straw decomposition under different organic and mineral nitrogen fertilizing (urea, pig slurry and digestate with and without inhibitors of nitrification (IN)). Treatment Straw 1 with fertilizers was incorporated in soil each year the first day of experiment. The Straw 2 was placed on soil surface at the same day as Straw 1 and incorporated together with fertilizers after 3 weeks. The Straw 1 decomposition in N treatments varied between 25.8–40.1% and in controls between 21.5–33.1% in 2017–2019. The Straw 2 decomposition varied between 26.3–51.3% in N treatments and in controls between 22.4–40.6%. Higher straw decomposition in 2019 was related to more rainy weather. The drought observed mainly in 2018 led to the decrease of straw decomposition and to the highest contents of residual mineral nitrogen in soils. The limited efficiency of N fertilisers on straw decomposition under drought showed a necessity of revision of current strategy of N treatments and reduction of N doses adequately according the actual weather conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Systems and Management)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 1247 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trends and Mitigation Measures in Australian Agriculture Sector—A Review

by Heena Panchasara, Nahidul Hoque Samrat and Nahina Islam

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020085 - 20 Jan 2021

Cited by 97 | Viewed by 22511

Abstract

Agriculture is an important source of greenhouse gas emissions. It is one of the economic sectors that impacts both directly and indirectly towards climate change which contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. There has been a continuous trend of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions reduction [...] Read more.

Agriculture is an important source of greenhouse gas emissions. It is one of the economic sectors that impacts both directly and indirectly towards climate change which contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. There has been a continuous trend of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions reduction technologies, but any step taken in this direction must not negatively affect farm productivity and economics. For the agriculture sector to achieve reduced GHG emission, climate-smart activities and improved food security will be needed for this sector to become a climate-smart landscape. Climate-smart technologies are effective at targeting inputs to the fields, helping to lower greenhouse gas emissions. This article explores the key sources of carbon emissions within the agriculture sector and reviews efficient ways to GHG emission via Smart Farming technology. Based on the public archive GHG datasets, we have found that livestock farming is the largest GHG emission sector among other agricultural sectors and responsible for

70 %

of the total emission. Besides, we also show that Queensland is the largest agricultural GHG contributor compared to other states and territories. The article also captures any possible sources within smart farming that may contribute to carbon emissions and suggest ways to reduce GHG emissions. Besides, an Australian-based best management practice approach is discussed to review the emissions reduction strategy based on climate-specific technology to help the farmers and other stakeholders take environmentally-friendly agricultural decisions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecosystem, Environment and Climate Change in Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 3093 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quantitative Evaluation of China’s Pork Industry Policy: A PMC Index Model Approach

by Youzhu Li, Rui He, Jinsi Liu, Chongguang Li and Jason Xiong

Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020086 - 20 Jan 2021

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5875

Abstract

To ease the fluctuation of hog prices and maintain the hog market’s stability, the central government of China has issued a series of hog price control policies. This paper, supplemented by co-word analysis and LDA thematic modeling, constructed 9 first-level indicators and 36 [...] Read more.

To ease the fluctuation of hog prices and maintain the hog market’s stability, the central government of China has issued a series of hog price control policies. This paper, supplemented by co-word analysis and LDA thematic modeling, constructed 9 first-level indicators and 36 second-level indicators and used a PMC index model to conduct quantitative research on the selected 74 policies and regulations of China’s pig price regulation policies from July 2007 to April 2020. The research concludes that the research tool system of China’s hog price control is formed. The overall design of the hog price control policy is relatively reasonable, but there are still the following problems: the subject of China’s pig price control policy is singular, so it is difficult to form a resultant force; the policy pays attention to the price regulation in the short term, but ignores the long-term industrial structure adjustment; it emphasizes market supervision, but insufficient support for slaughtering and processing; it focuses on production and management to improve the development quality and efficiency of the pig industry, but does not take social equity into account. Finally, some policy suggestions are put forward: multi-department division of labor and close cooperation; adjusting the industrial structure of hog and carrying out appropriate large-scale breeding; establishing the operation mode of slaughtering and processing in the producing area to reduce the circulation cost of the pig industry; ensuring the consumption of pork by low-income groups and giving consideration to social efficiency and equity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 2826 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact of Policy and Factor Intensity on Sustainable Value of European Agriculture: Exploring Trade-Offs of Environmental, Economic and Social Efficiency at the Regional Level

by Bazyli Czyżewski and Marta Guth

Agriculture 2021, 11(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11010078 - 18 Jan 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4260

Abstract

Although sustainable development is a topic broadly discussed in the literature in relation to existing policy stimulus, a holistic approach to the implementation of sustainability in agriculture—for which there are three dimensions (economic, social and environmental)—is still missing. A regional approach, which averages [...] Read more.

Although sustainable development is a topic broadly discussed in the literature in relation to existing policy stimulus, a holistic approach to the implementation of sustainability in agriculture—for which there are three dimensions (economic, social and environmental)—is still missing. A regional approach, which averages the entire EU region, could therefore be useful in the long term for recommending directional guidelines for the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of key groups of CAP instruments and factor intensity on the three above-mentioned aspects of sustainability in the 2004–2017 period, with the assumption that they are all reciprocally related. This goal was achieved by measuring sustainability using the modified sustainable value approach combined with frontier-based nonparametric assessment and applying structural equation modelling, including multilevel random intercept. This research highlights trade-offs between environmental, economic and social efficiency and checks the impact of the EU CAP schemes on the sustainability of environmental, economic, and social dimensions in agriculture. Despite common indications of trade-offs, particularly between economic performance and eco-efficiency, our study shows that in the long term, such feedback has not occurred in any EU regions. Moreover, there are positive interactions between all three dimensions of sustainability from a cross-sectional perspective. The analysis of the impact of CAP subsidies proves that the current system of agri-environmental, set-aside and rural development payments has been effective in the long term, although broader implementation of environmental schemes in regions with lower labour productivity may negatively affect social sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2058 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Propylene Glycol and Non-Destructive DNA Extractions Enable Preservation and Isolation of Insect and Hosted Bacterial DNA

by Francesco Martoni, Elisse Nogarotto, Alexander M. Piper, Rachel Mann, Isabel Valenzuela, Lixin Eow, Lea Rako, Brendan C. Rodoni and Mark J. Blacket

Agriculture 2021, 11(1), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11010077 - 18 Jan 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6491

Abstract

Plant bio-protection and biosecurity programs worldwide use trap-based surveillance for the early detection of agricultural pests and pathogens to contain their incursions and spread. This task is reliant on effective preservation in insect traps, which is required to maintain specimen quality for extended [...] Read more.

Plant bio-protection and biosecurity programs worldwide use trap-based surveillance for the early detection of agricultural pests and pathogens to contain their incursions and spread. This task is reliant on effective preservation in insect traps, which is required to maintain specimen quality for extended periods under variable environmental conditions. Furthermore, with traditional morphological examinations now increasingly paired with modern molecular diagnostic techniques, insect traps are required to preserve both the specimens’ morphology and the DNA of insects and vectored bacterial pathogens. Here, we used psyllids (Hemiptera) and their hosted bacteria as a model to test the preservative ability of propylene glycol (PG): a non-flammable, easily transportable preservative agent that could be used in pitfall, suction or malaise traps. We tested preservation using various PG concentrations, at different temperatures and for multiple time periods, paired with non-destructive DNA extraction methods, which allow isolation of both insect and arbobacterial DNA while retaining a morphological voucher of the insect host specimens. PG concentrations between 40% and 100% performed best for both insect and bacterial DNA preservation up to 28 days. Ultimately, given the viscous nature of PG at high concentrations, we recommend using it at a concentration between 40% and 60% to enable insects to sink into the solution, thus enhancing DNA preservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Protection, Diseases, Pests and Weeds)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 38479 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Responses of Branch Number and Yield Component of Soybean Cultivars Tested in Different Planting Densities

by Cailong Xu, Ruidong Li, Wenwen Song, Tingting Wu, Shi Sun, Shuixiu Hu, Tianfu Han and Cunxiang Wu

Agriculture 2021, 11(1), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11010069 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6099

Abstract

Increasing planting density is one of the key management practices to enhance soybean yield. A 2-yr field experiment was conducted in 2018 and 2019 including six planting densities and two soybean cultivars to determine the effects of planting density on branch number and [...] Read more.

Increasing planting density is one of the key management practices to enhance soybean yield. A 2-yr field experiment was conducted in 2018 and 2019 including six planting densities and two soybean cultivars to determine the effects of planting density on branch number and yield, and analyze the contribution of branches to yield. The yield of ZZXA12938 was 4389 kg ha⁻¹, which was significantly higher than that of ZH13 (+22.4%). In combination with planting year and cultivar, the soybean yield increased significantly by 16.2%, 31.4%, 41.4%, and 46.7% for every increase in density of 45,000 plants ha⁻¹. Yield will not increase when planting density exceeds 315,000 plants ha⁻¹. A correlation analysis showed that pod number per plant increased with the increased branch number, while pod number per unit area decreased; thus, soybean yield decreased. With the increase of branch number, the branch contribution to yield increased first, and then plateaued. ZH13 could produce a high yield under a lower planting density due to more branches, while ZZXA12938 had a higher yield potential under a higher planting density due to the smaller branch number and higher tolerance to close planting. Therefore, seed yield can be increased by selecting cultivars with a little branching capacity under moderately close planting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of Pre-Harvest Factors on the Product Quality of Field Crops)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 2774 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Drought Tolerant near Isogenic Lines (NILs) of Pusa 44 Developed through Marker Assisted Introgression of qDTY2.1 and qDTY3.1 Enhances Yield under Reproductive Stage Drought Stress

by Priyanka Dwivedi, Naleeni Ramawat, Gaurav Dhawan, Subbaiyan Gopala Krishnan, Kunnummal Kurungara Vinod, Madan Pal Singh, Mariappan Nagarajan, Prolay Kumar Bhowmick, Nimai Prasad Mandal, Puvvada Perraju, Haritha Bollinedi, Ranjith Kumar Ellur and Ashok Kumar Singh

Agriculture 2021, 11(1), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11010064 - 14 Jan 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5000

Abstract

Reproductive stage drought stress (RSDS) is detrimental for rice, which affects its productivity as well as grain quality. In the present study, we introgressed two major quantitative trait loci (QTLs), namely, qDTY2.1 and qDTY3.1, governing RSDS tolerance in a popular high yielding [...] Read more.

Reproductive stage drought stress (RSDS) is detrimental for rice, which affects its productivity as well as grain quality. In the present study, we introgressed two major quantitative trait loci (QTLs), namely, qDTY2.1 and qDTY3.1, governing RSDS tolerance in a popular high yielding non-aromatic rice cultivar, Pusa 44, through marker-assisted backcross breeding (MABB). Pusa 44 is highly sensitive to RSDS, which restricts its cultivation across drought-prone environments. Foreground selection was carried out using markers, RM520 for qDTY3.1 and RM 521 for qDTY2.1. Background selection was achieved with 97 polymorphic SSR markers in tandem with phenotypic selection to achieve faster recurrent parent genome (RPG) recovery. Three successive backcrosses followed by three selfings aided RPG recoveries of 98.6% to 99.4% among 31 near isogenic lines (NILs). Fourteen NILs were found to be significantly superior in yield and grain quality under RSDS with higher drought tolerance efficiency (DTE) than Pusa 44. Among these, the evaluation of two promising NILs in the multilocational trial during Kharif 2019 showed that they were significantly superior to Pusa 44 under reproductive stage drought stress, while performing on par with Pusa 44 under normal irrigated conditions. These di-QTL pyramided drought-tolerant NILs are in the final stages of testing the All India Coordinated Rice Improvement Project varietal trials for cultivar release. Alternately, the elite drought-tolerant Pusa 44 NILs will serve as an invaluable source of drought tolerance in rice improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rice Breeding and Genetics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 1127 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Storage on Physiological Properties, Chemical Composition, and Bioactive Compounds on Cactus Pear Fruit (Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.)

by Lucía Andreu-Coll, María Emma García-Pastor, Daniel Valero, Asunción Amorós, María Soledad Almansa, Pilar Legua and Francisca Hernández

Agriculture 2021, 11(1), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11010062 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5062

Abstract

Cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.) fruit from ‘Orito’ cultivar were stored at 2 °C and 90% RH for 28 days plus three days at 20 °C (shelf life, SL). This research analysed the changes in fruit quality parameters (weight loss, firmness, [...] Read more.

Cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.) fruit from ‘Orito’ cultivar were stored at 2 °C and 90% RH for 28 days plus three days at 20 °C (shelf life, SL). This research analysed the changes in fruit quality parameters (weight loss, firmness, color, titratable acidity, and total soluble solids), ethylene production, respiration rate, antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds (total phenols and carotenoids) of cactus pear fruit during cold and shelf life storage. Under cold conditions, CO₂ production decreased, and ethylene production increased slightly, while under shelf life conditions CO₂ production increased and ethylene production increased more sharply. Firmness increased under cold conditions and did not change during shelf life period. The content of total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA), pH, total carotenoids, and lipo-antioxidant activity (L-TAA) remained stable under both conservation conditions. However, hydro-antioxidant activity (H-TAA) increased under both cold and shelf life conditions, and total phenols remained stable during cold storage and increased under shelf life conditions. Besides, weight loss was acceptable under both storage conditions, and color changes were more pronounced under shelf life storage. These results show that the marketability of cactus pear fruit from ‘Orito’ cultivar was acceptable until the end of the storage under cold and shelf life conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quality and Safety of Fresh Produce)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 1194 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Black Oat (Avena strigosa Schreb.) Ontogenesis and Agronomic Performance in Organic Cropping System and Pannonian Environments

by Vladan Ugrenović, Vera Popović, Milan Ugrinović, Vladimir Filipović, Ksenija Mačkić, Nataša Ljubičić, Slobodan Popović and Željko Lakić

Agriculture 2021, 11(1), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11010055 - 12 Jan 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4395

Abstract

This study examined the influence of agroecological conditions on the ontogenesis and production yield traits of black oat (Avena strigosa Schreb.). Understanding the agronomic and phenological properties related to productive properties of black oats can enable more successful introduction into new areas [...] Read more.

This study examined the influence of agroecological conditions on the ontogenesis and production yield traits of black oat (Avena strigosa Schreb.). Understanding the agronomic and phenological properties related to productive properties of black oats can enable more successful introduction into new areas of oat cultivation. Field microexperiments were performed during the three consecutive years (2017–2019) on the two localities in South Banat, in Serbia, which differed in soil type: carbonate chernozem and humogley, respectively. The results showed that all investigated traits of oat in the chernozem soil type were higher when compared with measured traits obtained from the humogley soil type. The average value of yields of aboveground biomass, yield and protein content were significantly higher in relation to the humogley, by 13%, 17% and 11%, respectively for all three seasons. Observed by years, all productivity parameters differed significantly, which confirmed that the productivity of the cultivated plants was strongly influenced by different agroecological, soil and climatic conditions in Pannonian environments. The aboveground biomass and grain yield obtained from the humogley soil type indicate that this species can be successfully grown and utilized in production as a cover or fodder crop even in less favorable soil conditions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 7499 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Spatial Distribution of Soil Nutrients in Farmland in a Hilly Region of the Pearl River Delta in China Based on Geostatistics and the Inverse Distance Weighting Method

by Rumi Wang, Runyan Zou, Jianmei Liu, Luo Liu and Yueming Hu

Agriculture 2021, 11(1), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11010050 - 10 Jan 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3915

Abstract

Soil nutrients are essential factors that reflect farmland quality. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are essential elements for plants, while silicon is considered a “quasi-essential” element. This study investigated the spatial distribution of plant nutrients in soil in a hilly region of the Pearl [...] Read more.

Soil nutrients are essential factors that reflect farmland quality. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are essential elements for plants, while silicon is considered a “quasi-essential” element. This study investigated the spatial distribution of plant nutrients in soil in a hilly region of the Pearl River Delta in China. A total of 201 soil samples were collected from farmland topsoil (0–20 cm) for the analysis of total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (AP), available potassium (AK), and available silicon (ASi). The coefficients of variation ranged from 47.88% to 76.91%. The NSRs of TN, AP, AK, and ASi were 0.15, 0. 07, 0.12, and 0.13, respectively. The NSRs varied from 0.02 to 0.20. All variables exhibited weak spatial dependence (R² < 0.5), except for TN (R² = 0.701). After comparing the prediction accuracy of the different methods, we used the inverse distance weighting method to analyze the spatial distribution of plant nutrients in soil. The uniform spatial distribution of AK, TN overall showed a trend of increasing from northeast to southwest, and the overall spatial distribution of AP and ASi showed that the northeast was higher than the southwest. This study provides support for the delimitation of basic farmland protection areas, the formulation of land use spatial planning, and the formulation of accurate farmland protection policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fertilizer Use, Soil Health and Agricultural Sustainability)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Editor’s Choice Articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI